148

The Physics of Motion and Sports

Eric Laurenson
Pittsburgh Allderdice High School


Introduction
Overview
Rationale
Strategies
Physics Concepts in Sports
Objectives
Classroom Activities
Annotated Bibliography/Resources
Appendix-Standards

Introduction

I have just left school. I am in a hurry on my way home. Im with friends and I want to cross the
busy street without waiting to cross at the intersection. I wait for a car to pass, which is speeding
by. The next couple of cars are moving quickly so I let them pass. While waiting for the cars in
the lane closest to me to pass, I look to my right to determine if there is going to be an opening.
There is a gap if the cars coming from my left hurry its going to be close, but I think we can
make it. The two cars in the closest lane pass and there is a gap before the next car coming from
that direction. As the second car is passing me, I look back to the right to make sure that there is
time its close since the car to the right is moving at a significant but steady pace but we can
make it if we hurry, but not have to run and look un-cool. So as the car from the left passes I
step out into the street, gesturing to my friends who are talking, to follow me, looking left to
make sure the lane is clear and then back to the right to make sure the car coming on has not
sped up. It still looks good as we approach the middle of the street walking briskly, so we slow
our pace slightly. I make eye contact with the driver, who is slowing slightly and we step up on
to the curb and make a right onto the sidewalk, continuing our conversation

This is one of the death-defying feats that we perform in our everyday life almost
continuously without hardly even thinking about it. In fact, we are utilizing a tremendous
amount of physics knowledge without even knowing it! Not only do we utilize this physics
knowledge to evaluate the situation, we also perform calculations in our head and carry out those
complex actions with our bodies by a tremendous amount of kinesthetic knowledge and
interpreting feedback from our environment. This is an astounding feat on all levels, and one
that we are able to take for granted as human beings. This seemingly mundane activity of
crossing the street involves determining relative velocities by sight and sound (the Doppler
effect); calculating accelerations and decelerations of objects at varying distances; calculating
times that different events will occur at, comparing those times virtually instantaneously;
planning a course of physical motion; coordinating our bodies to perform the desired motion at
149

the necessary rate from life-long experiential muscle memory with minimal effort, while often
performing other tasks, such as carrying on a conversation; and, doing this with nearly perfect
precision! How is this possible? Well, in this unit we will discover that our knowledge of
physics is profound and indispensable and that this somewhat mundane example is far less
impressive than the athletic feats that we perform at maximal speed and skill with equally death
defying implications! So in this unit we will discover how we learn to control our bodies and
then explore how we develop the mental skills to determine the necessary actions and timing
required to successfully navigate through our environment and engage in sports with precision,
skill and grace. Hopefully, the actions that we take for granted will be stripped of the mundane
and will be recognized for the remarkable physical comprehension and applications that they
demonstrate!

This unit is intended for all physics students. I will teach it to my first year physics students as
well as my second year, AP B physics students. This unit is engaging both at the conceptual and
mathematical levels. However, I believe that these concepts can be simplified to teach it to all
levels of physics students.

My high school has approximately 1350 students with 450 of them being designated as gifted.
The school is roughly 55% Caucasian and 40% African American and 5% other. There is a
range of socioeconomic backgrounds as well, with approximately 30% of the students receiving
free or reduced lunch. My classes are more homogeneous with a majority of Caucasian students,
a lower percentage of African-American students and fewer economically disadvantaged
students. However, next year all students will be required to take physics and all juniors are
encouraged to consider taking a second year of physics.

Rationale

The physics of sports is a great way to motivate students to learn physics concepts and the
mathematical formulations that are involved in simple physics. However, before I engage the
students with the external applications of physics principles, I intend to start at the beginning and
first address the physics of the human body. In sports we utilize the physics of the motion of the
body to perform feats that demonstrate the principals of physical laws. The book s The Physics
of the Human Body and Physics of the Body take an in depth look at the physics of how the body
moves. Chapters include Statics of the Body, Motion and Mechanics of the Body and they
include problem sets to solve specific aspects of the physics involved. The Physics of the
Human Body is an advanced text, but I believe it can be incorporated into my physics courses to
stimulate the imaginations of my students. For a more accessible, and less mathematically
advanced introduction to the physics of human motion, we will utilize the book The Physics of
the Body. Between these two books we should be able to address the varied level of my students
and find problems that are applicable. We will be able to address actions such as walking,
running and jumping, which are the prerequisites for many sports. We will also consider the
mechanics of throwing, which covers the majority of other favorite sports.

150

Once I have addressed the basic physical principles of how the body is able to move, I intend
on concentrating on some non-contact sports such as skiing, (until you hit the ground). Then we
will consider contact sports, such as football and hockey and baseball, golf and soccer (if you are
the bat, club or ball), which address the fundamental concepts of impulse, momentum and forces.
I will also consider sports such as football, baseball, soccer and basketball, which also
investigate the aspects of projectiles, collisions, momentum and energy. Sports offer a wealth of
relevant examples that engage the imaginations of physics students and exemplify physics
concepts in action while drawing on students vast amounts of pre-knowledge. It is possible that I
may provide students with background knowledge for a plethora of sports and allow them to
explore the sport that most interests them. There are books on all of the sports listed so it should
not pose any difficulty for students to find readable material for the sport that interests them the
most. These sports could act as a culminating explanation and project of the physics of
Newtonian mechanics.

My unit will be an ongoing exploration of the fundamental link between sports and physics. I
have always drawn on my students prior knowledge of physics, particularly in sports, to indicate
the vast amount of physics we know as humans. Sports are the obvious applications of
incredibly complex physics knowledge. We all know a tremendous amount of Newtonian
mechanics in order to survive. When we first learn to move, stand and walk we have already
exhibited a tremendous knowledge of statics, balance, gravitational force, and kinematics, not to
mention the body mechanics to perform the tasks. So this seems like the natural starting point,
although, chronologically it may not be the easiest to understand and consequently may come
later in the study of force diagrams and equilibrium. Sports also offer a vehicle to engage the
students knowledge in fantastic situations so that there is the motivation to learn the
application of the mathematics. Some students may be interested in the book Mathletics which
considers some of the mathematical aspects of sports. As we progress through the physics
concepts of mechanics including kinematics, projectiles, forces, energy, momentum and
collisions I will relate the concepts to a variety of sports, as I always have, but now I will have
the specific knowledge and research to concretely relate individual sports with the physics
concepts.

The vast array of books written about the physics of sports is a clear indication of the
applicability of the topic. I envision the culmination of this approach to the first semester of
physics to be the individual research and presentations of the students about their choice of their
favorite sport. I will provide the resources and will engage the students in an activity to have the
students demonstrate a fundamental physics concept with their sport of choice. Each of my
classes, from scholars physics I to AP physics B can utilize this strategy to examine the extent of
their comprehension of physical concepts. The students will demonstrate their skill to the
class. I am confident that this will greatly enhance the relevancy of the physics that we learn.

The Physics of Moving our Bodies

Our bodies are designed (have evolved) to be perfectly suited to the movements that we need to
make to stay alive. On the simplest level, this involves simple motion to enable us to move
151

towards the acquisition of materials that we need to stay alive and away from things that will
cause us harm. On a more complex level, humans have evolved to be able to efficiently move in
the complex act of hunting and avoidance of being hunted. The human brain is able to determine
appropriate states of motion as well as the means to achieve those states of muscular mobility. In
addition, we are able to contemplate complex situations that will enable us to achieve complex
ends. These thoughts involve a large set of concepts that involve the understanding of physical
concepts that enable the productive pursuit of our goals.

These goals include the use of the physical laws of mechanics known to us as Newtonian
physics. They include the laws of motion (including velocity, displacement, acceleration), a way
to grasp and measure time, the use of force, an appreciation for inertia, comprehension of action-
reaction, an understanding of gravity and frictional forces, conservation of momentum and
energy, and the ability to make these determinations very quickly so that they are useful in acting
on information nearly instantaneously. In considering the use of our bodies we will simplify the
exacting motion of our muscles and joints as the workings of simple machines that provide the
capacity for locomotion and all other subtle motions of the body. There are many other physics
concepts that we will not consider that are essential to our survival, such as the thermodynamics
of breathing, the variable pump in our chests and the fluid dynamics that enable us to get oxygen
to all of our cells, the pressure of the atmosphere on our bodies, the chemical reactions that
transform our food into a useful source of energy and all of our cells, particularly our muscles for
motion, the communication required for coordinated action, and much more.

So as is often the case, we will consider the gross movements, those that allow specifically for
motion related to the movement of our bodies as it relates to the performance of sports. We will
explore the actions that our bodies undergo to walk, run, jump, kick, throw and collide with other
bodies! We will do this both conceptually as is done without the benefit of an understanding of
physics and then with the benefit of mathematical formulas that will help us to quantize, predict
and analyze the motion necessary to perform many athletic activities.

Relevancy and the Purpose of Mathematical Formalism (equations)

Motion can be described as distance per time and is called speed. Speed in a direction is
velocity. Velocities can be added together linearly, in different two-dimensional directions that
requires vector analysis or even in three dimensional real space which requires complex analysis.
In order to be able to measure distance we must be able to utilize appropriate units, accuracy and
precision. Once we understand how to measure the distance between two points in a straight
line, we then can begin to understand that displacement is the distance with a direction
associated. Displacement then allows us to calculate motion that is not in a line by also
considering time elapsed. Displacement divided by elapsed time is velocity. Velocity is a vector
which has both the magnitude of speed and direction and allows us to determine more complex
motions. By utilizing our understanding of motion we can calculate relative velocities and
determine when events are going to occur and to calculate simultaneity for many situations. This
is critical in discussing many sports since most sports involve events that must occur at exactly
152

the right time. This is all very complex, but the fact is that without a complex mathematical
formalism, as in the initial example, we are already performing these tasks all the time.

The definitions of motion and the mathematical formalism will be acquired in the study of
Newtonian physics in any physics course. The use of formulas and the ability to derive those
equations will enable us to understand the concepts that we already know, to appreciate the tasks
we can already perform and to expand our capacity to predict and determine the necessary
required parameters to effectively and efficiently solve physics problems that would otherwise be
indiscernible or unsolvable. This unit is meant to add the relevancy to that study and to provide
culminating exercises that will enable our students to appreciate their profound ability to
complete immensely impressive physical feats from walking, running, jumping and throwing to
the complicated combination of these skills in playing any sport. In addition, sports demonstrate
the fundamental understanding of virtually all physics concepts, including motion, projectiles,
friction, air resistance, simultaneous timing, and the conservation of momentum and energy. So
let us consider these concepts individually. We have already discussed the fundamental concept
of motion so let us move on from there.

Physics Concepts in Sports

Projectiles

Projectile motion is pervasive in many sports. All sports that utilize a ball that moves through
the air incorporate the complex motion of projectiles. A projectile is an object that is propelled
through the air and which experiences free-fall as a result of gravity. Projectile motion in
physics is usually considered two-dimension motion because it involves an object moving along
a trajectory that involves two axises known as the x and y direction. This plane could also be
considered in all three special dimensions, but for simplicity we will assume that the projectile
travels in a straight line in a plane and we can therefore limit it to two dimensions (and time,
which will be plenty hard enough!) The critical aspect of projectile motion is to recognize that
once the projectile leaves the source of propulsion, the only force acting on the object is gravity.
Consequently, the object will move with constant velocity in the x direction, and it will
accelerate by a magnitude, g, or 9.8 m/s^2. The trajectory, if air resistance is negligible, will be
the shape of a parabola. The time that it is in the air will be the same for the x and the y direction
and this critical fact will relate the motion and allow us to solve our projectile problems. Some
common examples of this are throwing or hitting a baseball, passing a football, the motion of a
tennis ball, the flight of a golf ball after it is struck and the trajectory of a soccer ball shot.

Friction and Air Resistance

In our world friction is pervasive. It is the force that opposes motion. Typically it is the result of
a resistance force between two surfaces, such as a hockey puck sliding across the ice (although
this is an example of very low friction) or of a soccer ball rolling across the field (this rotational
friction is a little more complicated). Friction is also necessary for any athlete to be able to move
across the field or court! We need to press against something (usually the ground) to be able to
153

propel ourselves. It is dependent on action-reaction and its absence is evidenced, like in hockey
when the coaches attempt to walk across the ice with their smooth shoes they are unstable and
it is obviously difficult to move in the desired straight line without falling! But the force of
friction also exists between any two surfaces, including projectiles and the air. This is
commonly referred to as air-resistance and is a type of friction. To simplify our calculations we
will often disregard friction (and air resistance)as negligible whenever it is low enough that that
is possible.

Simultaneous Timing

Another significant aspect of the physics of sports involves determining the amount of time that
given events will take. This allows the athlete to make desired events to occur simultaneously.
These calculations are often very complicated but athletes do them naturally, constantly.
Examples of simultaneous events are a quarterback throwing a pass (a projectile) so that it
arrives at the same time that a receiver gets to a location (a kinematic linear equation); a hockey
player delivering a check (momentum) on a opposing player (kinematic motion); an outfielder
tracking down a fly ball (kinematic motion and a projectile); a tennis player accelerating
sideways to hit the serve back over the net; and, a basketball player timing their drive to the net
and jump (human projectile)so that they are able to dunk the basketball that is alliooped
(projectile). These are all examples of incredibly complex and often sublime feats that athletes
do on a regular basis and they are physical situations that my students can analyze and calculate
once they know how to distinguish the relationship of simultaneous times that link these events.

Conservation of Momentum

Momentum is a fundamental characteristic of all contact sports and is perhaps surprisingly a key
aspect of most sports (such as the momentum of a club striking a golf ball and imparting a
tremendous velocity to the smaller object; a baseball bat striking a pitched baseball; a pool cue
striking a cue ball and the cue ball striking other pool balls). The most dramatic examples of the
conservation of momentum tend to occur in contact sports. Momentum is the quantity of mass
multiplied by velocity, and when calculated carefully, the momentum before a collision is always
equal to the momentum afterwards. The equation is =mv. One of the most dramatic
demonstrations of conservation of momentum is in football when the defensive lineman (who are
huge) sacks a quarterback ( who is usually stationary and significantly smaller). In this case all
of the momentum of the defensive lineman who wraps up the quarterback is transferred to the
combined mass of the quarterback and the lineman (in the direction that the lineman was
moving!) Another dramatic, and dangerous example of conservation of momentum occurs when
opposing player collide in head on collisions in hockey or football (and these can often be
dangerous).

In non-contact sports the golfing demonstration of the principal of conservation of momentum
is best displayed when the golfers drive balls off the tee. The driver club is huge and massive
(giving it the maximal momentum) in combination with the huge velocity that is achieved by
bringing the club way behind the head and accelerating the swing through nearly 270 before it
154

makes contact (the clubs momentum is transferred to stationary ball and the club afterwards)
giving the golf ball, with its small mass, a tremendous velocity, which allows the ball to travel
in a trajectory that takes it hundreds of yards! In baseball, nearly as dramatic an impact is
demonstrated when the momentum of the pitch is turned around and sent hundreds of feet over
the wall for a homerun. In this case, the momentum of the bat is imparted to the ball to stop its
momentum and send it at a high velocity in the opposite direction.

Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy is nearly as fundamental as the conservation of momentum. The
equation for Kinetic energy is KE=1/2 mv^2 and for potential energy is PE=mgh. One of the
best ways of analyzing these athletic situations is to compare the energy before and afterward. A
great example of this is a baseball player hitting a pop-up straight up. The kinetic energy before
is equal to the potential energy that the ball acquires at the top of its flight. By determining the
time in the air, we can calculate how high it is using conservation of energy. KE=PE, so
1/2mv^2=mgh. The mass cancels so that h=1/2v^2/g. Or if we calculate the time of flight, then
the time will allow us to figure the time it takes to come back down, so h=1/2gt^2. Some
other demonstrations of the conservation of energy are to calculate the energy that a baseball
must have to travel to the outfield wall and clear the outfield fence which may be ten feet high.
Another is to consider the velocity and angle that must be imparted to a kicked football to
determine if it will travel enough distance to clear the crossbar of the goal post which is four
yards high, when kicked from forty yards. You can also consider the collision of elastic
collisions which occur in golf and pool. In these instances the energy before the collision is
equal to the energy after the collision. In the case of elastic collisions, the kinetic energy before
the collision equals the kinetic energy afterwards. KE before= KE afterwards, or
1/2mv(before)^2 = 1/2mv(after)^2.

Strategies

I will utilize a constructivist approach in teaching this unit. Constructivism suggests that learners
take in knowledge superficially and apply it to their existing framework even if that contains
fundamental misconceptions and contradictions known as assimilation, or a learner can actively
utilize the knowledge to reframe their world view which is known as accommodation. The goal
is for the student to construct as comprehensive and consistent a world view as possible. This
approach recognizes that the learner comes with a vast set of preconceptions about their world.
In order to have some influence over how the information that we are presenting as educators is
processed, we must actively attempt to understand the students preconceptions and
misconceptions. Then we must actively engage the students world view if we are to have a
lasting impact on their thinking process. My main emphasis in teaching physics is to address my
students critical thinking skills. Physics attempts to address the fundamental nature of our
reality, but our experiential knowledge is often deceptive or contrary to the Laws of physics.
Consequently, it is apparent to me as an educator that we must address the learner as a
comprehensive being with a tremendous amount of inclination to sustain their current world
view. This is natural in human beings. But the scientific pursuit requires that we are open to
155

accepting the experimental evidence about the world around us and to have a more
comprehensive understanding of the world we inhabit even when a large part of the knowledge is
conceptual.

So how do we begin to affect our students world vision? Well it is clear that first we must
make learning an active process. It is essential that we engage our students as deeply and
profoundly in the educational process as possible. How can this be done? It is my belief that we
must stimulate their inherent desire to learn. It is only if we activate this passion for learning that
students will invest enough of themselves to begin the process of allowing their learning to
transform their vision of how the world is constructed. So students must be forced slightly
beyond their comfort zone, known by Piaget as the zone of proximal learning. This is the place
where students are emotionally invested in what they are learning and in the space in which
learning matters. It is my goal for my students to evaluate their views and to attempt to make
their understanding as comprehensive and consistent as possible.

How do we get students to engage at this level? I believe that a constructivist, hands on
learning is primary. Students must engage on a multitude of levels including a physical level.
They must be presented with problems that are meaningful, relevant and which they are
compelled to attempt to resolve. Thus the teacher must act as a facilitator acknowledging the role
of prior knowledge to stimulate students to incorporate new learning into altering their world
view. The students must be encouraged to construct their new world view and this is strongly
based on motivation. It cannot occur passively.

This is where this unit comes in. I believe that students are most motivated by topics that are
relevant to them, that stimulate their imagination and enable them to further their understanding
of the world around them. I am convinced that applying physics to the sports that students love to
participate in is one such topic. I think that it activates an innate curiosity about our ability to
engage in with our environment and it allows me to frame many realms of physics knowledge in
terms that are relevant, pertinent and digestible.

A constructivist approach is extremely complementary to the scientific pursuit. The goal is
that our students become global citizens with an advanced capacity for discernment and critical
thinking and it seems apparent to me that a constructivist approach is the best means to achieve
this end. I will achieve this with challenging mathematical problem sets, laboratory experiences
involving sports and the previous knowledge that students have in abundance from their daily
interactions with the external world and the internal world of their bodies that allows for the
immensely complex feats that they regularly perform.

Objectives

The students will be able to apply their knowledge of Newtonian Mechanics to real life problems
involving motion and physical laws in sports. Students will be able to explain how scientific
principles of chemical, physical, and biological phenomenon have developed and relate them to
real-world situations. Students will demonstrate knowledge of basic concepts and principles of
156

physical, chemical, biological and earth sciences. The students will construct and evaluate
scientific and technological systems using models to explain or predict results. All students will
evaluate advantages, disadvantages and ethical implications associated with the impact of
science and technology on current and future life. The students will utilize the immense
resources on the internet and demonstrate basic computer literacy, including word processing,
software applications, and the ability to access the global information infrastructure, using
current technology. In addition to the scientific emphasis, the physics of sports unit will address
the mathematical methods and tools used in the study of physics. All students use numbers,
number systems, and equivalent forms (including numbers, words, objects and graphics) to
represent theoretical and practical situations. Math is the language of physics and must be
utilized to comprehend the current advances being made. All students compute, measure, and
estimate to solve theoretical and practical problems, using appropriate tools, including modern
technology such as calculators and computers. All students will formulate and solve problems
and communicate the mathematical processes used and the reasons for using them. All students
understand and apply basic concepts of algebra, geometry, probability and statistics to solve
theoretical and practical problems. Much of the physics of sports is based on the mathematical
application of statistics to interpret the information that is gathered from a vast array of sources.
Math enables this data to be correlated into meaningful sources of knowledge. All students
evaluate, infer, and draw appropriate conclusions from charts, tables and graphs, showing the
relationships between data and real-world situation.

Classroom Activities

Lesson One- How We Move Our Bodies

The students will utilize their knowledge of simple machines to diagram and calculate the
physics involved in motion, such as walking, running, jumping, and throwing.
The body is the starting point for all motion of sports. So we will begin with an anatomical
description of the body and explore how the muscles make the bones and joints move. We will
consider the skeletal framework and the degrees of motion of each significant joint. This will
allow us to determine how the body is able to move.

Once we have gained this understanding we will relate our muscles, bones and joints to the
simple machines that we study. Our joints are hinges and our bones often act as levers. The
muscles are the input forces and the action is usually the output force. So just looking at this
simplified version of the body we can begin to understand how the inter-workings of the body
result in motion.

Understanding of simple machines and Newtonian net forces will enable the students to
calculate the required forces needed to perform certain sporting feats. These include events such
as walking, which is basically a constant velocity maneuver that therefore requires constant
force; running, which involves acceleration and therefore involves Newtons second law, F=ma;
jumping required accelerating the entire body greater than the acceleration of gravity; and
throwing involves a simple action reaction pair of forces, however, analyzing the motion of a
157

projectile is a very complex mathematical process in physics. We will have discussed projectiles
so the most challenging aspect at this juncture will be back tracking it to the required forces
needed to get the desired motion; These are the basic concepts that will allow us to equate
motion and sports with the body. However before we go much further we must reconsider the
basic types of physical motion that we will encounter.

First we must be able to describe the motion that we will encounter in these sporting
activities. We must define motion. To do this we must first discuss position. Position is the
relative space that we occupy. We can pretend for most purposes that we are a point particle
centered at our center of mass. When we analyze an object that changes its position then we are
discussing its displacement, which is the change in its distance, including the direction. This is
easily calculated as long as we are only considering linear motion (which we will to start with).
Then if we consider the time it takes to travel a given displacement, that is known as our
velocity, which is speed and direction. These are all vectors and they will be invaluable in
discussing motion.

So for our first activity, the class will break into lab groups and will choose one student to
walk across the room at a constant rate. The other members of the group will measure the
distance and the time to calculate the average velocity. This is a basic physics lab, so to increase
the relevance to understanding how the body achieves this motion, we will utilize Logger Pro
which has video capabilities to analyze video. Using this feature another student will video tape
the walking students motion. The group will then analyze the students progress by treating
the students body as a system and considering the way that the system moves independently
from the center of mass. Primarily, we will focus on the legs to determine force diagrams of how
walking is achieved. The walker must push off of the ground, relying on friction and action
reaction to propel themselves forward. In addition the bones must be able to supply the forces
provided by the muscles. And the joints must transmit those forces into a unified motion that
allows the walker to stay upright and balanced while moving forward.

The students will weigh the walker and perform calculations to determine how much force the
walker must exert in the forward direction to result in the motion that they perform. In addition
the lab group will present a series of force diagrams to demonstrate their analysis of the motion
required.

Once the students have completed this aspect of the lab, they will then move on to a more
challenging motion, running! The assignment is basically the same, however, in this case the
students will be analyzing accelerated motion. The runner will start from rest and accelerate as
quickly as possible over 20 meters. This will be much more challenging to analyze, even though
the method is virtually the same.

Lastly, and most challenging, the students will video tape one of the lab partners throwing a
ball. The will analyze the required force needed to throw the object and attempt to calculate the
required force to achieve the determined initial velocity. Then the students will analyze the
motion of the ball to calculate the range and height that it will travel. The students will complete
158

this part of analyzing the bodys motion to achieve certain tasks by producing detailed force
diagrams of the body mechanics necessary to conduct the described task.

In their presentation of these three types of motion, the students will compare and contrast the
similarities and differences of the body mechanics required to achieve the tasks as well as the
motion that was achieved. Hopefully the students will find that there are many more similarities
than they imagined. Another purpose of this lab is to give students a profound appreciation for
the immensity of the complexity that they perform doing everyday tasks, particularly in sports
related activities.

Lesson Two- Calculating Captivating Sports Examples

We will be calculating the relative times and velocities of the famous Montana/Rice Super
Bowl pass calculating the initial velocity and angle of the pass given the other information of
the play.

One of the most famous football plays, is the Montana/Rice Super Bowl pass. This play
involved a final play in the Super bowl in which Joe Montana threw an 82 yard touchdown pass
to Jerry Rice. The complexity of events that lead to this miraculous play is a perfect topic of
analysis for physics students. It incorporates the excitement of an incredibly unlikely event, with
the familiarity of a popular sport and the intricacies of solving extremely complex physics
equations of motion. I have found in teaching that the best way to motivate students to do
difficult math equations is to provide them with relevant examples. I believe that this Super
Bowl example presents all of these components.

So first, the facts are as follows. Montana (the quarterback) snaps the football at position (-
32,3.1) at time t=0. He drops back to the 11 yard line, rolls right 13.5 yards and throws the ball
at t=4 seconds (-39,16.6). Rice (the receiver) starts at (-32,14). In 2 seconds he accelerates
smotthly to top speed of 30 ft/sec. a=v/t= 30 ft/s /2s = 15 ft/s^2. He maintains his top speed. He
catches the ball after funning 40.6 yards on a diagonal at the position (+8, 21.7)!

Calculate the initial velocity of Montanas throw and the angle that he had to throw it to reach
Rice at exactly the right time.

One very interesting (and difficult way to solve this is to calculate it simultaneously using the
range and time to find V(throw) and the angle!!!

V(initial throw)sin =t (tot) g/2 = (.5)(3.1)(32) = 48ft/s = 16 yds/s

47 yds in 3.1 sec Vx=Xx/t

R = Vo^2/g sin 2

Vo cos = 2(Vo/g sin ) (Vo cos )
159


Vo cos = 7.5 yds/s


S= Vt + at^2 = 10yrds + vt

41= 10 + 10t

31= 10t

t = 3.1 t + 2 + 2

t= 7.1 s

So for a very difficult projectile problem, the answer is that the play took 7.1 seconds which is an
incredibly long time! The ball was in the air for 3.1 seconds.

Culminating Lesson- Exploring Sports of Choice

The students will read a section of a book on the physics of their favorite sport. They will then
chose a fundamental concept of physics and present a demonstration of this concept to the class,
either mathematically or conceptually so that their peers will appreciate how impressive of a feat
that sport is to achieve.

In addressing the physics of sports there are several key physics concepts that are bound to
come up repeatedly. These fundamental concepts include conservation of momentum, the
conservation of energy, elastic and inelastic collisions.

In all contact sports, whether between the players or between objects and balls or pucks we
must consider the concept of momentum and its conservation. Momentum is the quantity of an
objects mass (how much stuff it has) multiplied by its velocity (how fast it is moving in a certain
direction). Somewhat surprisingly, this is one of the most fundamental quantities of motion and
it is always conserved! Conservation means that the quantity before and after is always the
same. In the case of momentum we are usually concerned with the momentum before and after a
collision. A collision is the contact of two distinct objects. So when two objects collide, whether
both are moving, or only one is moving, the momentum (p=mv) is always conserved. Now this
is not always obvious, because we must very carefully calculate the momentum before and
afterwards.

This is an invaluable concept for us to be able to analyze the physics of sports because it is so
pervasive. Whether we are considering a linebacker tackling a quarterback or a baseball player
hitting a ball, the same concept applies. We can also consider the action between a stick and a
puck, a pool cue and a billiard ball, a soccer player and the ball he is shooting, a basketball
player and the defensive player planting a pick on him, or a goalie blocking a shot in any sport.
160


In this culminating activity the students will choose their favorite sport and describe a key
aspect of the sport in terms of physics to their classmates. The key concept will be dependent on
the sport that the student chooses, but two other main concepts are the notion of conservation of
energy and elastic and inelastic collisions.

Energy is always conserved if we keep track of all sources of energy. However, in collisions
this is not always so easy. Most collisions involve the conversion of mechanical energy into
heat. Heat is very difficult to measure in macroscopic collisions. In addition, often materials are
transformed in their shapes or chemistry. These physical or chemical changes must also be
accounted for in order to maintain the conservation of energy. Also, objects in collisions are not
always able to maintain their continuity and pieces may fly off. In this instance all mass must be
accounted for before and after the collision.

So in an attempt to simplify, there are typically two types of mechanical collisions. They are
called elastic and inelastic collisions. Elastic collisions are ones in which the mechanical energy
before and after are the same. This means that mv^2 before= mv^2 afterwards. Energy is
not lost in the form of heat (to any significant degree), the objects before and afterwards are not
deformed and retain their shape and the objects do not stick together.

In inelastic collisions, the mechanical energy is not conserved, so you can infer that in a
perfectly inelastic collision the two objects do stick together. In this case, as in all cases the
momentum is conserved. However, in this case the energy is not.

An example of a nearly perfectly elastic collision is the impact of the golf club with the golf
ball. There is an impulse (Ft=mv=p) which is transmitted to the golf ball from the club. The
massive driver is accelerated through an arc to its maximum velocity at which point it strikes the
stationary golf ball. The golf ball is deformed on impact but because of the elasticity of the
ball it returns to its original spherical shape as it is propelled hundreds of yards. This is also a
case of action reaction forces. The force that is applied by the golf club on the golf ball is equal
to the force that the golf ball exerts on the club. Therefore the acceleration of the golf ball results
in a deceleration of the club. Once the ball leaves the contact of the club, the golf ball can be
treated as a pure projectile and the initial velocity of the ball and its angle of inclination then
determines its resultant path and range. Usually we will disregard complex factors such as air
friction and spin on the ball.

For skiing, we will consider skiing which incorporates friction, lift, drag, gravitational
components of forces, and moments of inertia. All of these components will be taken into
consideration in analyzing the motion of the skier descending down the slope. Skiing is a
complex example of nearly frictionless motion that allows the skier to achieve very high
velocities using only the force of gravity to propel herself. However, as a result of wind
resistance, the skier will eventually reach terminal velocity, at which point there is a state of
equilibrium. The force of gravity is in balance with the drag created and the skier achieves a
161

constant velocity. This means that the skier is no longer accelerating, just as the sky diver will
achieve a maximum velocity and will not go any faster.

These are just some examples of sports that might be utilized in the culminating project. The
project will be a creative endeavor determined by the students. These projects can take many
forms. The goal is for the students to be able to demonstrate a significant physics principle
utilizing one of their favorite sports. There are a plethora of resources to execute this project.
The students, in pairs, will chose a sport and a physics concept (or multiple concepts depending
on the sport) and will find a creative way to demonstrate the compelling physics involved in this
activity.

The presentation of these projects could involve demonstrations, videos, mathematical
analysis, models or any other method that the students can envision. The students will have to
demonstrate a proficiency in the conceptual understanding of the physics principal that they are
endeavoring to present. The class will offer feedback and evaluate the effectiveness of their
peers presentation. They may even be asked to perform the given task. The goal is to get the
students to appreciate the pervasiveness of the physics in all of the sports that they participate in
or even those that they enjoy as spectators. I think these culminating projects are the perfect way
to get students to explore the physics that they already know and to get their peers excited about
learning by sharing their enthusiasm for their favorite sports.

Annotated Bibliography/Resources

Adair, Robert Kemp. Physics of Baseball. New York. Harper & Row. 1990.
An in depth look at the physics of baseball.

Armenti, Angelo. The Physics of Sports. American Institute of Physics. 1992.
An consideration of the physics of a multitude of sports.

Fontanella, John J. The physics of basketball . 2006.

Gardner, Robert. Science Project About the Physics of Sports. Enslow Publication, NJ. 2010.

Gardner, Robert. Slam Dunk! Science Projects with Basketball. Enslow Publication. NJ. 2010.

Gay, Timothy. The Physics of Football: Discover the Science of Bone-Crunching Hits, Soaring
Field Goals, and Awe-Inspiring Passes.
This is the source of the Montana/Rice Super Bowl pass data for the activity for the
second lesson plan.

Goff, John Eric. Gold Medal Physics: The Science of Sports. John Hopkins University Press.
Baltimore. 2010.

162

Goodstein, Madeline. Sports Science Projects: The Physics of Balls in Motion. Enslow
Publications. NJ. 2010.

Goodstein, Madeline. Wheels! Science projects with bicycles, skateboards and skates. Enslow
Publications. NJ. 2010.

Goodstein, Madeline. Goal! Science Projects with Soccer. Enslow Publications. NJ. 2010.

Hach, Alain. The Physics of Hockey
A comprehensive book about the physics involved in hockey

Herman, Irving P. The Physics of the Human Body
http://www.springerlink.com/content/w7l9p8/. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2007.
This is the source for the body mechanics information for the first lesson plan.

Lind, David and Scott P Sanders. The physics of skiing : Skiing at the triple point. AIP Press,
NY. 2004.
Addresses the mechanics and physics of skiing including the moment of inertia, lift, drag
and forces.

McCall, Richard P. Physics of the Human Body. John Hopkins University Press. 2010.

The Physics of Soccer website http://www.unc.edu/~ncrani/soccer1.htm

Winston, Wayne L. Mathletics: how gamblers, managers and sports enthusiasts use mathematics
in baseball, basketball and football. Princeton University Press. Princeton. 2009.
This is useful for students interested in exploring the mathematics involved in analyzing
sports and the statistics.

Appendix- Content Standards

Appendix: The following standards will be incorporated into the Physics of Sports unit.
Science Standards

3.4.12.C Apply the principles of motion and force.
3.2.10.A Apply knowledge and understanding about the nature of scientific and technological
knowledge.
3.2.10.B Apply process knowledge and organize scientific and technological phenomena in varied ways.
3.2.10.C Apply the elements of scientific inquiry to solve problems.
3.7.10.B Apply appropriate instruments and apparatus to examine a variety of objects and processes.
3.4.12.C Apply the principles of motion and force.
3.4.10.C Distinguish among the principles of force and motion.
3.1.12.B Apply concepts of models as a method to predict and understand science and
technology.
163

3.2.12.B Evaluate experimental information for appropriateness and adherence to relevant
science processes.
3.2.12.C Apply the elements of scientific inquiry to solve multi-step problems.

CEs and PEs
CE 1-1-1: Measurement is required to quantify physics phenomena. (STANDARD 3.2.10.C) (ELIGIBLE
CONTENT S11.A.3.2.1)
CE 1-1-2: Dimensional analysis of physics formulae is a valuable tool for checking a hypothesis.
(STANDARD 3.2.10.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.2.1.4)
CE 1-1-3: The SI system of units is a convenient and consistent basis for measurement and dimensional
analysis. ( STANDARD 3.7.10.B) CE 2-1-1: Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vectors, while
distance and speed are scalars. (STANDARD 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.C.3.1.3, S11.A.3.3.3)
CE 2-1-2: In uniformly accelerated motion, the velocity changes linearly with time, while the
displacement changes as a square of time. (STANDARDS 3.4.12.C, 3.2.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT
S11.C.3.1.3, S11.C.3.1.2, S11.A.3.3.3)
CE 2-1-3: Free-fall motion is uniformly accelerated; the motion of an object thrown vertically
upward is uniformly decelerated. (STANDARDS 3.4.12.C, 3.2.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.C.3.1.3,
S11.C.3.1.2,S11.A.3.3.3)
CE 3-4-1: The friction force always opposes the actual or potential motion and never exceeds the net
force attempting to move an object. (STANDARDS 3.4.10.C, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.1.1.4,
S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.2)
CE 3-4-2: The coefficient of static friction is slightly greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
(STANDARDS 3.4.10.C, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.1.1.2, S11.A.2.1.3, S11.A.3.3.3)
CE 3-4-3: The practical applications of Newtons laws of motion include the explanation of transfer of
forces and the difference between weight and the force of gravity.
CE 4-3-1: Momentum is a vector; the momentum of a system is a vector sum of the momentum of its
parts. (STANDARDS 3.1.10.B, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.1)
CE 4-3-2: The change in momentum is equal to the impulse. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.C, 3.4.12.C)
(ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.A.1.1.4, S11.C.3.1.1)
CE 4-3-3: The impact of a fall can be weakened if its duration is prolonged. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.B,
3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.2.1.3, S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.1)
CE 4-3-4: The momentum of an isolated system is conserved. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.B, 3.4.12.C)
(ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.2.1.5, S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.1)
CE 4-3-5: Both energy and momentum are conserved in an elastic collision; only momentum is
conserved in an inelastic collision. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.C, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.2.1.5,
S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.1)
CE 4-1-1: Work is proportional to force and displacement. (STANDARDS 3.1.10.E, 3.4.12.C)
(ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.2)
CE 4-1-2: No work is produced if the resulting displacement is zero, if the net force is equal to zero, or if
the force is perpendicular to the displacement. (STANDARDS 3.1.10.E, 3.4.12.C)
(ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.3.1.2)
CE 4-1-3: Work and energy are measured in the same units; the work produced is equal to the change in
energy. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.C, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.2.1.3)
CE 4-1-4: Kinetic energy is the energy of motion; potential energy is the energy of relative position of
objects. (STANDARDS 3.2.12.C, 3.4.12.C) (ELIGIBLE CONTENT S11.A.3.3.3, S11.C.2.1.3)
164

PE 4-1-1: Evaluate work in appropriate units. (STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 4-1-2: Analyze and explain specific cases when no work is produced. (STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 4-1-3: Apply the work-energy theorem to various systems. (STANDARD 3.4.12.C)
PE 4-3-1: Explain the physical meaning of momentum, both its direction and magnitude.
(STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 4-3-2: Define the vector of impulse and calculate its magnitude in appropriate units.
(STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 4-3-3: Analyze the impact caused by a fall, specifying the physical quantity affecting the falling object,
and any feasible control over the parameters of the fall. (STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 4-3-4: Apply the law of momentum conservation to various systems. (STANDARD 3.4.12.C)
PE 4-3-5: Apply the laws of momentum and energy conservation to elastic and inelastic collisions.
(STANDARD 3.4.12.C)
PE 3-4-1: Solve multi-step problems using Newtons laws of motion in the presence of friction.
(STANDARD 3.4.10.C)
PE 3-4-2: Recognize the conceptual and numerical difference between the coefficients of kinetic and
static friction. (STANDARD 3.4.12.C)
PE 3-4-3: Apply Newtons laws of motion to problems involving the transfer of forces and weight
reduction/weightlessness. (STANDARD 3.4.12.C)
PE 2-1-1: Apply the concepts of non-uniform motion to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of one-
dimensional motion, including solving equations and performing the dimensional analysis. (STANDARDS
3.4.12.C. 3.2.12.C, 3.1.12.B)
PE 2-1-2: Use equations of uniformly accelerated motion to interpret experiments involving free fall.
(STANDARDS 3.4.12.C. 3.2.12.C, 3.1.12.B, 3.2.12.B)
PE 1-1-1: Observe experiments involving motion, and suggest ways to describe them qualitatively and
quantitatively. (STANDARD 3.2.10.B)
PE 1-1-2: Perform accurate measurements of length, area, volume, time, and speed in units used in
everyday life; convert results into SI units. (Based on STANDARD 3.2.10.B)
PE 1-1-3: Perform dimensional analysis of the formulae describing uniform motion. (Based on
STANDARD 3.2.10.B)