ALTERNATIVE FUELS

ELECTRICITY : a cut above key

BY: DIPIKA CHAWDA
SAI KRISHNA BTECH !ECHANICAL III YEAR
TKRCET HYD
ABSTRACT
Every country today is facing fuel crisis. The rising trend of fuel cost & its steep decline
in the available reserves of the oil have generated the demand for alternative fuel. The
degrading impact of these fuels on environment (green house effect) is a major concern
&switching to a new, safer alternative has become a question of when & not whether.
lternative fuel is that fuel which can replace petrol in transportation. !resently bio-
diesel, electricity, ethanol, hydrogen, p-series are major areas of research in this field.
"n this paper the urgency of alternative fuel has been discussed and it brings forth the
role that can be played by the electricity. The research done shows how electricity can
replace the conventional source (oil) in most effective manner compared to other sources.
#itherto, mar$et is providing bi$es and cars as electricity vehicles (EVs).
comparison between these EVs and petrol vehicles has been made which shows the
superiority of E%&s over their competitors in several aspects considered.
"t&s now high time that without much ado we shift to an alternative fuel, which is
in abundance, is non'e(haustive, non' polluting, cheap and can easily replace e(isting
fuel. )orld is slowly showing incline towards this and very soon we can accept a world
which will be satisfying its needs with due respect to nature.
INTR!"CTIN
*eed of transport is one of the most essential requirement today. "n a persons day to day
life its part has become almost equivalent to other essential commodity as shelter and
clothing. ll transport means use one or other form of non renewable source, vi+, petrol
or diesel or gas. The fact of these resources being non'renewable and e(haustive and
difficult to obtain has generated the need for the development of lternative fuel sources.
lternative fuel is any method of powering an engine that does not involve petroleum
(oil). These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications. -sing
these alternative fuels in vehicles can generally reduce harmful pollutants and e(haust
emissions. "n addition, most of these fuels can be domestically produced and derived
from renewable sources.
Electricity as an alternative fuel as discussed in the paper is emerging as a suitable option
in the present day scenario. "t surfaces as nearest approach by which without more ado
we can meet our needs vi+, no green house effect, non'polluting source, adequate long
run supply, accessible and economic source all with at hand technology.
BACKGROUND
The main purpose of fuel is to store energy in a form that is stable and can be easily
transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such
as transportation. lmost all fuels are chemical fuels, that store chemical potential energy.
The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the
form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an engine, or heating a
building, such as a home.
A#TERNATIVE $"E#
The definition of alternati%e &'el varies according to the conte(t of its usage. "n the
conte(t of petroleum substitutes, the term .alternative fuel. can imply any available fuel or
energy source, and does not necessarily refer to a source of renewable energy. "n the
conte(t of environmental sustainability, .alternative fuel. often implies an ecologically
benign renewable fuel.
lternative fuels, also $nown as non'conventional fuels, are any materials or substances
that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. /onventional fuels include0
fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances
nuclear materials such as uranium. 1ome well $nown alternative fuels include biodiesel,
ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen,
methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.
Demand for alternative fuels
*umber of vehicles around the world that run on alternative fuels, is indicating an
increasing popularity .There is growing social interest, and a perceived economic and
political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general
environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.
The major environmental concern, according to an "!// report, is that 23ost of the
observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid'45th century is very
likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. 1ince
burning fossil fuels are $nown to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere, they are a li$ely contributor to global warming.
nother concern is the pea$ oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels
caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption.
ccording to the .pea$ oil. theory, the demand for oil will e(ceed supply and this gap will
continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 4565 and
4545. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest
that e(ists in the region, leading to further conflict and war.
ELECTRICITY ( As Alternati%e fuel
The 2fuel2 is the set of chemicals which are o(idi+ed and reduced to release the stored
energy. "n a battery or fuel cell powered vehicle, this is electricity. "n some
circumstances, however, electricity may be provided directly to a mobile electric engine,
such as an electrified trolley or train, or a magnetically levitated train. "n such cases,
electricity itself may be treated as an alternative 2fuel2, since it replaces fuel energy used
in transportation
Electricity is unique among the alternative fuels in that mechanical power is derived
directly from it, whereas the other alternative fuels release stored chemical energy
through combustion to provide mechanical power. 3otive power is produced from
electricity by an electric motor. Electricity used to power vehicles is commonly provided
by batteries, but fuel cells are also being e(plored. 7atteries are energy storage devices,
but unli$e batteries, fuel cells convert chemical energy to electricity.
Electricity is produced from steam and hydel power plants located throughout the
country. "t can also be made from renewable resources using solar or wind technologies.
part from this nuclear power and ditrium'titrium fuel cycle have got promising
contributions.
)hy Electricity (bene&its o%er other alternati%es*
%ehicles that run on electricity have no tailpipe emissions. This is the primary benefit of
owning an electric vehicle (E%). Emissions that can be attributed to E%s are generated in
the electricity production process at the power plant.
E%s have lower 2fuel2 and maintenance costs than gasoline'powered vehicles.
The cost of an equivalent amount of fuel for E%s costs less than the price of gasoline.
7ecause automobiles and truc$s consume a great deal of the total energy budget of
developed countries, some means would be required to deliver the energy generated from
nuclear heat to these vehicles. The simplest solution is to use electric vehicles. 3ass
transit will be an important aspect of this solution, as it is readily electrified. 1ome thin$
that hydrogen may play a role. "f so, it would be produced by electrolysis, either
conventionally or at high temperatures supplied by reactor heat.
"t is relatively easy to start nuclear fusion reactions, which generate lots of energy
(cf. nuclear weapons). #owever, the energy input needed in achieving the necessary
temperature and electromagnetic confinement for controlled and sustained fusion is much
too vast to maintain a significant energy gain.

Electricity produced in a typical fusion facility would not involve the creation of
millenary radioactive waste, neither would it involve a ris$ of nuclear meltdown.
Electricity produced using the 8T (8euterium'Tritium) fuel cycle (the option that is most
li$ely to be implemented) ta$es natural resources which are essentially ine(haustible.
#ydrogen is boosted to be a better alternative but it posses dangers of e(plosion,
storage and is costly to produce and e(pensive in installation. !roponents of a hydrogen
economy thin$ hydrogen could hold the $ey to ongoing energy demands. 9elatively new
technologies (such as fuel cells) can be used to efficiently harness the chemical energy
stored in diatomic hydrogen (#4). #owever, there is no accessible natural reserve of
uncombined hydrogen, since what little there is resides in Earth.s outer atmosphere
(e(osphere). #ydrogen for use as fuel must first be produced using another energy
source, hydrogen would thus actually be a means to transport energy, rather than an
energy source, just as common rechargeable batteries are. :ne e(isting method of
hydrogen production is steam methane reformation, however, the most common source
of methane is natural gas, which is in short supply. nother method of hydrogen
production is through electrolysis of water which uses electricity generated from any
source, or a combination of fossil fuels, nuclear, and;or renewable energy sources.
ccording to the majority of energy e(perts and researchers, hydrogen is currently
impractical as an alternative to fossil'based liquid fuels. "t is inefficient to produce, has
low energy density (hydrogen gas tan$s would need to be 4'< times as large as
conventional gasoline tan$s), and is e(pensive to transport and convert bac$ to electricity.
lso hydrogen fuel cells are still prohibitively e(pensive as a prime mover of
transportation.
*on'conventional oil is a fossil fuel chemically identical and with the same origin
as conventional or traditional oil, but e(isting in a different form. They often contain
more contaminants and are more energy intensive to produce, thus raising environmental
concerns about the sustainability of these fuels. *on'conventional oil sources include tar
sands, oil shale and bitumen. The current e(traction process ta$es a great deal of energy
for heat and electrical power, presently coming from local natural gas, which itself is in
short supply. *on'conventional oil production is currently less energy'efficient, and has a
larger environmental impact than conventional oil production.
Thus, there are many ways in which vehicles can be alternatively fueled, but at
the moment electricity seems to be most feasible scheme. The Electric !ower 9esearch
"nstitute (E!9") describes the electric vehicle infrastructure as being =>? in place. The
remaining 4? involves developing the connection from the grid to the vehicle and
determining how recharging vehicles might affect the grid.
E#ECTIC VE+IC#ES
+istory(
ll vehicles using electricity to power belong to the category of electric vehicles
(E%). Electric vehicles predate gasoline and diesel. 7etween 6><4 and 6><= (the e(act
year is uncertain).8ue to technological limitations and the lac$ of transistor'based electric
technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about <4 $m;h
(45mph).
The introduction of the electric starter by /adillac in 6=6< simplified the tas$ of starting
the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This
innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass'produced
and relatively ine(pensive @ord 3odel T. 7y the late 6=<5s, the electric automobile
industry had completely disappeared, with battery'electric traction being limited to niche
applications, such as certain industrial vehicles.
The 6=AB invention of the point'contact transistor mar$ed the beginning of a new
era for 7E% technology. )ithin a decade, the first modern electric car based on transistor
technology, the #enney Cilowatt,was produced in <D'volt and B4'volt configurations.
C'rrent pict're
The electric vehicle (E%) technology has progressed steadily, ma$ing E%s
popular once more. Environmental and technical drawbac$s aside, the gasoline powered
vehicle is our Eac$'of'all'trades, plus, quic$ fillips and e(tended ranges are too
convenient to give up. /onversely, we now recogni+e the value of using FnicheG vehicles
to efficiently fill specific needs. :bvious E% e(amples include well'$nown golf carts,
shopping carts, for$lifts and aircraft tugs, par$ing meter'patrol vehicles and such, but also
innovative battery E% applications li$e electric bicycles and scooters ,and lawn and
garden tractors .7attery powered automobiles ,pic$ups ,vans and 1-%s have been made
available for sale or lease to fleet operators and car rental agencies. )ith their ever
improving range and faster charging batteries, E%&s are becoming popular choices among
municipalities for fleets of shuttle busses and vans.
EV and IN!IA
"ndia is ready and well suited for the introduction of E%s today with the e(isting
technologies available, ma$ing E%s cost effective. The ideal E% for "ndia and the
developing world is basic, simple and reliable ' designed specially for local conditions
using cutting edge technology and which is modular to incorporate and absorb newer
technologies. E%s with a top speed of A5'D5 $mph and a range of H5'>5 $m would meet
over =5 percent of the city mobility requirements in "ndia.
The average speed of travel in our cities has been steadily on the decline as the
vehicle population rises. "n fact, a recent study conducted by TE9" (Tata Energy
9esearch "nstitute) found that the average speed in "ndian cities was as low as 45
$m;hour.
Ioing on for 7E% in "ndia, presently 9E// leads the mar$et of introducing and
mar$eting E%&s. comprehensive research has been made in this paper on it&s currently
mar$et available model of '9E%' in comparison with a general internal combustion
vehicle.
9E% is a battery electric vehicle designed for low speed, congested, urban conditions
and is classified as a quadricycle (category JBe) under -C and European law.
9E% is designed to be unique and stands out on the road as a genuine city car with a
mature e(pression. The advanced technologies used, ma$e it highly differentiated and
superior to other ma$es. "t has all the inherent benefits of an Electric /ar and is indeed a
revelation in city mobility. The 9E% model features have been tabulated as follows0
STAN!AR! S,ECI$ICATINS TEC+NICA# S,ECI$ICATINS
- door hatchbac.
$'lly a'to/atic 0 no cl'tch, no gear
T'beless tyres - Sa%es energy
Range o& 12 ./ per charge3
Costs only 42 paise per ./
5'ic. acceleration 2-42 ./6hr in 7 sec
!ent-proo& ABS body panels
Steel space &ra/e 8ith side i/pact bea/s
Type( T8o-door hatchbac.
,ayload( - Ad'lts 9 - Children (--7
.g*
Top Speed( 12 ./6h pl's
Charge Ti/e( 12: charge in -;<
ho'rs= >22: in 1 ho'rs
No gears
No cl'tches
A'to/atic
INTE?RATE! ,)ER S@STEA
!IAENSINS
Aotor( +igh torB'e (<- N/*, AC
Ind'ction /otor, C phase >C .) pea.
Controller( C<2 A/p, /icroprocessor based
8ith regenerati%e bra.ing
Charger( --2 V, -;- .), high $reB'ency
S8itch /ode type (optional >22->-2V*
EAS( Aicroprocessor-based battery
/anage/ent syste/
,o8er ,ac.( 41 V, -22 A/p-hr, EV lead
acid batteries
#ength( -DC1 //
)idth( >C-4 //
+eight( ><>2 //
?ro'nd
Clearance( ><2 //
)heel Base( >7>2 //
T'rning Radi's( C<2C //
C'rb )eight( 722 .g
"NI5"E $EAT"RES
,TINS
Aaintenance &ree AC /otor
+ill restraint &eat're
"niB'e boost /ode - ?i%es 42 :
/ore po8er
"pgradeable energy /anage/ent
syste/
Electronic regenerati%e bra.es
C! A,C player
Cli/ate control seats (CCS *
#eather seats, leather
8rapped steering
Central loc.ing syste/
Special scratch resistant
panels
AC 9 heater 8ith re/ote
pre-heat6pre-cool
C-Tiered sa&ety; Co/plete
protection to occ'pants
Boost /ode, 42: /ore
po8er
T'beless Tyres
,l'sh leather interiors;
Rear &oldable seats; Aore
l'ggage space
Variable ther/ostat
Re/ote controlled AC

The following paragraphs highlight the way this car is above par with the internal
combustion engines in many aspects and also provides all the facilities and comforts of
its opponent.
Easiest car to dri%e(
"t is a fully automatic (no clutch ' no gears), two'door hatchbac$, easily seats two adults
and two children. small turning radius of just <.H meters ma$es it easy to par$ and
maneuver in difficult city traffic conditions.
8riving the 9E% is easy. Eust unplug after completing the charging process, turn the
$ey, disengage the par$ing bra$e, and turn the control $nob to the forward (or reverse)
position. ccelerate and ta$e off.
Easy to charge(
"t runs on batteries and as compared to other Electric %ehicles has an onboard charger to
facilitate easy charging which can be carried out by plugging into any 6H mp soc$et at
home or wor$. s simple as charging a mobile phoneK The onboard charger ensures the
safety of the car in case of any voltage fluctuation or any electric spi$es. The auto cut off
mechanism ensures that the customer does not have to worry about overcharging or any
other issues related to charging.
full battery charge ta$es less than seven hours and gives a range of >5$m . "n quic$'
charge mode (two'and'a'half hours) >5? charge is attained, good enough for DH$m.
full charge consumes just about = units of electricity.
+igh e&&iciency and reliability(
"t is twice as efficient as a petrol driven vehicle and has an operating cost as low as A5
paisa ; $m.
n intelligent 2low battery. warning light and a fuel gauge allow easy estimation of
driving range and ensure that the user is not stranded.
#o8 /aintenance 6 easy ser%iceability(
9E% requires e(tremely low maintenance because of the minimum number of moving
parts.
@rom service point of view, advanced systems such as the two onboard computers and
remote diagnostic capabilities (carried out with the help of a !alm !ilot T3) enable quic$
vehicle analysis, prompt service and improve 9E%.s.
Rich $eat're
9E% is one of the most &eat're rich vehicles available in the mar$et. @eatures li$e the
/limate /ontrol 1eat (//1L) and 9emote /ontrolled ;/ have been especially
incorporated to improve passenger comfort at an affordable price.
remote hatch release lever allows opening of the rear hatch without the need for
stepping out, a rear foldable seat ma$es room for e(tra luggage and spacious map poc$ets
increase range of storage options.
Elevated seats and a wide door provide e(cellent ingress;egress especially for ladies in
saree and senior citi+ens.
+i-design(
The design methods and manufacturing philosophy used in 9E% allow it to be
manufactured cost effectively even at low volumes. 9E%.s modular design allows easy
up gradation and absorption of ne(t generation Electric %ehicle technologies.
?lobally Tested ,rod'ct REVA has been e(tensively tested and certified by the 9"
(utomotive 9esearch ssociation of "ndia) and received the EE/ (European Economic
/ommunity) /ertificate in 8ecember 455<, paving the way for an aggressive foray into
European mar$ets. 8esigned, mar$eted and used as a low speed urban commuter vehicle
the 9eva I')i+ has a safety record second to none, with over 45 million miles ; <4
million Cm driven by customers globally and over A,555 years of ownership with no
reported serious injuries. (as on may 455B).
The e(port model in Europe is classified as a quadricycle (category JBe) under European
law, it has received @ull E- Type approval, which means it meets all European
automotive mechanical and electrical standards governing emissions, safety and other
relevant factors.
Sa&ety
REVA ran$s high in terms of safety features
Jow voltage system0 9E% uses a low voltage system (A> %olts) that is very safe. 9E%
has non'user serviceable battery compartment with single point battery watering facility.
@ront ; 9ear "mpact0 The absence of an engine and other mechanical parts in the front,
facilitate a large crush +one in case of a frontal collision. The spare tyre, designed to be at
front, further helps in reducing impact.The special energy absorbing bumpers can
withstand impacts up to a speed of 65 $mph that far e(ceeds regulatory requirements,
retaining their original shape in low impact
COMARI!ON TO INTERNAL COMBU!TION ENGINE
7E%s have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles ("/E%).
Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of 7E%s in comparison to "/E%s.
Cost
Electric vehicles typical cost two to four cents per mile. "n contrast, gasoline'powered
/E%s currently cost about four to si( times as much. The total cost of ownership for
modern 7E%s depends primarily on the cost of the batteries.The cost of battery
manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost
hen 7E%s are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Thus
these are going to be proved as very economical in contrast to petrol driven vehicle in
near future.
8nership costs
:wnership costs for battery electric cars are higher than for their petrol or diesel
equivalents, primarily because their purchase price is higher to begin with "n the -C
other changes in ownership costs include vehicle e(cise duty or road ta(. Electric
vehicles are now e(empt and so 7E% owners will save around M655 per year compared
with an average conventional car.
R'nning costs
1ome running costs are significantly less for 7E%s than for conventional cars. "n
particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity ' fuel duty is
+ero'rated ' and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Ta$ing into account the
high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 6.5'4.Hp per
mile (depending on the tariff). #owever if the battery hire is considered a running cost,
then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost.
Aaintenance
E%s, particularly those using / or brushless 8/ motors, have far fewer mechanical
parts to wear out. n "/E vehicle on the other hand will have pistons, valves, camshafts,
cambelts, gearbo( and a clutch, all of which can wear out.7oth hybrids and E%s use
regenerative bra$ing, which greatly reduces wear and tear on friction bra$es ' !rius ta(i
drivers report far less frequent bra$e maintenance.
Acceleration per&or/ance
lthough some electric vehicles have very small motors, 45 hp or less and therefore have
modest acceleration, the relatively constant torque of an electric motor even at very low
speeds tends to increase the acceleration performance of an electric vehicle for the same
rated motor power
Electric vehicles can also utili+e a direct motor'to'wheel configuration which increases
the amount of available power. #aving multiple motors connected directly to the wheels
allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as bra$ing systems,
thereby increasing traction. gearless or single gear design in some 7E%s eliminates the
need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother
bra$ing. 7ecause the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational
speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during
acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. s there is no delay in
developing torque in an E%, E% drivers report generally high satisfaction with
acceleration.
@or e(ample, the %enturi @etish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest
<55 horsepower, and a top speed of around 655 miles per hour. 1ome 8/ motor'equipped
drag racer 7E%s, have simple two'speed transmissions to improve top speed. The Tesla
9oadster prototype can reach D5 mph in A seconds with a motor rated at 4A> hp.
Charging
7atteries in 7E%s must be periodically recharged. 7E%s most commonly charge from the
power grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated
from a variety of domestic resources, such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear and others.
#ome power such as roof top photovoltaic solar cell panels, microhydro or wind may
also be used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.
"n 455H, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept an
>5? charge in as little as D5 seconds.
N44O
1caling this specific power characteristic up to
the same B $ilowatt'hour E% pac$ would result in the need for a pea$ of <<D $ilowatts of
power from some source for those D5 seconds. "t is not clear that such batteries will wor$
directly in 7E%s as heat build'up may ma$e them unsafe.
"n 455B, ltairnano.s *ano1afe batteries are rechargeable in a few minutes, versus hours
required for other rechargeable batteries. *ano1afe cell can be charged to over >5?
charge capacity in about one minute.
Tra%el range be&ore recharging and trailers
Jead'acid batteries are the most available and ine(pensive. 1uch conversions
generally have a range of <5 to >5 $m (45 to H5 miles). !roduction E%s with lead'
acid batteries are capable of up to 6<5 $m (>5 miles) per charge.
*i3# batteries have higher energy density and may deliver up to 455 $m (645
miles) of range.
*ew lithium'ion battery'equipped Evs provide A55'H55 $m (4H5'<55 miles) of
range per charge.Jithium is also less e(pensive than nic$el.
V-?( 'ploading and grid b'&&ering
1mart grid allows 7E%s to provide power to the grid in anytime, specially0
8uring pea$ load periods, when the selling price of electricity can be very high.
These vehicles can then be recharged during off'pea$ hours at cheaper rates while
helping to absorb e(cess night time generation. #ere the vehicles serve as a
distributed battery storage system to buffer power.
8uring blac$outs, as bac$up.
Sa&ety
The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international
standard "1: DAD=. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues0
:n'board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery .
@unctional safety means and protection against failures .
!rotection of persons against electrical ha+ards.
IN N"TS+E##
7E%s reduce dependence on oil.
7E%s reduce dependence on price manipulated oil mar$ets.
7E%s reduce vehicle energy costs by up to =5?
7E%s are up to BH? energy efficient (with 9eIen) %1 as little as 6H? for a petrol
"/E powered car (inc. transmission losses)
7E%s have much more torque than an "/E (for a given power rating) and a flat
torque curve.
7E%s mitigate global warming.
7E%s are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles (Though in the newest
"/E vehicles, engines only account for a small fraction of the noise, most noise is
produced by tires and aerodynamics in an equal measure as 7E%s).
7E%s do not produce no(ious fumes.
7E%s can readily satisfy the needs for short trips and up to H55 $m with Ji'"on
and regeneration.
#ome recharging is more convenient than trips to gasoline stations.
o 7E%s can be recharged during regenerative bra$ing (by converting the
vehicle.s $inetic energy to chemical energy stored in the battery).
9echarging costs are more predictable than gas prices, and not subject to volatile
international incidents.
3aintenance such as oil changes, smog inspections (and their sometimes
e(pensive consequences), cooling fluid replacement, and periodic repair and
adjustments are reduced or completely eliminated, significantly reducing the cost
of ownership.
7E%s can be powered indirectly by home photovoltaics using net metering, which
offers advantages to both power producers and other grid users through pea$
demand satisfaction and to the E% user through cost reduction and load balancing,
especially with time of use net metering.
7E%s can provide power to a home in the case of a power outage if specially
equipped.
Even if powered by electricity from polluting coal plants, they are still far more
energy efficient than gasoline'powered cars.
"n case of an accident or during refueling no need to be worried about burning or
e(ploding gasoline.
7E%s are favorable to hydrogen vehicles because there is no need to invest in a
large scale system of hydrogen distribution;storage, and 7E%s have significantly
higher energy conversion efficiency than hydrogen electroli+ation cycles. The
electricity distribution system is already in place.
7E%s are powered by electricity, which can be produced from hydrocarbon,
nuclear, wind, hydro, fusion, and solar power.
CNC#"SIN
The current state of the automobile industry is simply e(periencing a shift due to
superseding technologies, as was the case when the automobile drove the production of
horse'drawn carriages, saddles, and buggy'whips into obscurity. @uture automobiles will
thus shift toward low'cost and low'maintenance items, compared to today.
The problem of energy supply for transport may be solved by choosing other energy
sources and for now 7attery electric vehicles emerge as a suitable solution. Though
7attery electric vehicles are not suited for every driving purpose, but they are very
efficient and emission free, economical and perfect for city transport, as it becomes
apparent from the arguments through the paper. )e&re sure to see more neighborhoods
commuter E%s and low speed E%s as the charging infrastructure develops and as
gasoline prices continue to soar.