Culpan Hpe Paper

Physical Education: What is it all about?
The Muddled Puzzle

Ian Culpan, November !!"
Purpose
Since the release of Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum
(Ministry of Education, 1999) considerable effort by the Ministry of Education,
teachers, teacher educators and other government agencies have been made to address
the demands this document makes. Desite these efforts ho!ever, recent events and
some ingrained "#i!i attitudes$ may !ell have confused teachers about !hat the
curriculum is trying to achieve. %he result of this being imediments to successful
imlementation in schools.
%his aer sets out to discuss Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand
Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 1999) !ith a articular emhasis on the role
hysical education has !ithin it. &n articular it !ill'
( rovide a brief socio(historical background of the develoment of hysical
education in )e! *ealand and the State$s role in it+
( concetualise hysical education and its meaning in the )e! *ealand
,urriculum+
( discuss and attemt to clarify thinking around hysical education, hysical
activity and sort as they relate to the curriculum+
( discuss barriers that may imede ,urriculum learning in schools+
( discuss elements of )e! *ealand-.otearoa culture that might influence the
learnt curriculum.
#rie$ %ocio&historical #ac'(round
%he initial lacement of hysical education in the school curriculum in this country
from 1/00 on!ards can be attributed to the need for hysical training and fitness in
readiness for ossible military action to rotect 1ritish Emire (Stothart, 1902+
Mc3eorge, 1994). 1y 1914 this emhasis in the rimary school had faded, ho!ever
military training remained universal in secondary schools until the 1956s. Educational
7ustification for this aroach stressed that training of this nature'
8.!ould imrove young mens hysi9ues, teach them orderly habits,
and give them a concetion of the lace of obedience in a !ell ordered
life (Lyttelton Times, 40 May 1911, cited in Mc3eorge, 1994 2/).
%hus, the historical develoment of hysical education in )e! *ealand !as
ine:tricably linked to the colonisation rocess, the olitical agendas and alliances and
the need to have a discilined and effective !orkforce and army (,ulan, 4662 .445).
&n a similar manner, more contemorary develoments !ithin )e! *ealand hysical
education have been influenced by the vital role it lays in the maintenance of ;estern
caitalism. .s <oucault, (1996) suggests, caitalism has recognised the imortance of
hysical activity and body control. =hysical education and sort are used to achieve
controlled and discilined bodies in rearation for a !ork force in order to suly the
labour markets of caitalism. .s ,ameron, (199>) argues, such interrelationshis can
be summarised in the follo!ing !ay'
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1 of 22
Accessed from http://wwwt!iorgnz/r/nzcurriculum/whats"happening/health"physical"ephp
# $ew %ealand &inistry of 'ducation 2(() * copying restricted to use by $ew %ealand education sector
%he very nature of physical education and sort reveals the relations of
o!er being layed out in the body 8 in keeing !ith a caitalist
mode of roduction, sort bodies are discilined through !ork' "!ork
out$, "seed !ork$ etc8 %he body is thus subordinate to the urose of
physical education and sort. ?n the other hand, physical education
and sort builds healthy bodies, it is also used to foster control over the
mind. (.100)
&nteresting enough, <oucault, (1996) goes on to argue that'
%he manner in !hich caitalism has refined itself has a arallel in ho!
the body has been refined, esecially in terms of ho! it is internally
and e:ternally controlled and discilined. &n the initial stages of
caitalism body control took the form of mass military style e:ercise,
but as caitalism has evolved into a cororate form, so too has
hysical education and sort, !ith an emhasis moving from e:ternal
control of the body (and person) to individual accountability for health
and fitness develoment. (,ited in ,ulan, 4662 . 440).
.s many scholars, ,ameron, (199>), <oucault, (1996), @argreaves, (1995) and #irk,
(1990) have argued, the role that hysical education has layed in controlling and
discilining the body has ensured that it has survived in contemorary schooling
simly because of the erceived benefits to caitalism. %he role and corresonding
survival has generated the discourse of "healthism$. @ealthism is !here the individual
is held accountable for their ersonal health, and that hysical activity, an
unroblematic good for all, is an efficient and central !ay of achieving this) =hysical
education is conse9uently seen as a construct !hich romotes the factors of health
through a culture of fitness and e:ercise regimes. Health and Physical Education in
the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 1999) directly challenges this
vie! and since the release of this document, there has been a significant tension that
has seen the culture of fitness and e:ercise regimes challenge and resist the ne!
thinking contained !ithin that ,urriculum Statement. %his has become increasingly
obvious !ith the recent hysical activity initiatives in schools. %his initiative
aarently attemts to solve the hysical inactivity amongst our young eole and in so
doing address the obesity eidemic. &n a Ministerial release statement the Minister of
Education, the @onourable %revor Mallard stated
& have been concerned to see hysical activity levels among young
#i!i kids on the slide, and obesity on the rise. &t is critical !e start
taking action to get our children back on the right track.
;e all kno! ( and research is sho!ing us ( ho! imortant hysical
activity is for a childAs health and !ellbeing. (Mallard 4662)

<urthermore this initiative is encasulated and conte:tualised by the National
Education Goals Ministry of Education (466B) !hich states that'
Education is the core of our nation$s effort to achieve economic and
social rogress8
Even after 166 years of develoment the imeratives of the State continue to guide,
influence and even direct the nature of the school curriculum and hysical education is
no e:cetion. ;hile the State might set out its imeratives through initiatives in
addition to the ,urriculum, the State must be mindful of the fact that such initiatives
must demonstrate clarity of thinking, sohisticated understandings, consistency of
urose and connectedness to the teaching rofession. %o not do so has the otential to
create confusion, muddled thinking and imediments to best ractice.
Conceptualisin( Physical Education in Ne* +ealand
%he Ministry of Education in their Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand
Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1999) set out !ith the intention of develoing a ne!
teaching-learning aradigm for hysical education. ;hile this !as a huge
eistemological challenge the challenge !as regulated by Ministry of Education
accountability measures and the consultation rocess. Essentially the ,urriculum
attemts to
define learning outcomes for hysical education !hich encouraged a holistic
aroach based on a socio(ecological ersective+
encourage greater integration and balance bet!een the social and hysical
sciences+
conte:tualise hysical education !ith a set of attitudes and values that signified
the imortance of movement as a valued human ractice+
address critical learning dimensions that had been largely lacking in revious
curricula and hysical education ractice+
engender a!areness and debate around the discourse of healthism+
centralise and ackno!ledge that the individual, in his -her search for ersonal
meaning, once educated in health and hysical education, !ould be able to
make ositive contributions to the enhancement of society+
integrate an ackno!ledgement of both national and international cultural
orientations and ractices.
?f course in attemting to achieve the above, the develoers of the ,urriculum !ere
cognisant of !hat Mc#ay, (1991) argued. @e argued that any ne! hysical education
teaching aradigm, any challenge to debunk e:isting hysical education beliefs and
ractices and any attemt to situate hysical education in a socio(olitical conte:t
!ould be met !ith significant discomfort and even hostility. ,entral to any ossible
discomfort and hostility is ho! hysical education is concetualised. &n roviding a
ne! aradigm for hysical education, Health and Physical Education in the New
Zealand Curriculum essentially sees hysical education as a learning area that'
=romotes the learning of ne! skills (not 7ust hysical skills)
associated !ith the in, through and about hysical activity+
Enhances, e:tends, informs and criti9ues the deliberate use of
lay, e:ercise, sort and other forms of hysical activity !ithin
and individual and societal conte:t+
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page + of 22
Emhasises the inter(relatedness of the hysical, social, mental
and emotional, and spiritual nature of !ell(being. (,ulan,
199/ .5).
&n concetualising hysical education in this !ay there are a number of imortant
constructs that need further e:lanation. <irst, the notion of learning in, through and
about hysical activity or movement is a frame!ork that emanates from the !ork of
.rnold, (1909)
1
. &n his !ork, .rnold argues that that the notion of human embodied
consciousness and one$s mode of living in the !orld and making sense of that, the
"lived body$ becomes centrally imortant. &t is through the lived body that meaning is
made and one can recognise their o!n e:istence and to e:lore their ersonal
essence. &t is movement that is arguably the most oignantly and rich manner in
!hich this can be achieved. %o .rnold, movement consists of three ma7or meanings'
Primordial meanings !hich are central to and underin our daily e:istence.
<or e:amle rimordial movement meaning refers to movements that bring
satisfaction, 7oy, creativity, sontaneity, love, and fun. Movement of this
nature can be unremeditated, voluntary and largely unconstrained, or can
be skilled. %he meanings generated from this tye of movement can
rovide the basis for a erson$s essence and contributes significantly to
one$s e:istence. .rnold, (1909) argues that rimordial movement meaning
can contribute to the most authentic and revealed evidence of one$s
uninhibited self.
Contextual meanings are movements !hich are urosefully related to
articular movement constructions or frame!orks. Movement structures
e.g. sort, games, structured dance and %e Ceo #ori rovide conte:ts in
!hich the individual has to oerate follo!ing articular modes of
behaviour, rules and goals. %he conte:tual meaning for movement rovides
the individual !ith an "induction rocess$ into a articular form of
movement.
Existential meanings are essentially those movements that manifestly assist
in and relate to an individual$s identity and e:istence in the !orld.
E:istential movement meanings define the erson. %hey are a significant
art of their identity. Meanings are uni9ue and meaningfulness is made
!hen the erson integrates the assion, authenticity and sensuous nature and
ossibilities that movement can bring to their ersonal identity. Such
integration gives rise to a erson$s ercetions of' freedom, autonomy, self
fulfilment, self e:ression 7oy, challenge, e:citement, dominance,
erfection, accomlishment, unity and self actualisation.
&n arguing that movement is a most influential, rich and o!erful vehicle for achieving
a sense of meaning, it is imortant to stiulate that there are other avenues by !hich
one may achieve full develoment. %his is recognised in education for the need to have
a balanced aroach !here multile realms of meaning assist in human develoment.
%he converse to this is of course, is to have one central rationality that has often seen
more imortance given to the mind over the body. %he result of this is to have a
1
%he learning dimensions of in, through and about movement have been !ell documented in revious
!ritings. <or full e:lanations on this frame!ork see .rnold (1909), ,ulan (4666) and or Health and
Physical Education in the New! Zealand Curriculum, (Ministry of Education. 1999).
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page , of 22
dualistic ercetion of !hat it means to be human. %hat is, the mind is searated from
the body, and education and articularly schooling is organised accordingly.
%he second construct in the concetualisation of hysical education that needs
deconstructing is concerned !ith the reference to the !ord "criti9ue$. Embedded into
the curriculum$s hilosohy is the strong thread of a socio(critical stance that romotes
a critical edagogy (,ulan, 199/). %he curriculum rovides clear oortunities for
teachers and students to romote critical thinking, challenging and 9uestioning
assumtions around the movement culture and its relationshi to the individual and
society. %he curriculum encourages a critical edagogy that has been lacking in
revious hysical education ractices. @egemonic ractices focusing on health related
fitness, body image, body shae, the scientific base to erformance in sort, masculine
interretations of the body and erformance have been imlicit content areas that have
been reviously romoted in hysical education in an unchallenged and rivileging
manner. Essentially the need for such a socio(critical edagogy to be embedded into
hysical education signals that hysical education is neither removed or isolated from
one$s e:istence or from the broader social, olitical, economic and cultural conte:ts of
eole$s lives. &ndeed the edagogy ositions hysical education so that it has the
otential to romote more meaning around hysical activity, the imortance of
deliberate e:ercise, ho! eole use, shae and vie! their bodies, and ho! sort
influences and reroduces o!er relations and rivileges dominant grous in society.
.s .le, (466>) argued, it is the develoment of critical edagogies that !ill
challenge the conservative modernisation of society. &t is through critical edagogy in
hysical education that attemts to mandate school ractices that claim to romote
mass health and fitness as an unroblematic ractice for schools can be challenged.
%he third concetual construct of hysical education is focussed around the notion of
inter(relating the hysical, social, mental and emotional, and siritual nature of !ell(
being as embodied in Durie$s (1992, .06) !hare taa !ha model of hauora. .s argued
earlier, the curriculum attemts to ackno!ledge that individuals sense of meaning and
actions are intert!ined !ith one$s e:istence, and the broader social, olitical, economic
and cultural conte:ts of eole$s lives. =revious hysical education curricula and
subse9uent ractice, has, by and large, tended to focus on utting students through
rigorous hysical fitness regimes in an attemt to' imrove ersonal health, disciline
bodies and to develo a range of hysical skills associated !ith sorting conte:ts. %his
!as a very "hysical focus$ and !hat !as essentially lacking !ere oortunities for
students to rocess their e:eriences in order to make ersonal and social meaning from
them and aly their learning in secific conte:ts (Mc1ain, (466>).
. socio(ecological ersective (De!itt, 1992) adoted by the curriculum, is an attemt,
along !ith the concet of hauora, to rovide a holism that has reviously been lacking.
. socio(ecological ersective addresses a fundamental need for a curriculum
statement !hich is futuristic, embedded in social criti9ue and one that ackno!ledges
and romotes the inter(relatedness of the eistemological base of hysical education,
and connects to eole$s lives. %his inter(relatedness is best summed u in the self,
others society hrase (Ministry of Education, 1999). %his assists teachers and students
to move beyond individualism and the individualistic notions of self.
%his then has been the original intent of Health and Physical Education in the New
Zealand Curriculum as it relates to hysical education. Since the develoment of the
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page ) of 22
,urriculum ne! initiatives around revie!ing the total school curriculum' New Zealand
Curriculum"#arautanga ro7ect have been romoted by the Ministry of Education.
=art of the ro7ect re9uired each curriculum area to rovide !hat is termed an "essence
statement$ !hich clearly identifies the heart of !hat the sub7ect is about and !hat it
tries to achieve. %he follo!ing statement, submitted to the Ministry of Education for
their consideration, is one that rovides a useful insight into hysical education$s
essence and one that essentially catures the intent of the curriculum.
=hysical education makes a uni9ue and imortant contribution to the
balanced develoment of eole and communities by roviding
learning rogrammes focussed on movement. 1y learning in, through,
and about movement, students gain an understanding that movement is
central to human e:ression, meaningfulness, leasure, and can
enhance lifestyles. %hey learn to' understand, areciate and move
their o!n bodies, relate ositively !ith others and demonstrate
constructive attitudes and values !hile engaging in lay, structured
e:ercise, e:ressive movement, recreation and formal games in
diverse environments.
=hysical education encourages student engagement in movement
e:eriences that romotes and suorts the develoment of hysical
skills, social skills, the accetance of challenge, team!ork, otimism,
accetance of diversity and decision making. &t fosters critical thinking
and action, and the ability to understand the role and significance that
hysical activities have on individuals and society.
4
&n summary this statement concetualises hysical education as'
( making a uni9ue contribution to balanced develoment and living+
( movement being essential for and integral to, !hat it means to be human+
( learning focussed on movement and students need to be engaged in it+
( a medium for develoing skills across diverse areas of endeavour+
( fostering a edagogy based around critical thought and action+
( encouraging students to understand movement and make meaning from it to
enhance individual and collective lifestyles.
,learly the above discussions about hysical education, locates its centrality in a
movement conte:t. .rnold, (1909) in his landmark ublication entitled #eaning in
#o$ement %port and Physical Education believed that'
;ords and hrases such as lay, recreation, games, sort and hysical
education may all mean different things to different eole but
movement in my vie! is the only reasonable and sufficiently
uncomlicated label that can be used to concetually embrace this
inter(related family of terms and activities. (.:ii)
)ot!ithstanding this statement a recent initiative by the Ministry of Education in
collaboration !ith Sort and Cecreation )e! *ealand (S=.C,), entitled the Physical
&cti$ity Pilot and S=.C,$s Talent 'denti(ication Tas) *orce has seemingly created
4
Statement develoed by &an ,ulan and refined by consultation !ith teacher educators and a =E)*
reresentative. %his !as sent to the Ministry of Education for their consideration.
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page - of 22
confusion bet!een the use of terminology, its meaning and imlementation
resonsibilities. %he manner in !hich such terms as' hysical education, hysical
activity, sort, hysical education secialists, hysical activity education secialists
have been bandied about has resulted in !hat seems to be significant "muddled
thinking$ around the !hole movement area.
Physical Education, Physical ,ctivity and %port
Sort and Cecreation )e! *ealand (S=.C,) in their draft document Towards an &cti$e
New Zealand + ,e$eloping a National Policy *ramewor) (or Physical &cti$ity and
%port ackno!ledge the overlaing nature of such terms and ackno!ledge that'
hysical activity and sort are umbrella terms used to describe the
continuum from fundamental movement to high erformance sort in
a variety of conte:ts and settings (S=.C, Dune 4662 t. 1/.)

&n the same document they rovide a secific definition of hysical activity
as'
Movement that eole need on a daily basis to sustain a healthy life.
(S=.C, Dune 4662 t. 1/ (4))
&n another S=.C, draft document, Towards an &cti$e New Zealand+
-esearch %trategy (or %port -ecreation and Physical &cti$ity .//01./2/.
S=.C, rovide an alternative definition on hysical activity
.ny human movement roduced by skeletal muscles that results in an
e:enditure of energy...( >>)
,asersen, (19/9), some time ago defined hysical activity in the same !ay as used by
S=.C, in their research strategy document. ;hile agreeing !ith ,asersen, (19/9),
Mc#enEie and #ahan, (4662) !ent on to argue that hysical activity should be seen as
a rocess as oosed to an outcome. %heir argument is essentially suorted by <o:,
,ooer and Mc#enna, (4662) !ho sa! hysical activity as a comle: set of behaviours
that occur in diverse settings for a range of different uroses and intentions. %hey also
argued that it !as
)aFve to see hysical activity as a single entity, esecially !hen one is
investigating otential solutions to inactivity. (>24)
&n contrast to this though S=.C, in their draft 4662 document'
considers that hysical activity is an outcome as !ell as a core
comonent of sort (t //)
&n a sense <o: et al, (4662) argument is consistent !ith =hysical Education )e!
*ealand$s osition. %hey suggest that the term hysical activity
can be vie!ed as an umbrella terms for all oortunities that e:ist to
articiate in movement activity. %here is a gro!ing trend to vie!
hysical activity as an entity in itself, something that can be "bo:ed
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page . of 22
u$, clearly defined and described as something 9uite different to
hysical education8 =hysical Education )e! *ealand, (=E)*) vie!s
hysical activity as an essential conte:t for learning that occurs in
becoming hysically educated ;e should all vie! hysical activity as
a conte:t, not as an entity in itself 8 (!!!.enE.co.nE)
&n e:amining Ministry of Education documents the Ministry (M?E) have made recent
amendments to the )ational Education 3oals ()E3S) and )ational .dministrative
3uidelines ().3S). &n the )E3S, (466B) clause B has been changed to include
hysical activity. &t no! reads'
. broad education through a balanced curriculum covering essential
learning areas. =riority should be given to the develoment of high
levels of cometence (kno!ledge and skills) in literacy and numeracy,
science and technology and hysical activity (Ministry of Education
466B).
3iven the variety of definitions and e:lanations about hysical activity and !hether
hysical activity is an outcome or a rocess, the )E3 rovides for an interesting
analysis. %he statement is a secific goal for the education system of )e! *ealand. .
goal imlies that hysical activity is therefore an outcome. @o!ever it can be argued
that the goal and subse9uent outcome is high levels of cometence (kno!ledge and
skills) and the conte:t is hysical activity. 1ut then this raises the interesting oint that
the goal is a high level of cometence in hysical activity i.e. an outcome. %aking this
analysis into account, it seems uncertain !hether the M?E is clear, on !hether they
vie!, hysical activity as an outcome or a rocess. & susect from the )E3 that it is
seen as an outcome. %he !aters are further muddied !hen the )ational .dministration
3uideline relating to hysical activity is analysed. %he ).3 1 (i) (c) re9uires the
develoment and imlementation of rogrammes that'
3ive riority to regular 9uality hysical activity that develos
movement skills for all students 8. (Ministry of Education, 466B).
@ere the outcome is movement skills and this !ill be achieved through a rocess of
regular hysical activity.
?n further analysis of S=.C,$s documentation it becomes clear that their
concetualisation of hysical activity essentially relates to three broad areas of interest'
health, economic develoment and social connectedness. <rom a health ersective the
concetualisation is limited to the economic burden of disease. <rom an economic
develoment ersective S=.C, are essentially concerned !ith the economic imact
of sorting events and the imact of sort and hysical activity on sorting and
recreational industries. S=.C,$s social connectedness area of interest is focussed
around the establishment of net!orks, in articular social caital outcomes such as
ositive behaviour, community sirit, self disciline and team!ork. ;hile these areas
of concern strengthen the imortance of hysical activity and its use as a olicy
develoment tool for !ider society, it is disaointing to see that there is very little
attention devoted to articulating the educative function of hysical activity G and this
must be a criticism and concern. &t is a concern given S=.C,$s involvement in the
recent hysical activity initiative in schools. Doint initiatives such as this, need to have
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page / of 22
an educative focus if hysical activity rovision is no! a secific goal of the education
system. .s argued above, !hile such initiatives strengthens the argument for hysical
activity imortance across the lifesan the challenge is for the Ministry and S=.C, to
continue !orking together to ensure such initiatives in schools achieve a coherent
education urose.
%o hel clarify the confusion and muddled thinking that may e:ist, it is imortant to
turn to the Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum to determine
e:actly !hat the curriculum is saying about the relationshi bet!een hysical education
and hysical activity. %he ,urriculum locates itself in a osition that uses hysical
activity as a distinct rocess for learning !ith multile meanings. Earlier in this article,
movement meanings !ere concetualised in three broad areas' rimordial, conte:tual
and e:istential. .ll three of these broad movement meanings utilise the curriculum$s
learning dimensions ( in, through and about hysical activity. %he curriculum
identifies =hysical .ctivity as a #ey .rea of Hearning !hich essentially rovides
oortunities to address learning needs of )e!I *ealand students in hysical education
by using the learning dimensions of hysical activity. &n general terms the
oortunities to learn by using the dimensions of hysical activity are focussed around'
1. movement skills for hysical cometence, en7oyment, self !orth and active
lifestyle+
4. ersonal and inter(ersonal skill develoment+
>. kno!ledge and understanding of scientific and technological influences on
hysical activity+
2. kno!ledge and understanding of cultural ractices associated !ith hysical
activity+
B. kno!ledge and understanding of the significance of social influences on
hysical activity+
5. ersonal values, attitudes, behaviours and actions in hysical activity settings.
%aking the ,urriculum$s hilosohical osition then, hysical activity !ithin the
frame!ork of hysical education has a clear educative function. <irst and foremost it is
a medium used by hysical education to assist in becoming hysically educated.
%hrough hysical activity, hysical education encourages active use of one$s body+
through hysical activity, hysical education encourages the romotion of active
lifestyles+ through hysical activity, hysical education encourages skill develoment
across a range of areas+ through hysical activity, hysical education encourages
kno!ledge develoment around scientific, technological, cultural and social
understandings of movement+ and through hysical activity, hysical education
encourages the develoment of ositive attitudes and values. .ll of !hich rovide a
holistic and balanced educative function around the movement culture. ,learly the use
of the dimensions of learning for hysical activity are imortant in achieving the goals
of hysical education.
=hysical activity on the other hand can be 7ust energy e:enditure through skeletal
muscle movement. @o!ever once it becomes art of the school curriculum and
scheduled in timetabled time, then hysical activity$s function must be educative and its
contribution is encasulated !ithin hysical education. .s argued earlier, the meaning
from such e:eriences can be classified according to .rnold$s, (1909) three ma7or
meanings for movement G rimordial, conte:tual and e:istential. %aking this
e:lanation into account, the curriculum therefore concetualises hysical activity both
as an entity !hich rovides its o!n meaning and has its o!n outcome and one that is
also a medium for learning.
?f course this raises the 9uestion of !here and ho! sort fits into this osition.
Sort is essentially a conte:tualised meaning of hysical activity (see earlier discussion
on conte:tual meaning .2). .s for hysical activity, the curriculum has very clear
statements about sort. &t concetualises sort !ithin the frame!ork of Sort Studies
!hich is a #ey .rea of Hearning and in a similar manner to its treatment of hysical
activity, the curriculum stresses the educative value of it. Sort Studies re9uires more
than 7ust articiation in sort. &t is more than sorts erformance. Sort Studies
re9uires the holistic study of sort from a range of ersectives that highlight the oints
listed above. %he ma7or oint to make here is that if schools offer organised school
sort rogrammes in addition to the mandatory scheduled timetabled hysical
education, then like hysical activity !ithin hysical education, it needs to be
concetualised and ractised as having an educative function totally consistent !ith the
hilosohy of the hysical education curriculum. .s 3rant and =oe (4666) discuss,
students, as art of their learning in hysical education, should learn to be critical,
cometent and literate consumers of sort and the sort culture. &ndeed it is certainly
ossible to achieve some of the ob7ectives of hysical education through sorts
rogrammes (Smithells, 1902) and to ignore this argument and not romote sort and
its meaning !ithin hysical education is essentially to bury one$s head in the sand
(Stothart, 4666). ;hat the ,urriculum, 3rant and =oe (4666), Stothart, (4666) and
Smithells, (1902) are essentially saying is that sort has significant educative value and
if one looks at the sectrum of sort and moves beyond mere sort erformance, then
the study of sort has articular relevance for hysical education.
;hile sort has articular relevance in hysical education through the ,urriculum$s
#ey .rea of Hearning entitled Sort Studies, there are oortunities for schools to
strengthen community links through such rogrammes. @o!ever such links need to be
carefully considered !ith articular attention being given to student need, curriculum
re9uirement, consistency of message and the educative rocess. Such considerations
need to be anchored !ith trained teachers !ith the community link roviding the
necessary suort. .nchoring or locating resonsibility !ith the teacher is critical for
student learning and for the rofessional integrity of hysical education.
#arriers to Curriculum -earnin(
,learly, Health and Physical Education in the New! Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of
Education, 1999) resents a significant eistemological and edagogical challenge.
%he challenge is embedded in the socio(critical concetualisation of hysical education
and is no! figuratively at the feet of the Ministry of Education, teacher educators and
teachers in the field. %ogether these grous must forge ahead !ith significant suort
mechanism so that students in schools rea the benefit of contemorary hysical
education rogrammes that are learning needs based. .s ,ulan, (4666), and Ennis
(1990) argue, barriers to forging ahead, and !hat differentiates 9uality contemorary
rogrammes from rogrammes characterised by "yesteryear thinking$ are essentially
focussed on the debate around the challenge the socio critical vie! resents. %hat is that
hysical activity, deliberate e:ercise, fitness and sort are not necessarily acceted as
inherently and un(roblematically good. %o some
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1( of 22
the seeming denial to hysical education students of their right to learn
skilful movement and articiate in regular e:ercise is to attack the
very foundations of hysical education (,ulan, 4666 .45).
&nterestingly enough the curriculum !ith its socio(critical vie! does not deny the right
for learning skilful movement nor the imortance of hysical activity. Cather it
encourages students to rocess their movement e:eriences, become reflective and
critical consumers of hysical activity and to make ersonal and social meaning from it.
%his is essentially the educative function of hysical education. %o deny this function
and to confine hysical education to traditional out(dated forms is to commit hysical
education to'
endless hysical measures, activities devoted to erformance and the
shaing, !orking and controlling of the body !hich tends to
marginalise many. (,ulan, 4666. 45(40).
%rost, (4662) suggests that the traditional aroach to hysical education is based on
unsubstantiated assumtions about learning, skill develoment and involvement in
active lifestyles articularly in the young.
,urrently, there is no definitive evidence from rosective longitudinal
or e:erimental studies to suort the concet that fundamental
movement skills and motor roficiency and hysical activity
articiation are ositively and causally related constructs in children
and adolescents (%rost , 4662. .>49)
&n his same article %rost, (4662) indicates that contemorary tye edagogies !hich are
more emanciatory in nature are re9uired if hysical education is to achieve the
outcomes discussed above. %hese edagogies emhasise the ac9uisition and
develoment of self determining and regulatory behaviours, the management of time,
critical reflection, meaning making, and strategies for en7oyment and self and collective
imrovement. ;allhead and 1uck!orth, (4662) suort this by arguing that
content may give youth the hysical and behavioural skills+ ho!ever
!ithout an aroriate edagogy that fosters en7oyment, the
motivation to continue to articiate may be lost. (49/).

&n arguing this though one is reminded of !hat Coss and 1urro!s (466>) !arn hysical
education about is that care must be taken not to adot edagogies and e:ect to
achieve the 3e$erthingism by being overly ambitious.
%he !ork by %rost, (4662) and indeed ;allhead and 1uck!orth, (4662) raises a critical
oint about the effectiveness of traditional tye rogrammes and ho! they might be
rectified. ,learly learning in hysical education is influenced by teacher kno!ledge
around content and edagogical ractice. %he learned curriculum in )e! *ealand is, it
is suggested here, influenced by the ade9uacy of )e! *ealand$s teacher education
rogrammes. %eacher rearation in hysical education must become an imortant
consideration in determining the effectiveness of curriculum learning. .s argued
earlier, much of the roblem of hysical education in )e! *ealand originates from the
continued use of rogrammes that un(roblematically focus on health related fitness,
motor develoment, body image, body shae, the scientific base to erformances in
sort and masculine interretations of the body and erformance G yesteryear thinking,
but thinking that may !ell be fostered by teacher education rogrammes. &t has been
discussed earlier, that this aroach is not consistent !ith the ne! thinking that the
curriculum romotes. &n saying this ho!ever, the ractising teacher is not the only one
to be held accountable. ,learly teacher education rogrammes need careful scrutiny to
determine !hether they have moved !ith the "ne! thinking$ and are roviding young
teachers !ith the necessary skills, kno!ledge and attitudes to imlement ne!
re9uirements. &t is doubtful !hether they have moved significantly enough to address
the contemorary demands and re9uirements of the hysical education curriculum.
%eacher educators could !ell e:amine their rogrammes by asking 9uestions !hich
could include'
to !hat e:tent do re(service rogrammes e:amine hilosohical
ositions in hysical educationJ
to !hat e:tent has teacher education changed to accommodate learning
around edagogies that are emanciatory in natureJ
to !hat e:tent are re(service teachers held accountable for
understanding edagogical theories that are consistent !ith and
alicable to the curriculumJ
to !hat e:tent do teacher education rogrammes foster balanced
develoment of hysical education content articularly in terms of the
bio(logical sciences and the socio(cultural asects of movementJ
!hat do our re(service students kno! about the eidemiology of
hysical activity and its relationshi to the obesity debateJ
!hat do our re(service students kno! about gro!th and maturation and
the conse9uences of hysical inactivityJ
!hat do our re(service students kno! about the relationshi bet!een
hysical education and sort erformanceJ
!hat do our re(service students kno! about becoming critical
consumers of the movement culture and understanding the educative and
social functions and significance of sort, of hysical activity and
hysicals educationJ
have our re(service students got a thorough understanding of the
relationshi bet!een hysical education and health education and ho!
these t!o sub7ects might relate to State health ob7ectivesJ
!hat do re(service students kno! about initiatives around active
schoolsJ
%hese are but a samle of robing 9uestions that teacher educators need to ask of their
rogrammes. <urther to these ho!ever, there is an assumtion made here that teacher
educators kno! strategies and rocedures for advocacy !ithin their o!n institutions.
%his in itself !ould make for interesting debate.
<or hysical education in )e! *ealand then, barriers to successful curriculum
imlementation and learning !ithin can essentially be attributed to'
( out dated thinking around hysical education and its ossibilities+
( a lack of the hilosohical understanding of the curriculum+
( oor understanding about the educative function of hysical education and its
ossible meanings+
( a lack of defined thinking that is informed by !idely acceted evidence, based
on theoretical and concetual understandings and models+
( the confused messages that e:ist around the role of hysical activity+
( understanding the edagogical ossibilities that e:ist beyond the traditional+
( the$ kno! ho!$ to successful imlement aroriate edagogies+
( secific content including the romotion of balanced develoment beyond
scientific functionalism+
( inade9uate teacher rearation and
( muddled thinking by central agencies.
%o rectify this situation, clear long term, educational coherent and research informed
strategies need to be develoed and adhered to. %hese strategies need to be develoed
!ithin a collaborative frame!ork bet!een relevant Ministries, articularly the Ministry
of Education, teachers and teacher education roviders and interested agencies eg
S=.C,.
Physical Education and .i*i Culture
3iven the need for collaborative long term strategies to be develoed from informed
understandings of hysical education, hysical activity and sort, then t!o central
elements of "#i!i culture$ need to be addressed. <irstly, and this is arguably a legacy
of ast State agendas, is the relationshi bet!een school hysical education and sorts
erformance.
&t is a short ste from schools using hysical education to identify star
erformers for their o!n uroses, to governments vie!ing schools as
the forges of ?lymic reserve. (#irk and 3orley, 4666. .146).
%he curriculum secifies a strong relationshi bet!een hysical education and sort,
(not 7ust sorts erformance, see discussion around Sort Studies earlier) and over
recent times significant rogress has been made in teachers understanding this
relationshi. Desite this ho!ever, there is a distinct danger that this relationshi can
be misinterreted in its concetualisation. %hat is, there is a danger that hysical
education in schools can be seen as the foundation stone of sort erformance for the
community
>
and country. %his misinterreted concetualisation is manifest through the
!ays of thinking about hysical education as a vehicle for identifying and focussing on
talented movers !hile largely ignoring the less gifted individuals. E:amles of this
tye of thinking are ho! traditional hysical education rogrammes are dominated by
sorts skills and related fitness and erformance issues. .s #irk and 3orley, (4666)
argue, this concetualisation or !ay of thinking about hysical education and sort is
e:emlified in the %riangle illustration belo!.
>
&ndeed Schools may even see this foundation stone as a means of romoting their o!n school in today$s
cometitive environment.
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1+ of 22
%riangle Model of the Celationshi bet!een =hysical Education and Sort =erformance G adated from
%inning et al, (199>). //
%his articular concetualisation suggests that the !ider the suort at the base or
foundation level the greater the chances of having individuals succeed at the elite levels
of sort. =hysical education, because it is mandated by the State, is considered by
many to be in a key osition to rovide that foundation. %he recent S=.C, Talent
'denti(ication Tas) *orce !as arguably driven in the initial stages by this
concetualisation. @o!ever as #irk and 3orley, (4666) oint out, thinking that hysical
education is the foundation stone for sorts erformance is fundamentally fla!ed for
the follo!ing reasons'
there is no guarantee that a broad base at school level !ill roduce high
achievers at national or international level+
if children are taught oorly at the foundational level then oor
erformers !ill result at the higher level+
by its very shae the triangle of develoment is e:clusive as fe!er
students can articiate at the higher levels thus creating the dro(out
syndrome.
.dated from #irk and 3orley, (4666) . 14>.
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1, of 22
Foundation
of
Physical Education in Schools
Participation
in
School Competitions
Performance
in
Regional Championships
Excellence, Elite Performers
T
h
e

C
o
n
t
i
n
u
u
m
R
o
l
e

M
o
d
e
l
l
i
n
g
<urther to #irk and 3orley$s, osition, and conte:tualising this for )e! *ealand, the
model makes a number of un(substantiated and or contestable assumtions. %hese
include that'
the rime urose of hysical education is to fuel the State$s desire for sorting
e:cellence+
the rime motivation for students doing hysical education and or sort is to be
an elite erformer and
the role modelling affect of those at the ae: of the triangle insire and motive
others to emulate them and to dra! and motivate more into active lifestyles.
@ogan and )orton, (4666) oint out that there is no e$idence for this trickle
do!n or alternatively "suck u$ assumtion .
3iven Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of
Education 1999) concetualisation of hysical education and the ne! thinking
embodied in it, the assumtions made above, are fundamentally inade9uate and
otentially resent a significant barrier to understanding !hat hysical education is,
!hat it tries to achieve and its relationshi !ith sort erformance. &nstead, a better
diagrammatic model for reresenting the foundation stone for hysical education and
its relationshi !ith sort is the diagram belo!.
)ote' the use of the term sort in the diagram is made in reference to sort and its educative sense and is
not restricted to sort erformance. Sort in this sense is hysical activity conte:tualised for a secific
urose.
&n this diagram alternative ath!ays to achieving and e:celling according to articular
learning needs are rovided. %he reresentation assumes that hysical education and
sort do have educative functions and these functions are multi(variable, inclusive and
foster the concet of e:celling through ath!ays according to individual and collective
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1) of 22
meaning making and learning need. %he model ortrays sort as conte:tualised
hysical activity and this conte:tualisation is for secific uroses.
%he model is not locked into a mono(dimensional function of hysical erformance
!hich by design is concetualised in the %riangle Model. ;hile this multi(variable
model rovides a solution to the largely dominant "trickle do!n$ or "suck u$
ersective, in ractice it may have little influence until many of the issues discussed
earlier in this aer are addressed. @o!ever one thing is very clear. %he develoment
of thinking around !hat is being suggested here, !hile in its infancy, nevertheless
overcomes un(substantiated assumtions, muddled thinking and the lack of consistency
bet!een olicy documents and !hat is mandated in schools. 1y overtly recognising
and strategically articulating the multile functional ath!ays that this model romotes,
olicy develoers !ho are attemting to rovide direction for the !hole movement
culture here in )e! *ealand, !ould better reflect the educative and social value of
hysical education and sort and in so doing rovide a broader base uon !hich
individuals and grous could obtain ersonal and collective meaning. %his of course
!ould be a significant strategy in assisting )e! *ealand to become a more active
nation.
%he second element of "#i!i culture$ that may be a barrier for the learned curriculum
focuses on the relationshi of hysical education and ublic health. ,ulan (1995-90)
asked the 9uestion !hether the M?E !as trying to redefine hysical education in terms
of health, by grouing @ealth Education and =hysical Education in one curriculum
statement, or !hether it !as simly a convenient !ay to grou comlimentary sub7ects.
Stothart, (4662) believes that hysical education !ithin the !hole school curriculum is
not secure and is in danger of embedding itself so deely into health education that
fundamental elements of
robust kinaesthetic leasure or gross muscular movement !ill be lost.
(.11)
Cecent develoments in the literature eg (Mc#enEie and #ahan, (4662)+ %rost, (4662)+
<o:, ,ooer and Mc#enna, (4662)+ %ae and 1urgeson, (4662)+ Evans, et al, (4662)+
and ?$Sullivan (4662)) focus on the role that hysical education has in the romotion
of ublic health ob7ectives. Much of their !ritings are based on the hysical inactivity
eidemic throughout ;estern countries and the corresonding health risks that occur as
a result. %he scholars listed above, agree, to varying e:tents, that hysical education has
a key role to lay in the ublic health agenda, articularly in the romotion of hysical
activity. #ey issues to emerge out of the literature, focus on the need for hysical
activity to be en7oyable, educative and characterised by aroriate edagogies. &ndeed
%rost, (4662) and <o: et al (4662) stress the imortance not only of romoting activity
but also addressing the sychological factors or determinants, of adherence to it e.g.
self determining, self regulatory and goal setting strategies.
Evans et al, (4662) on the other hand rovides an insightful ersective in stressing the
imortance of critically evaluating the obesity and inactivity data carefully and
educating youth not only in hysical activity, but also about hysical activity and ho!
to become critical consumers of it. &n articular Evans et al (4662) argue the need for
time to be sent in hysical education lessons to ensure that youth are kno!ledgeable
about the !ay health has been constructed, maniulated and shaed by cororate and
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1- of 22
business interests. ;hile Evans et al$s (4662) argument is entirely consistent !ith the
socio(critical ersective of the )e! *ealand curriculum, some of the issues and
!arnings that they highlight about hysical education and the roles in achieving State
health ob7ectives are clearly alicable to )e! *ealand. &n articular, reference
secifically to the discourse of healthism around hysical activity and the obesity
debate is highlighted here. Evans and Davies (4662) describe the "body erfection
codes$ (460) !hich characterise the body as'
1. imerfect (!hether through circumstance of one$s social class
or overty or self neglect.)+
4. unfinished and to be ameliorated through hysical theray
(circuit training, fitness through sort, and a better diet+
>. threatened (by risk of modernity or lifestyle of overeating and
inactivity).
(Evans et al. 4662. .>0>.)
1y concetualising the body as something that needs rectifying, Evans et al (4662)
argue that the result is an emergent "ill health edagogy$ !hich ignores the comle:ity
of the roblem and leaves the students !ith a feeling of o!erless uncontrollable
alienation from their bodies. %his, in the )e! *ealand conte:t, is totally counter(
roductive to Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum intent.
%he curriculum is about suorting young eole to develo as human beings, to be
emo!ered to make decisions about health enhancing lifestyles. &t is concetualised in
a ositive manner and not in a guilt ridden, an:iety laden and unitively regulated
edagogy. ;hile !e in )e! *ealand might be dismissive of such "ill health edagogy$
our comfort may !ell be mislaced given some of the discourse that e:ists over the
reasons for the rovision of more hysical activity in schools. <or e:amle
Cising childhood obesity rates are behind government ush to ensure
rimary school children get at least one hour of hysical activity a !eek.
(,hristchurch =ress ?ct. 5, 4662. ../)
%his statement alone highlights the "body erfection codes$ that Evans and Davies
(4662) talk about. &t highlights the imerfect, unfinished and threatened bodies of our
students. &n effect the statement has the otential to develo a hysical education
culture of negativity that feeds our fat hobic and fat obsessed society. &ndeed, 3ard
and ;right, (466B) oint out that the relationshi bet!een hysical education and
enduring body !eight control is an assumtion that, to date has not been established.
%hey further discuss that childhood obesity is a far more comle: issue than simly
addressing it through functional, ragmatic and mechanical means such as evidenced
by the mandated hysical activity in schools initiative. &nstead this roblem, and 3ard
and ;right, (466B) challenge !hether it is a roblem, is essentially a comle: issue
that involves all asects of hauora.
Emerging from this discussion is the need to 9uestion to !hat e:tent hysical education
contributes to heling the State meet its ob7ectives around health. Evans et al (4662)
argue that the develoment of critical consumers !ho are cometent and confident !ith
their o!n bodies is an imortant outcome for hysical education. =hysical education is
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1. of 22
about education and not merely an active enterrise to make our students active and
thin. %his argument is central to students learning and achieving in hysical education.
%he active and thin argument is otentially a ma7or barrier to this success as it "sucks us
back$ to yesteryear thinking and locks us into the State intervention that !as the central
thrust of the thinking of an age that has assed. <urthermore it totally ignores some of
the fundamental underlying concets of the curriculum, articularly the health
romotion concet and a socio(ecological ersective.
%o address the State re9uirement for health, as romulgated by the discourse discussed,
resents a otentially significant tension in hysical education. .lready the curriculum
demands of teachers a sohisticated edagogical kno!ledge base+ schools demand of
teachers significant 9uality assurance rocedures and no! the 9uestion is osed
!hether the State is demanding that hysical education teachers address the State$s
"health em4arrassment in a manner that is seemingly at variance !ith the curriculumJ
%here is a clear danger here in creating an un(realistic and uncertain e:ectation of
hysical education. .t the moment hysical educators are graling !ith hilosohical
debates and edagogical ossibilities. .t this time, this is enough. ,onsiderable
rogress is being made in these areas. %he rogress & talk about is characterised by
teachers attemting to grale !ith a balanced aroach so as to ensure that the ne!
aradigm of hysical education is adoted and that the hysical, social, mental and
emotional and siritual needs of the students are addressed. %o further muddy the
!aters !ith more demands and e:ectations is to simly create confusion. &t is in the
oinion of this !riter, that hysical education today needs a little more certainty so that
it can develo edagogically along the lines of the curriculum hilosohy. <urther
uncertainty has the real otential of alienating teachers, the curriculum and of course
marginalising student learning. ;hile ?$Sullivan, (4662) argues that
=hysical education rofessionals ought to struggle more !ith 9uestions
of ends and means and try to find a balance some!here bet!een the
health e:ectations, the 7oy, and the educational value of hysical
activity (physical education)5 (26>.)
at this oint in time in )e! *ealand$s hysical education develoment, this thinking
needs to be romoted !ithin a suortive and consistent culture. 1y having more
certainty and consistency, much of the good !ork generated from State initiatives
!ould alleviate some of the confusion that e:ists.
Conclusion
=hysical Education in )e! *ealand is at an interesting time in its history. State
influence and guidance continues to lay a significant art in its develoment. Health
and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum is a State document that
outlines to educators the e:ectations around learning in @ealth Education and =hysical
Education for students in schools. %his article has concetualised hysical education
as'
( making a uni9ue contribution to balanced develoment and living+
( movement being essential for and integral to, !hat it means to be human+
( learning focussed on movement and students need to be engaged in it+
( a medium for develoing skills across diverse areas of endeavour+
( fostering a edagogy based around critical thought and action+
Physical education: What is it all about? The muddled puzzle Page 1/ of 22
( encouraging students to understand movement and make meaning from it to
enhance individual and collective lifestyles.
;hile the ,urriculum has been concetualised in this manner, the State has driven
initiatives that have the otential to create uncertain and muddled thinking around
hysical activity and sort and their relationshi to hysical education. %his article has
attemted to discuss the ,urriculum$s osition on hysical activity and sort and to
rovide greater clarity to the use of such terms, esecially in regards to education and
hysical education conte:ts. &n articular, the discussion has emhasised'
( that both hysical activity and sort have educative value and through hysical
education this value has relevance for schooling and needs to be caitalised on+
( that sort is a conte:tualised form of hysical activity and if offered in schools
as co(curricula it needs to have an educative value+
( that hysical activity can be vie!ed from different ersectives. &t can be an
entity in its o!n right, it can be used as an outcome and as a medium or rocess
for achieving learning !ithin hysical education.
&n making the above three oints though it is imortant to be very clear that hysical
education can, by using both hysical activity and sort, utilise rich, otent and
o!erful consciousness raising avenues by !hich individuals and grous can make
sense of the !orld. %his meaning making is achieved through !hat is called embodied
consciousness through the lived body. @o!ever in trying to achieve this, barriers to
curriculum learning have been identified. %hese are'
( thinking that is either essentially outdated, or ill(informed+
( messages emanating from current State initiatives may cause confusion+
( lack of edagogical kno! ho!, and if the curriculum is to fulfil its otential then
edagogies that are more emanciatory in nature are re9uired++
( inade9uate teacher training and teacher suort. %o imrove, teacher educators
need to reflect on resent rogrammes and aly searching critical 9uestions.
Such 9uestions have been suggested earlier on in this article.
<urther to these barriers are t!o asects of "#i!i culture$ that romulgate
fundamentally fla!ed assumtions about'
( the relationshi bet!een hysical education and sorts erformance and
( the relationshi bet!een hysical activity and obesity.
1oth these assumtions !ere discussed as ossible imediments to curriculum
understanding and even accetance. 3iven this situation it !as concluded that'
( fresh thinking by olicy develoers around some taken for granted assumtions
about the relationshi bet!een hysical education and sort erformance needs
to be encouraged. %his article argues that ne! thinking needs to begin by
moving beyond a mono dimensional model of hysical education and sort and
develo a multi(variable osition that recognises the various and alternative
ath!ays for learning that hysical education and sort can rovide+
( significant thought needs to be given to ho! hysical education$s role in
meeting nationally rescribed State health ob7ectives !hen the discourse
romoting such a role has the otential for student alienation, curriculum
tension and teacher confusion. &ndeed this article oints out that to un(
roblematically lace the obesity roblem onto hysical education by
encouraging more hysical activity for rimary children is not only
irresonsible it may !ell be totally counter(roductive to hysical education in
general and student learning in articular.
;hile the M?E and other related agencies have given suort to imroving curriculum
imlementation, and significant and admirable rogress has been made by teachers in
the field, more thought, fresh thinking and more informed 7udgments around hysical
education are needed if the hysical education uEEle is to become considerably less
muddled and the curriculum is to achieve its otential.
/e$erences
.le, M. (466>). ,reating difference' )eo(liberalism, neo(conservatism and the
olitics of educational reform. &n D. <reeman(Moir, and .. Scott, (Eds). 6esterdays
dreams5 ,hristchurch' ,anterbury Kniversity =ress. (1/6(41>).
.rnold, =. (1909). #eaning in mo$ement sport and physical education. Hondon'
@einemann.
,ameron, D. (199>). %he sociology of sort. &n @. =erkins and 3. ,ushman (Eds.).
Leisure recreation and tourism. .uckland' Hongman =aul.
,asersen, ,. (19/9). =hysical activity eidemiology' ,oncets, methods and
alications to e:ercise science. &n D. @ollosEy (Ed.). E7ercise and sport sciences
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Physical Education: What is it all about?

The Muddled Puzzle

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