A study involving the use of 15 male Coventry University Team Phoenix football players aged 18 to 21 in observing the effects of aerobic (50% heart rate reserve) and anaerobic exercise (90% heart rate reserve) on working memory performance, assessed using the "Digit Span" memory test, a modified version of the original Weschler (1945). Conducted over a period of two weeks to isolate the effects of exercise type on working memory. Heart rate was monitored using Solar heart monitor apparatus, and exercise was administered using h/p/cosmos Mercury treadmill and Woodway treadmill apparatus.
Achieved 72% in this project (First).
Original Title
'Effects of Exercise Intensity and Duration on Working Memory Capacity'
A study involving the use of 15 male Coventry University Team Phoenix football players aged 18 to 21 in observing the effects of aerobic (50% heart rate reserve) and anaerobic exercise (90% heart rate reserve) on working memory performance, assessed using the "Digit Span" memory test, a modified version of the original Weschler (1945). Conducted over a period of two weeks to isolate the effects of exercise type on working memory. Heart rate was monitored using Solar heart monitor apparatus, and exercise was administered using h/p/cosmos Mercury treadmill and Woodway treadmill apparatus.
Achieved 72% in this project (First).
A study involving the use of 15 male Coventry University Team Phoenix football players aged 18 to 21 in observing the effects of aerobic (50% heart rate reserve) and anaerobic exercise (90% heart rate reserve) on working memory performance, assessed using the "Digit Span" memory test, a modified version of the original Weschler (1945). Conducted over a period of two weeks to isolate the effects of exercise type on working memory. Heart rate was monitored using Solar heart monitor apparatus, and exercise was administered using h/p/cosmos Mercury treadmill and Woodway treadmill apparatus.
Achieved 72% in this project (First).
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE INTENSITY AND DURATION ON WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY
OMAR MATOO
A report published in the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, towards the degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours in Sport and Exercise Science, March 2014
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8. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Work...page 34
9. References...page 37
10. Appendices..page 39
11. Acknowledgements.page 44
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TABLES AND FIGURES Tables 4.1 - Descriptive results of mean group WM scores across exercise intensities and testing conditions..page 21
4.2 Descriptive results of mean group WM score differences between B IAE and B R testing conditions across exercise intensities.page 21
FIGURES 4.1 - Mean WM scores across exercise intensities and test conditionspage 22
4.2 - Mean WM score differences between B - IAE and B R testing conditions across exercise intensitiespage 23
4.3 - Individual WM test scores for 50% HRR exercise protocol...page 24
4.4 - Individual WM test scores for 90% HRR exercise protocolpage 25
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1. ABSTRACT Working memory (WM) is the ability to temporarily store and recall information (Baddeley, 1992). In regards to sports psychology, effects of submaximal intensity and high intensity exercise have been investigated (Coles and Tomporowski, 2008; McMorris et al. 2011; Sibley and Beilock, 2007; Dustman et al. 1984) to find if these have any significant effects on WM capacity. Working memory is assessed using a number of methods, including the Digit Span test (Weschler, 1945).This study aimed to investigate the effects of acute bouts of aerobic exercise undertaken at 50% heart rate reserve (HRR) and 90% HRR on WM capacity in a group of twelve male Coventry University Team Phoenix football players. Each participant completed baseline Digit Span tests, succeeded by a two-minute period of exercise at respective exercise intensities on treadmill apparatus (h/p/cosmos Mercury treadmill and Woodway treadmill). Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) (Borg, 1998) were taken alongside heart rate (HR) as secondary measures of physical exertion. Digit Span tests were administered following exercise cessation and again following a 20-minute recovery period. Repeated-measures ANOVA and Tukey post-hoc statistical analysis tests were performed to determine where any significant statistical differences lay within the dataset (P < 0.05). Working memory test scores improved across exercise intensity and durations, but statistical analysis demonstrated that such changes were statistically insignificant for 90% HRR testing protocol as opposed to50% HRR. Further research should be focussed on looking into the effects of high exercise intensity on WM capacity in more detail so as to find conclusive evidence of such effects. The present study supports the findings of current literature regarding the effects of moderate intensity exercise on WM capacity. Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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2. INTRODUCTION The concept of working memory (WM), which is the ability to temporarily store and recall information, has evolved from the idea that an exclusive unitary short-term memory system exists for the processing of information that is necessary for learning and reasoning (Baddeley, 1992). This is especially true for the acquisition of language (Gathercole and Baddeley, 1993), where working memory was found to influence the development of vocabulary, and both verbal and physical action (Baddeley 2007). However, the ability for individuals to utilise working memory suffers from a limited capacity, which means that information can only be stored for short periods of time (Baddeley and Hitch, 1975). A three- dimensional model outlining the components of WM was created by Baddeley and Hitch (1975). This model consists of the phonological loop (information received and retained through sound, constantly refreshed cognitively through the individuals ability to remember the information given), the visuo-spatial sketchpad (information taken in and retained visually) and the episodic buffer, which integrates the former two components, but can additionally store and retain information these components cannot, such as rhythm. These three components are supervised by the central executive, which delegates information to these components (Baddeley and Hitch, 1975; DEsposito et al. 1995).
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Working memory can be assessed using a number of different cognitive tests, one of which is the Digit Span test (Wechsler, 1945). However, as WM capacity is limited, research has been undertaken in order to find interventions which can be used to enhance this function.
In the context of sport psychology, WM capacity has been researched with relation to how exercise affects an individuals ability to utilise WM (Pontifex et al. 2009; Sibley and Beilock, 2007). It has been believed that physical activity has a beneficial impact on WM performance and capacity (Coles and Tomporowski, 2008; Pesce et al. 2009; McMorris et al. 2011; Sibley and Beilock, 2007; Dustman et al. 1984)). For example, Dustman et al. (1984) investigated the effect of an aerobic exercise training programme implemented over a four month period within sedentary 55-70 year old individuals. Working memory was assessed using a neuropsychological test battery, consisting of a series of Digit Span tests. Compared with a control group, aerobically trained individuals demonstrated an improvement after exercise on baseline Digit Span scores, thus indicating that exercise has an enhancing effect on WM (Dustman et al. 1984). Although this study provides a basis that there is a beneficial effect of aerobic exercise on WM capacity, the study does not account for effects on younger adults and children. Therefore, the study cannot be generalised to a younger population. It is important, then, that literature related to the effects of aerobic exercise on WM capacity in Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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younger adults is considered also.
Sibley and Beilock (2007) aimed to analyse the effects of exercise on WM using 48 undergraduate American college students. The participants were subjected to baseline exercise sessions, with the main testing session administered one week after. Exercise was conducted using treadmill apparatus, in which the participants engaged in maximal intensity training. Following exercise, the participants were then administered with WM tests. From the results attained, the participants were split into four quartiles: high WM, middle-high WM, middle-low WM and low WM groups. The results demonstrated that the use of a VO 2max exercise session preceding WM tests significantly improved results of the low WM group (P < 0.01), with mean WM test scores rising from 24 to 28. For the other three groups, however, no such enhancement was seen (P = 0.48). It was concluded, therefore, that exercise is beneficial to WM function for those with an initial low capacity to utilise working memory, thus providing a basis that individual difference is a key factor in determining how efficient exercise is in enhancing WM capacity.
An additional study by Pontifex et al. (2009) investigated the effects of three different modes of exercise (acute aerobic exercise [VO 2max ], acute moderate aerobic exercise and Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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acute resistance training) on WM capacity of 21 undergraduate students. Pontifex and colleagues administered a modified version of the Digit Span test, known as the Sternberg task (Sternberg, 1966), which uses letters in place of numbers, before, immediately after and 30-minutes following exercise for each training condition to compare differences in result variance. Results revealed that WM test results following acute aerobic VO 2max exercise bouts were significantly lower when compared with results from baseline tests. Working memory tests administered following acute bouts of resistance training had no significant effect on results, whereas following moderate intensity aerobic exercise bouts seemed to enhance WM capacity, improving results compared to baseline administration. Pontifex et al. (2009) thus conclude that a pivotal factor that determines the ability to utilise WM effectively, and in some cases to enhance WM performance, is the type of exercise that is undertaken. Furthermore, the results also seem to indicate that exercise intensity may also be a key factor. As can be seen, maximal aerobic training and resistance training, which are forms of high intensity training, were responsible for drastic decreases in WM test scores (Pontifex et al. 2009). Moderate aerobic exercise, on the other hand, facilitated an improvement in WM performance and capacity, which supports the findings of the studies mentioned previously (Dustman et al. 1984; Sibley and Beilock, 2007). However, differences in WM test scores as a result of changes in exercise intensity were found to be less significant (P > 0.05) than the Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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effect that mode of exercise had on WM capacity (Pontifex et al. 2009), and consequently further research is required in this area. This study will be undertaken in with the aim of expanding on the current literature with relation to whether exercise intensity does have a significant effect on WM capacity.
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3. AIMS, OBJECTIVES & HYPOTHESES 3.1 Aim The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two different exercise intensities (50% heart rate reserve [HRR] and 90% HRR) on WM capacity.
3.2 Objectives To measure heart rate reserve (HRR) during rest, and to monitor changes of
resting HRR during exercise for both intensities.
To assess WM capacity using the Digit Span (Weschler, 1945) test before exercise,
immediately after exercise and following a 20 minute recovery period succeeding
exercise.
To perform statistical analysis of results to see if any differences that exist from
exercise on WM test scores are significant.
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3.3 Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Acute moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (50% HRR) will increase WM capacity immediately after exercise and following a 20 minute recovery period.
Hypothesis 2: Exercise undertaken at 90% HRR will decrease WM capacity immediately after exercise, but not after a 20 minute recovery period.
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4. MATERIALS & METHODS 4.1 Participants Fifteen male footballers (n = 18-24 years old; mean age = 20 1.48 years) who are members of the Coventry University Team Phoenix football club were recruited. All participants were recruited via the president of the football club, a formal collaborator within the project. Prior to experimentation and in keeping with the ethics policy set by Coventry University, consent forms (see Appendix 2) and Standard Departmental Health Screen forms (see Appendix 4) were signed by each participant to ensure suitability for testing; in addition, these documents were approved by a moderator. Participants were notified of the nature of the study via participant information sheets and verbal instruction, and were made aware that they had the right to withdraw from participation. An ethics form was completed, sent to and authorised by the Coventry University Ethics Committee,
As this study involved the use of treadmill apparatus, physical harm and injury posed a potential danger. In order to avoid unnecessary injury or accidents, participants were briefed on how to use the equipment properly at the beginning of each session.
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4.2 Measures
4.2.1 Physiological Heart rate reserve (HRR) is the difference between an individuals predicted maximal heart rate and their resting heart rate (Swain and Leutholtz, 1997). This was calculated for each subject for both exercise protocols using the following equation:
220 age resting heart rate (RHR) x (HRR percentage) + RHR (Tanaka, Monahan and Seals, 2001).
Polar heart rate monitor apparatus was used to track HR. Changes in these readings were monitored during and after exercise in order to observe the effect that exercise on HRR had on working memory capacity.
Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) are used as an indicator of physical activity intensity, and according to Borg (1998), RPE values serve as an estimate of heart rate during physical activity, and so may correlate with changes in HRR that may be demonstrated during exercise. RPE was measured using the Borg scale, which incorporates a scale of 6 (no exertion) to 20 (maximal exertion) (Borg, 1998).
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4.2.2 Psychological Working memory capacity was assessed using the Digit Span test (Wechsler, 1945) (see Appendix 3). This test involves reading out a sequence of three, five or seven numbers consecutively, which the participant would attempt to remember and recite thirty seconds following the recollection phase. Each number sequence condition consisted of two trials (see Appendix 3). Following an incorrect recitation of one number sequence trial, WM test administration ceased.
4.3 Procedure The study was undertaken in a laboratory setting. To ensure the environment was suitable for testing, the laboratory was checked for hazards prior to each session. Health screen checks (see Appendix 4) were performed on each participant to ensure suitability for experimentation. The study involved each participant partaking in two separate sessions, each following different protocols so that the effects of exercise intensity and duration on WM capacity could be seen across two separate trial conditions.
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4.4 Testing Period
4.4.1 Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted one week prior to the commencement of the testing period for familiarisation of equipment handling and usage, and protocol administration. One member of the research group undertook 90% HRR testing protocol. Problems were experienced with Polar heart monitor apparatus. This was promptly addressed in order to avoid similar occurrences during the course of the data collection period. Pilot studies are seen as an effective measure in terms of reducing human error as a result of test implementation prior to undertaking preliminary data collection (Reason, 2000.)
4.4.2 Session 1 Baseline HRR was recorded using Polar heart monitor apparatus. Immediately following this, a Digit Span test was performed to determine baseline (B) WM capacity. A two minute period of acute aerobic exercise at 50% HRR aerobic exercise was then undertaken by participants using treadmill apparatus (h/p/cosmos Mercury treadmill and Woodway treadmill) . RPE was taken using the Borg scale (Borg, 1998) at every two minute interval during exercise before 50% HRR was reached, where participants then trained at a constant intensity for two additional minutes. Immediately after this period (within one minute following exercise), the Digit Span test was administered (IAE). A final Digit Span Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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test was administered following a 20-minute recovery period (RAE).
Prior to the commencement of session 1 testing protocol, three of the 15 participants withdrew their consent for participation in the study.
4.4.3 Session 2 Baseline Digit Span tests were administered prior to the undertaking of acute aerobic exercise at 90% HRR. Ratings of perceived exertion, as for the previous session, was taken alongside HR at every two minute interval of exercise until 90% HRR was reached, where participants again trained at a constant intensity for an additional two minutes. Digit Span tests were again, administered following the immediate cessation of exercise, with a final Digit Span test administration following a 20-minute period of recovery after exercise cessation.
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4.5 Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics for means and standard deviations (SD) of group WM scores were calculated using Microsoft Excel. IBM SPSS Statistics 20 (IBM; New York, USA) was used to carry out two-way repeated-measures ANOVA tests to determine differences within WM scores between the two different exercise intensities. Tukey Post-hoc tests were conducted to determine if any significant statistical differences lay within the data sets in regards exercise intensity, duration and trial condition.
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5. RESULTS Descriptive statistics of WM test scores across exercise intensities and test conditions are displayed in table 4.1, and descriptive statistics mean group score differences across exercise intensities and testing conditions are displayed in table 4.2. Mean WM test scores across exercise intensities and test conditions, and the mean test score differences between B and IAE (B IAE) conditions and B and RAE conditions (B RAE) are displayed in figures 4.1 and 4.2 respectively. Individual test scores for 50% HRR exercise protocol and 90% HRR exercise protocol are displayed in figure 4.3 and figure 4.4 respectively.
Mean group WM test scores across both exercise protocols increased with successive Digit Span test administrations (see Table 4.1; Figure 4.1). During testing for 50% HRR exercise protocol, IAE Digit Span test administration resulted in 58% of participants greater WM test scores in comparison with B WM test scores (see Figure 4.1). Three participants, however, achieved a lower WM score in the IAE condition as opposed to B during 50% HRR exercise protocol (see Figure 4.3). Statistically significant mean group WM test scores were observed between test scores in the B condition and RAE condition (P = 0.001) (see Table 4.1). Test administration during the RAE condition demonstrated an increase of +2 in mean group WM test scores in comparison with B WM test administration (see Table 4.1; Table 4.2), with 68% Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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of participants achieving a greater WM score in the RAE test administration condition. Further score improvements were observed between WM tests administered in the RAE condition as opposed to the IAE condition (see Figure 4.1; Figure 4.2; Figure 4.3). One participant in the RAE test condition, however, did achieve a lower test score as opposed to IAE WM test administration (see Figure 4.3).
Working memory test scores at 90% HRR exercise protocol between B and IAE conditions were higher as opposed to 50% HRR exercise protocol B and IAE WM test scores (see Table 4.1; Figure 4.1; Table 4.2; Figure 4.2), with an increase of +1 for both test conditions. This increase in mean group WM test scores across the B and IAE test conditions from 50% HRR testing protocol to 90% HRR testing protocol as a result were statistically significant (P = 0.07). One participant, however, achieved a lower WM score in the IAE condition as opposed to the B condition (see Figure 4.4). There was a small improvement in WM test scores between the IAE test condition and the RAE condition (see Table 4.1). Only three subjects within the R test condition during 90% HRR exercise protocol achieved higher WM test scores as opposed to B and IAE test conditions. In addition, 90% HRR protocol mean group WM test score in the RAE condition, interestingly, was significantly lower than 50% HRR protocol mean group RAE condition WM test score (P = 0.02) (see Table 4.1; Figure 4.1). Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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Standard deviation of results across test conditions and exercise intensity protocol were consistent (see Figure 4.1).
A statistical significance was observed in group means for differences in B - IAE test scores, and B - RAE test scores (see Table 4.2; Figure 4.2) (P = 0.08). Greatest improvements in WM test scores across exercise intensities occurred between B - RAE test administrations (see Figure 4.2). A significant increase in WM test scores between these two conditions were observed for 50% HRR exercise protocol testing (see Figure 4.1) (P = 0.001). Improvements in results for these test conditions for 90% HRR exercise protocol testing compared to 50% HRR were statistically insignificant (P = 0.3). While differences between B IAE WM test score differences were exactly the same across both exercise protocols (see Table 4.2; Figure 4.2), the differences between B RAE WM test scores were significantly higher at 50% HRR protocol compared with 90% HRR (P = 0.03). (see Table 4.2; Figure 4.2).
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Table 4.1 - Descriptive results of mean group WM scores across exercise intensities and testing conditions
Table 4.2 Descriptive results of mean group WM score differences between B IAE and B R testing conditions across exercise intensities
Baseline (B) Immediately after Exercise (I AE) 20 minutes recovery (RAE) 50% HRR 7.33 1.78 8.17 2.04 9.33 1.78 90% HRR 8.33 1.87 9.17 1.99 9.25 2.45 B - I AE B - RAE 50% HRR 0.83 1.59 2 0.94 90% HRR 0.83 1.48 0.92 1.24 Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 Baseline Immediately After Exercise 20 Minutes Recovery M e a n
W M
S c o r e
Test Condition 50% HRR 90% HRR
Fig 4.1 Mean WM scores across exercise intensities and test conditions Data shown as mean SD ( = significant value [P =0.07], = significant value [P = 0.02]), = significant value [P = 0.001])
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0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 Baseline - Immediately After Exercise Baseline - 20 Minute Recovery W M
S c o r e
D i f f e r e n c e s
Condition 50% HRR 90% HRR
Fig 4.2 Mean WM score differences between B - IAE and B RAE testing conditions across exercise intensities Data shown as mean SD ( = significant value [P = 0.08], = significant value [P = 0.03])
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Figure 4.4 Individual WM test scores for 90% HRR exercise protocol
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6. DISCUSSION The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of exercise intensity on WM capacity. Results demonstrate that mean group WM test scores for B, IAE and RAE test administrations improved across both testing protocols (see Table 4.1; Table 4.2).
Working memory test administrations for IAE conditions at50% HRR and 90% HRR testing protocols resulted in greater group mean WM test scores in comparison with B WM test administration scores. While the results seem to concur with the findings of Pontifex et al. (2009) with relation to the effects of acute bouts of moderate intensity aerobic exercise, the findings seem to suggest the contrary in relation to the effects of acute bouts of higher intensity aerobic exercise as opposed to the findings presented by Pontifex and colleagues. It is important to note that the sample used by Pontifex et al. (2009) did not consist of athletes, as was the sample used in this study, but rather undergraduate students. Smith et al. (2010) observed that aerobically trained individuals as a result of exercise experienced improvements in attention, processing speed, executive function and memory. Pontifex et al. (2009) expand on this, stating that aerobic exercise facilitates the release of biochemicals, such as serotonin, which aids in neural proliferation: the development of brain structure and capacity (Kramer, Erickson and Colcombe, 2006; Wu et al. 2008). In addition, this phenomena has been reported to occur especially as a result of undertaking exercise on a Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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treadmill (Wu et al. 2008). Undertaking acute bouts of aerobic exercise on a cycle ergometer has been found, in comparison with exercise undertaken on a treadmill, to have a much lesser beneficial impact on WM capacity (Sibley and Beilock, 2007).Dustman et al. (1984) supported Smith and colleagues findings, observing that the use of an aerobic exercise training programme had a significant enhancing effect on WM capacity in a group of sedentary 55-70 year olds in comparison to a control group. Furthermore, McAllister et al. (2006) propose that in individuals with high levels of fitness, executive functions within the hippocampus (site of neurogenesis and neural proliferation) can be more readily maintained or enhanced, thus benefiting ability to utilise WM. The study therefore, along with the findings of Smith et al. (2010), Dustman et al. (1984) and McCallister et al. (2006) provides a basis that aerobically trained individuals benefit from an enhanced WM capacity following bouts of acute aerobic exercise at various intensities. The study also demonstrates that the use of exercise as an intervention in helping to enhance WM capacity does not only work for the elderly population as shown by Dustman et al. (1984), but can also be used to help improve WM capacity in young adults.
However, in the present study it was found that across both testing protocols, the highest group mean WM test scores were achieved in RAE WM test administrations (see Table 4.1). Significant improvements in group mean WM test scores were observed between these Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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conditions for 50% HRR testing protocol (P = 0.001) (see Table 4.1; Figure 4.1), with test scores increasing by +2 from B RAE test administrations (see Table 4.2). These results are supported through research carried out previously in this area (Pontifex et al. 2009), who also found that bouts of moderate intensity exercise had an enhancing effect on WM capacity. The results therefore provide evidence that undertaking acute bouts of aerobic exercise at 50% HRR helped enhance WM capacity as opposed to B WM test administration. In addition, WM capacity was further enhanced following a recovery period succeeding cessation of exercise, thus hypothesis 1 can be accepted.
During 90% HRR testing protocol, mean WM group scores for B and IAE Digit Span test administrations were significantly(P = 0.07) higher than mean group scores at 50%. (see Figure 4.1) It has been established that aerobically trained athletes experience enhancements in WM capacity following acute aerobic exercise regardless of the intensity it is undertaken (Smith et al. 2010; Dustman et al. 1984). In the present study, mean group WM test scores were again highest for RAE test administration. However, when compared with the change in scores that occurred between IAE RAE test administrations across exercise intensities, there was a much more significant improvement in mean group WM test scores at 50% HRR compared with 90% HRR (IAE R test score difference at 50% HRR = +1.16; IAE RAE test score difference at 90% HRR = +0.08) (P = 0.02) (see Figure 4.1). Consequently, the Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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results of this study demonstrates that recovery only results in significant WM capacity enhancement when it succeeds an acute bout of exercise at moderate intensity. Although it was observed that a 20-minute recovery period helped enhance WM capacity following acute bouts of exercise undertaken at 90% HRR, the contrary was reported in relation to hypothesis 2 regarding the effects of WM capacity immediately following exercise, thus hypothesis 2 can be rejected.
However, the study did not account for possible occurrences of learning effects within participants as a result of not implementing a testing protocol incorporating random allocation of participants to testing conditions to avoid such effects (Gaito, 1961). It should also be noted that the number sequences used for the Digit Span test across the two sessions remained the same for each session, which may have also contributed to the improvement of WM test scores as a result of learning effects, rather than as a result of changes in exercise intensity and duration. Therefore, in order to truly see if exercise duration and intensity had an effect on WM capacity, mean group score differences across B IAE test administrations and B RAE test administrations were also analysed.
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Figure 4.2 shows that the difference between B IAE test administration scores at 50% HRR and 90% HRR remained the same (0.83), but significant differences can be seen between 50% HRR and 90% HRR for differences in B RAE WM test administrations. Improvements in WM scores across B RAE test administrations at 50% HRR were significantly higher when compared with WM score differences for B R test administrations at 90% HRR (P = 0.03) (Figure 4.2). Pesce et al. (2009) compared the effects of submaximal intensity aerobic circuit training and higher intensity exercise on WM capacity in pre-adolescents, and also found that while higher intensity exercise did help enhance WM capacity, greater enhancements were found following the completion of submaximal intensity aerobic circuit training. It has been reasoned that while aerobic exercise does help enhance WM capacity via the release of biochemicals promoting neurogenesis, increasing the intensity of aerobic exercise can have a negative impact, by decreasing brain glucose uptake, forcing the brain to take in lactate to compensate for this loss (Kemppainen et al. 2005). This occurrence has been found to significantly hamper the ability to utilise WM, and can continue to occur following exercise cessation depending on how excessive the rate of brain lactate accumulation is in relation to rate of brain lactate removal (Dienel and Hertz, 2001; Zhao et al. 2004). Excessive lactate uptake by the brain has been reported to contribute to the abolishment of WM capacity, and in some cases where this occurrence is prevalent across Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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the life course of an individual, can negatively affect long-term memory function, resulting in the onset of psychological conditions such as amnesia (Suzuki et al. 2011).This may provide an explanation for why differences between mean WM group score differences between B RAE test administrations at 90% HRR were minimal in comparison with the same conditions at 50% HRR (Figure 4.2). This study, therefore, demonstrates that WM capacity is enhanced more significantly as a result of recovery following an acute bout of aerobic exercise at 50% HRR, whereas a recovery period following an acute bout of aerobic exercise at 90% HRR is has a less significant positive impact on WM capacity. It has been noted, however, that there is not enough literature focussing on the effects of high intensity exercise on WM capacity, and thus more research is needed in this area (McMorris et al. 2011).
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7. CONCLUSION The study investigated the effects of exercise duration and intensity on WM capacity and performance. In conclusion, WM capacity improved across testing conditions for both exercise protocols, but a key finding was that improvements in score differences across testing conditions for 50% HRR testing protocol were more significant than the improvements seen in WM capacity across testing conditions for 90% HRR testing protocol. This may be due to the complex physiological interactions of biochemicals and metabolic changes which occur in the hippocampal region of the brain - an essential component of the brain with respects the development of brain structure and function (Galea et al. 2000; McAllister et al. 2006) - as a result of increased exercise intensity. As stated previously, however, there is a lack of existing literature to support the studys findings that higher exercise intensity facilitates a less positive effect on WM capacity as opposed to submaximal aerobic activity (McMorris et al. 2011). This provides a platform, therefore, for further research to be undertaken in this area to establish a definitive explanation regarding the effects of high intensity exercise on WM capacity. The study, along with previous research, also demonstrates that aerobically trained individuals may benefit from WM enhancement after aerobic exercise due to enhanced cognitive function (Pontifex et al. 2009; Smith et al. 2010; Dustman et al. 1984; McAllister et al. 2006). It is also significant to note that, as Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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previous research focussed heavily on the elderly population, this study provides a degree of evidence that exercise can also help to facilitate enhancements in WM capacity within younger adults.
There may be further applications, however, for future research to focus on the effects that exercise intensity and duration has on older adults in comparison with younger adults, to determine if there are any age-significant differences to exercise on WM capacity, rather than just looking at these populations exclusively,
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8. LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK The main limitation of this study was that learning effects were not taken into account, as a protocol involving the random allocation of subjects to the two testing protocols was not implemented (Gaito, 1961). As results centred on the improvement of WM test scores overtime across testing conditions and exercise protocols may have been negatively impacted by learning effects and the absence of counterbalancing, analysis of mean group score differences between B IAE and B RAE testing conditions across exercise intensities were also undertaken to determine if exercise duration and intensity had any effect on WM capacity (Table 4.2). In order to avoid such discrepancies in future, implementation of counterbalancing can be done to ensure participants do not score highly depending on their ability to remember the task they are undertaking and the sequence of numbers that have been relayed to them. It may also be possible to implement a blind testing procedure into the experimental design so that participants are not aware of the trials that they will forego, and thus cannot anticipate the testing conditions in which they will undertake. An additional problem linked to those outlined as previous were that the same number sequences were used across each WM test trial for both exercise protocols. This may have skewed results as a result of participants remembering the sequence of numbers from previous test administrations, and so WM scores may have improved regardless of exercise intensity and Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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duration . In order to overcome this, the use of number sequences with different number patterns may be used to ensure learning effects do not have a significant effect on WM scores as opposed to the independent variables.
Another limitation may have been that on certain days of testing, the participants were due for training sessions later on in the day and may not have exerted themselves at the appropriate levels that were required of them in relation to the exercise training protocol. This may further skew results, as not reaching the necessary training zone, especially in relation to 90% HRR protocol, may have helped them to recall number sequences better than if they had reached their zone due to lack of mental and physical fatigue. In order to overcome this in future, it would be wise to change the days and time of the day in which testing commences for participants. This may not only make it more convenient for participants to be able to produce more effort during testing, but it may allow participants to do this also by carrying out testing at a time where their individual Circadian rhythms coincides with the time in which they are able to produce maximal physical effort (Smith, Guilleminault and Efron, 1997).
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As highlighted in the conclusion, further research would focus on the effects of high exercise intensities on WM capacity. From these findings, it could then be concluded whether high intensity exercise does contribute towards a less effective WM capacity after a period of recovery as opposed to submaximal exercise intensities. Further research may also be focussed on the differences between age-specific responses to exercise on WM capacity, which may expand on the findings from research done looking at age-specific responses separately.
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9. REFERENCES Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science. 255 (5044), 556-559. Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working Memory, Thought and Action. Oxford University Press. Baddeley, A. D., Hitch, G. J. (1975). Working memory. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation. 8, 47-89. Borg, G. (1998). Borgs Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL. Coles, K., Tomporowski, P. D. (2008). Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (3), 333-344. DEsposito, M., Detre, J. A., Alsop, D. C., Shin, R. K., Atlas, S., Grossman, M. (1995). The neural basis of the central executive system of working memory. Nature. 378 (6554), 279- 281. Dienel, G. A., Hertz, L. (2001). Glucose and lactate metabolism during brain activation. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 66 (5), 824-838. Dustman, R. E., Ruhling, R. O., Russell, E. M., Shearer, D. E., Bonekat, H. W., Shigeoka, J. W., Bradford, D. C. (1984). Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals. Neurobiology of Aging. 5 (1), 35-42. Galea, L. A., Ormerod, B. K., Sampath, S., Kostaras, X., Wilkie, D. M., Phelps, M. T. (2000). Spatial working memory and hippocampal size across pregnancy in rats. Hormones and Behavior. 37 (1), 86-95. Gaito, J. (1961). Repeated measurements designs and counterbalancing. Psychological Bulletin. 58 (1), 46. Gathercole, S. E., Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working Memory and Language. Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Kemppainen, J., Aalto, S., Fujimoto, T., Kalliokoski, K. K., Langsjo, J., Oikonen, V., Knuuti, J. (2005). High intensity exercise decreases brain glucose uptake in humans. The Journal of Physiology. 568 (1), 323-332. Kramer, A. F., Erickson, K. I., Colcombe, S. J. (2006). Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain. Journal of Applied Physiology. 101 (4), 1237-1242. McAllister, T. W., Flashman, L. A., McDonald, B. C., Saykin, A. J. (2006). Mechanisms of working memory dysfunction after mild and moderate TBI: evidence from functional MRI and neurogenetics. Journal of Neurotrauma. 23 (10), 1450-1467. Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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McMorris, T., Sproule, J., Turner, A., Hale, B. J. (2011). Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: a meta-analytical comparison of effects. Physiology & Behavior.102 (3), 421-428. Pesce, C, Crova, C., Cereatti, L., Casella, R., Bellucci, M. (2009). Physical activity and mental performance in preadolescents: Effects of acute exercise on free-recall memory. Mental Health and Physical Activity. 2 (1), 16-22. Pontifex, M., Hillman, C., Fernhall, B., Thompson, K., Valentini, T. (2009). The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine + Science in Sports + Exercise. 41 (4), 927. Reason, J. (2000). Human error: models and management. British Medical Journal. 320 (7237), 768-770. Sibley, B. A., Beilock, S. L. (2007). Exercise and working memory: An individual differences investigation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. 29 (6), 783-791. Smith, P. J., Blumenthal, J. A., Hoffman, B. M., Cooper, H., Strautman, T. A., Welsh- Bohmer, K., Sherwood, A. (2010). Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychosomatic Medicine. 72 (3), 239- 252. Smith, R. S., Guilleminault, C., Efron, B. (1997). Sports, sleep and Circadian rhythms Orcadian rhythms and enhanced athletic performance in the National football league. Sleep. 20 (5), 362-365. Sternberg, S. (1966). High-speed scanning in human memory. Science. 153 (3736), 652- 654. Swain, D. P., Leutholtz, B. C. (1997). Heart rate reserve is equivalent to% VO 2 reserve, not to% VO 2max . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29 (3), 410-414. Suzuki, A., Stem, S. A., Bozdagi, O., Huntley, G. W., Walker, R. H., Magistretti, P. J., Alberini, C. M. (2011). Astrocyte-neuron lactate transport is required for long-term memory formation. Cell. 144 (5), 810-823. Tanaka, H., Monahan, K. D., Seals, D. R. (2001). Age-predicted maximal heart rate revisited. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 37 (1), 153-156. Wecshler, D. (1945). A standardized memory scale for clinical use. The Journal of Psychology. 19 (1), 87-95. Wu, C. W., Chang, Y. T., Yu, L., Chen, H. I., Jen, C. J., Wu, S. Y., Kuo, Y. M. (2008). Exercise enhances the proliferation of neural stem cells and neurite growth and survival of neuronal progenitor cells in dentate gyrus of middle-aged mice. Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (5), 1585-1594. Zhao, W. Q., Chen, H., Quon, M. J., Alkon, D. L. (2004). Insulin and the insulin receptor in experimental models of learning and memory. European Journal of Pharmacology. 490 (1), 71-81. Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
INFORMED CONSENT FORM UNDERGRADUATE AND TAUGHT POST GRADUATE STUDENT PROJECTS DEPARTMENT OF BIOMOLECULAR AND SPORT SCIENCES The effects of exercise intensity and duration on working memory capacity Omar Matoo Working memory is the ability to temporarily store and recall information. This can be tested by using the Digit Span test, which involves giving someone a sequence of 3 numbers which they must memorise and then recite 30 seconds after they have been given said numbers. The aim of our study is to observe the effects of two different exercise intensities (50% HRR and 90% HRR) and exercise duration on working memory performance and capacity.
Please initial 1. I confirm that I have read and understood the participant information sheet for the above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions
2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at anytime without giving a reason
3. I understand that all the information I provide will be treated in confidence and only disclosed to people detailed on the Participant Information Sheet
4. I agree to take part in the research project
Name of participant: ____________________ Signature of participant: _________________________
Date: _____________
Name of Researcher:________________________ Signature of researcher: __________________________ Date:___________________________ A CONSENT FORM MUST BE SIGNED BY ALL PARTICIPANTS BEFORE THEY TAKE PART IN THE STUDY AND THE SIGNED FORMS MUST BE SUBMITTED BY STUDENTS AT THE END OF THEIR PROJECT
Appendix 2 Informed consent form
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Appendix 3 Digit Span test sheet Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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Appendix 4 Standard Departmental Health Screen form Omar Matoo 313SPO Psychology Dissertation Word Count: 5257
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11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Jehovah God for His continued blessings and His strength. Without Him, my faith and my beliefs, I know I would not be where I am today.
Secondly, I would like to thank my project supervisor, Mike Smith, and Mike Duncan for the guidance that they have given me across the duration of this project.
Thirdly, I would like to thank Luke McDonald and Nicholas Walker, my co-researchers, for their help and assistance throughout the entirety of the testing period
Fourthly, I would like to thank the members of Coventry University Team Phoenix male football club who gave their time and effort to participate in this study.
Lastly, but not least, I would like to thank all my friends (inside and outside of university) and my family for their encouragement, especially through the past year. Without them and their support, it would have been near impossible to have seen out the remaining year. I am forever grateful for all your support.