SYNTAX OF 8086/8088 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

The language is not case sensitie!

The"e #a$ %e onl$ one state#ent &e" line! A state#ent #a$ sta"t in an$ colu#n!
A state#ent is eithe" an inst"uction' (hich the asse#%le" t"anslates into #achine co)e' o" an asse#%le"
)i"ectie *&seu)o+o&,' (hich inst"ucts the asse#%le" to &e"-o"# so#e s&eci-ic tas.!
S$nta/ o- a state#ent0
1na#e2 #ne#onic 1o&e"an)*s,2 13 co##ent2
*a, The cu"l$ %"ac.ets in)icate those ite#s that a"e not &"esent o" a"e o&tional in so#e state#ents!
*%, The na#e -iel) is use) -o" inst"uction la%els' &"oce)u"e na#es' seg#ent na#es' #ac"o na#es' na#es o-
a"ia%les' an) na#es o- constants!
*c, MASM 6!4 acce&ts i)enti-ie" na#es u& to 567 cha"acte"s long! All cha"acte"s a"e signi-icant' (he"eas
un)e" MASM 8!4' na#es a"e signi-icant to 94 cha"acte"s onl$! Na#es #a$ consist o- lette"s' )igits' an)
the -ollo(ing 6 s&ecial cha"acte"s0 ? . @ _ $ % !:- a &e"io) is use)3 it #ust %e the -i"st cha"acte"!
Na#es #a$ not %egin (ith a )igit!
*), :nst"uction #ne#onics' )i"ectie #ne#onics' "egiste" na#es' o&e"ato" na#es an) othe" (o")s a"e
"ese"e)!
S$nta/ o- an inst"uction0
1la%el02 #ne#onic 1o&e"an) 1 ' o&e"an)2 2 13 co##ent2
The cu"l$ %"ac.ets in)icate those ite#s that a"e not &"esent o" a"e o&tional in so#e inst"uctions! Thus an
inst"uction #a$ hae ;e"o' one' o" t(o o&e"an)s!
O&e"ato"s0
The 8086/8088 Asse#%l$ language has a nu#%e" o- o&e"ato"s! An o&e"ato" acts on an o&e"an) o" o&e"an)s to
&"o)uce a alue at asse#%l$ ti#e! E/a#&les a"e0 < ' + ' =' / ' >U?' an) OFFSET
@o##ents0
A se#icolon sta"ts a co##ent! A co##ent #a$ -ollo( a state#ent o" it #a$ %e on a se&a"ate line! Multi&le+
line co##ents can %e ("itten %$ using the @OMMENT )i"ectie! The s$nta/ is0
@OMMENT delimiter 1co##ent2
co##ent
. . .
delimiter 1 co##ent 2
(he"e )eli#ite" is an$ non+%lan. cha"acte" not a&&ea"ing in co##ent! The cu"l$ %"ac.ets in)icate an ite#
that is o&tional!
e!g!'
@OMMENT =
This &"og"a# -in)s
the #a/i#u# ele#ent in a %$te a""a$
=

Nu#%e"s0
*a, A %ina"$ nu#%e" is su--i/e) %$ % o" B!
e!g!' 44040444B
*%, A )eci#al nu#%e" is su--i/e) %$ an o&tional ) o" >!
e!g!' 65) +55> 9878
*c, A he/a)eci#al nu#%e" #ust %egin (ith a )eci#al )igit an) it is su--i/e) %$ h o" A
e!g!' 50A 0%F5Ah
4
@ha"acte"s0
A cha"acte" is enclose) in a &ai" o- single Buotes o" in a &ai" o- )ou%le Buotes!
e!g!' C/D EBF
St"ings0
A st"ing is enclose) in a &ai" o- single Buotes o" in a &ai" o- )ou%le Buotes!
e!g!' CENTEG YOUG NAME0 D
ETAE MAX:MUM HALUE :S F
CO#a" shoute)' Ehel& IF D
Esa$' ChelloD F
EO#a"Ds %oo.sF
Fo" a st"ing )eli#ite) %$ single Buotes' a &ai" o- consecutie single Buotes stan)s -o" a single Buote!
e!g!' CO#a"D Ds %oo.sD
>ata )e-inition
Each a"ia%le has a )ata t$&e an) is assigne) a #e#o"$ a))"ess %$ the &"og"a#! The )ata+)e-ining )i"ecties
a"e0
Directive >esc"i&tion o- :nitiali;e"s
BYTE' DB *%$te, Allocates unsigne) nu#%e"s -"o# 0 to 588!
SBYTE *signe) %$te, Allocates signe) nu#%e"s -"o# J458 to <457!
WORD, DW *(o") K 5 %$tes, Allocates unsigne) nu#%e"s -"o#
0 to 68'898 *66L,!
SWORD *signe) (o"), Allocates signe) nu#%e"s -"o#
J95'768 to <95'767!
DWORD, DD *)ou%le(o") K 6 %$tes,' Allocates unsigne) nu#%e"s -"o#
0 to 6'5M6'M67'5M8 *6 #ega%$tes,!
SDWORD *signe) )ou%le(o"), Allocates signe) nu#%e"s -"o#
J5'467'689'668 to <5'467'689'667!
e!g!' AL?AA >B 6
HAG4 >B N
AGGAY4 >B 60A' 98A' 60A' 90A
HAG5 >O 9AB6h
AGGAY5 >O 800' 686' 700' 600' 600
?GOM?T >B CENTEG YOUG NAME PD
?O:NTEG4 >> 6BA7000AA
A ? in &lace o- an initiali;e" in)icates $ou )o not "eBui"e the asse#%le" to initiali;e the a"ia%le! The
asse#%le" allocates the s&ace %ut )oes not ("ite in it! Use ? -o" %u--e" a"eas o" a"ia%les $ou" &"og"a# (ill
initiali;e at "un ti#e!
intege" BYTE 46
negint SBYTE +46
e/&"ession OOG> 6=9
signe)e/& SOOG> 6=9
e#&t$ QOOG> N 3 Allocate uninitiali;e) long int
BYTE 4'5'9'6'8'6 3 :nitiali;e si/ unna#e) %$tes
long >OOG> 65M6M675M8

longnu# S>OOG> +5467699668

The >U? o&e"ato" can %e use) to gene"ate #ulti&le %$tes o" (o")s (ith .no(n as (ell as un+initiali;e)
alues!
e!g!' ta%le )( 400 >U?*0,
sta"s )% 80 )u&*C=D,
AGGAY9 >B 90 >U?*N,
AGGAY6 >B 40 >U?*80,' 68' 55' 50 >U?*60,
5
STG:NGS >B 50A >U?*C>hah"anD,

Note: :- a a"ia%le na#e is #issing in a )ata )e-inition state#ent' #e#o"$ is allocate)3 %ut no na#e is
associate) (ith that #e#o"$! Fo" e/a#&le0
>B 80 >U?*N,
allocates 80 un+initiali;e) %$tes3 %ut no na#e is associate) (ith those 80 %$tes!
:n MASM 6!4 an) o%oe' a co##a at the en) o- a )ata )e-inition line *e/ce&t in the co##ent -iel), i#&lies
that the line continues! Fo" e/a#&le' the -ollo(ing co)e is legal in MASM 6!40
longst"ing BYTE RThis st"ing R'
Rcontinues oe" t(o lines!R
%it#as.s BYTE 80h' 60h' 50h' 40h'
08h' 06h' 05h' 04h
Na#e) constants0
The EQU *eBuate, )i"ectie' (hose s$nta/ is0
na#e EQU constantSe/&"ession
assigns a na#e to a constant e/&"ession! E/a#&le0
MAX EQU 95767
M:N EQU MAX + 40
LF EQU 0AA
?GOM?T EQU CTY?E YOUG NAME0 PD
Note0 *i, No #e#o"$ is allocate) -o" EQU na#es
*ii, A na#e )e-ine) %$ EQU #a$ not %e "e)e-ine) late" in a &"og"a#!
The LABEL )i"ectie' (hose s$nta/ is0
na#e LABEL t$&e
(he"e t$&e *-o" MASM He"sion 8!4 an) lo(e" e"sions, is BYTE' OOG>' >OOG>' QOOG>' TBYTE'
NEAG' o" FAG &"oi)es a (a$ to )e-ine o" "e)e-ine the t$&e associate) (ith a a"ia%le o" a la%el!
E/a#&le40
AGGAY4 LABEL OOG>
AGGAY5 >B 400 >U?*0,
Ae"e AGGAY4 )e-ines a 80+(o") a""a$' an) AGGAY5 )e-ines a 400+%$te a""a$! The sa#e #e#o"$
locations a"e assigne) to %oth a""a$s! Thus the a""a$ can %e accesse) as eithe" the %$te a""a$ AGGAY4 o"
the (o") a""a$ AGGAY5!
E/a#&le50
HAG9 LABEL >OOG>
OOG>4 LABEL OOG>
BYTE4 >B N
BYTE5 >B N
OOG>5 LABEL OOG>
BYTE9 >B 80A
BYTE6 >B 66A
in this e/a#&le' each o- the (o")s' an) each o- the %$tes o- the )ou%le (o") a"ia%le HAG9 can %e
accesse) in)ii)uall$!

SEGMENT >EF:N:T:ON
An 8086/8088 asse#%l$ language &"og"a# -ile #ust hae the e/tension .asm
The"e a"e t(o t$&es o- 8086/8088 asse#%l$ language &"og"a#s0 e/e+-o"#at an) co#+-o"#at!
An e/e+-o"#at &"og"a# gene"ates e/ecuta%le -iles (ith e/tension .ee! A co#+-o"#at &"og"a# gene"ates
e/ecuta%le -iles (ith e/tension .com !
An e/e+-o"#at &"og"a# #ust contain a co)e seg#ent an) a stac. seg#ent! :t #a$ contain a )ata seg#ent o"
an e/t"a seg#ent!
A co#+-o"#at &"og"a# contains onl$ the co)e seg#ent *the stac. seg#ent is e/&licit,!
A &"og"a##e" chooses an a&&"o&"iate si;e -o" the stac. seg#ent' )e&en)ing on the si;e o- his &"og"a#!
Halues in the "ange 400A to 600A a"e su--icient -o" #ost s#all &"og"a#s!
9
Note: :n a &"og"a#' the )ata' co)e' an) stac. seg#ents #a$ a&&ea" in an$ o")e"! Ao(ee"' to aoi) -o"(a")
"e-e"ences it is %ette" to &ut the )ata seg#ent %e-o"e the co)e seg#ent!
S!"#$!%!ED SE&"ENT D!RE'T!(ES
MASM e"sion 8!0 an) a%oe' an) TASM &"oi)e a si#&li-ie) set o- )i"ecties -o" )ecla"ing seg#ents calle)
si#&li-ie) seg#ent )i"ecties! To use these )i"ecties' $ou #ust initiali;e a #e#o"$ #o)el' using the
.MO>EL )i"ectie' %e-o"e )ecla"ing an$ seg#ent! The -o"#at o- the .MO>EL )i"ectie is0
.MO>EL #e#o"$+#o)el
The #e#o"$+#o)el #a$ %e T:NY' SMALL' ME>:UM' @OM?A@T' LAGGE' AUGE o" FLAT 0
#e#o"$+#o)el )esc"i&tion
T:NY One seg#ent! Thus co)e an) )ata togethe" #a$ not %e g"eate" than 66L
SMALL One co)e+seg#ent! One )ata+seg#ent! Thus neithe" co)e no" )ata #a$ %e g"eate" than
66L
ME>:UM Mo"e than one co)e+seg#ent! One )ata+seg#ent! Thus co)e #a$ %e g"eate" than 66L
@OM?A@T One co)e+seg#ent! Mo"e than one )ata+seg#ent! Thus )ata #a$ %e g"eate" than 66L
LAGGE Mo"e than one co)e+seg#ent! Mo"e than one )ata+seg#ent! No a""a$ la"ge" than 66L!
Thus %oth co)e an) )ata #a$ %e g"eate" than 66L
AUGE Mo"e than one co)e+seg#ent! Mo"e than one )ata+seg#ent! A""a$s #a$ %e la"ge" than
66L! Thus %oth co)e an) )ata #a$ %e g"eate" than 66L
FLAT One seg#ent u& to 6GB! All )ata an) co)e *inclu)ing s$ste# "esou"ces, a"e in a single
95+%it seg#ent!
All o- the &"og"a# #o)els e/ce&t T:NY "esult in the c"eation o- e/e+-o"#at &"og"a#s! The T:NY #o)el
c"eates co#+-o"#at &"og"a#s!
"emor) "odel O*erati+, S)stem >ata an) @o)e @o#%ine)
Tin$ MS+>OS Yes
S#all MS+>OS' Oin)o(s No
Me)iu# MS+>OS' Oin)o(s No
@o#&act MS+>OS' Oin)o(s No
La"ge MS+>OS' Oin)o(s No
Auge MS+>OS' Oin)o(s No
Flat Oin)o(s NT Yes
The si#&li-ie) seg#ent )i"ecties a"e0 .@O>E ' .>ATA ' .STA@L !
The .@O>E )i"ectie #a$ %e -ollo(e) %$ the na#e o- the co)e seg#ent!
The .STA@L )i"ectie #a$ %e -ollo(e) %$ the si;e o- the stac. seg#ent' %$ )e-ault the si;e is 4L i!e!' 4'056
%$tes!
The )e-inition o- a seg#ent e/ten)s -"o# a si#&li-ie) seg#ent )i"ectie u& to anothe" si#&li-ie) seg#ent
)i"ectie o" u& to the EN> )i"ectie i- the )e-ine) seg#ent is the last one!
TAE GENEGAL STGU@TUGE OF AN EXE+FOGMAT ?GOGGAM
The #e#o"$ #a& o- a t$&ical e/e+-o"#at &"og"a#' (ith seg#ents )e-ine) in the o")e" co)e' )ata' an) stac.
is0
S?
Stac. seg#ent
SS
>ata seg#ent
6
@o)e seg#ent
@S ' :?
?S? *400A %$tes,
>S ' ES
The @S an) :? "egiste"s a"e auto#aticall$ initiali;e) to &oint to the %eginning o- the co)e seg#ent!
The SS "egiste" is initiali;e) to &oint to the %eginning o- the stac. seg#ent!
The S? "egiste" is initiali;e) to &oint one %$te %e$on) the stac. seg#ent!
The >S an) ES "egiste"s a"e initiali;e) to &oint to the %eginning o- the ?S? *?"og"a# Seg#ent ?"e-i/,
seg#ent!
This is a 400A *i!e!' 586, %$te seg#ent that >OS auto#aticall$ &"e-aces to a &"og"a# (hen that &"og"a# is
loa)e) in #e#o"$!
The ?S? contains i#&o"tant in-o"#ation a%out the &"og"a#!
Thus i- a &"og"a# contains a )ata seg#ent' the >S "egiste" #ust %e initiali;e) %$ the &"og"a##e" to &oint to
the %eginning o- that )ata seg#ent!
Si#ila"l$ i- a &"og"a# contains an e/t"a seg#ent' the ES "egiste" #ust %e initiali;e) %$ the &"og"a##e" to
&oint to the %eginning o- that e/t"a seg#ent!
8
:nitiali;ation o- >S
Note: The inst"uctions (hich initiali;e the >S "egiste" -o" an e/e+-o"#at &"og"a# (ith si#&li-ie) seg#ent
)i"ecties a"e0
MOH AX ' T>ATA
MOH >S ' AX
(he"e AX #a$ %e "e&lace) %$ an$ othe" 46+%it gene"al &u"&ose "egiste"!
At loa) ti#e' T>ATA is "e&lace) (ith the 46+%it %ase a))"ess o- the )ata seg#ent!
Thus T>ATA ealuates to a constant alue3 such an o&e"an) is usuall$ calle) an i##e)iate o&e"an)!
Since MOH inst"uctions o- the -o"#0
MOH Seg#entGegiste" ' :##e)iateO&e"an)
a"e inali)' an initiali;ation o- the -o"#0
MOH >S ' T>ATA
is inali)! Such an initiali;ation is )one in)i"ectl$ using an$ 46+%it gene"al+&u"&ose "egiste"! E/a#&le0
MOH AX ' T>ATA
MOH >S ' AX
Note: Ee"$ 8086 asse#%l$ language &"og"a# #ust en) (ith the EN> )i"ectie! This )i"ectie #a$ %e
-ollo(e) %$ an ent"$ la%el' (hich in-o"#s the asse#%le" the &oint (he"e &"og"a# e/ecution is to %egin! The
ent"$ la%el can hae an$ ali) na#e!
The gene"al st"uctu"e o- an e/e+-o"#at &"og"a# is0
.MO>EL SMALL
!STA@L 500
.>ATA
3 )ata )e-initions using >B' >O' >>' etc! co#e he"e
.@O>E
STAGT0 MOH AX ' T>ATA 3 :nitiali;e >S
MOH >S ' AX 3

! ! !
3 Getu"n to >OS
MOH AX ' 6@00A
:NT 54A
EN> STAGT
E/a#&le0
.MO>EL SMALL
!STA@L 500
.>ATA
MESSAGE >B C:@S 595D ' CPD
.@O>E
STAGT0 MOH AX ' T>ATA 3 :nitiali;e >S
MOH >S ' AX 3
3 >is&la$ the st"ing
MOH AA ' 0MA
MOH >X ' OFFSET MESSAGE
:NT 54A
3 Getu"n to >OS
MOH AX ' 6@00A
:NT 54A
EN> STAGT
6
TAE GENEGAL STGU@TUGE OF A @OM+FOGMAT ?GOGGAM
The #e#o"$ #a& o- a t$&ical co#+-o"#at &"og"a# is0
S?
Stac. a"ea
@o)e seg#ent
*co)e an) )ata,
:?
?S? *400A %$tes,
@S' >S ' ES' SS
To (o". out the locations co""es&on)ing to s$#%ols *la%els an) a"ia%les, in the sou"ce &"og"a#' the
asse#%le" uses a a"ia%le calle) the location counte"!
Be-o"e asse#%l$ o- each seg#ent %egins the location counte" is set to ;e"o! As each state#ent in that seg#ent
is scanne)' the location counte" is inc"e#ente) %$ the nu#%e" o- %$tes "eBui"e) %$ that state#ent!
Since the @S "egiste" is initiali;e) to &oint to the %eginning o- the ?S? (hen a co#+-o"#at &"og"a# is loa)e)
in #e#o"$' the location counte" #ust %e set to 400A instea) o- the usual ;e"o' so that0 *i, the asse#%le"
assigns o--set a))"esses "elatie to the %eginning o- the co)e seg#ent an) not the ?S?' an) *ii, the :? "egiste"
is set to 400A (hen the &"og"a# is loa)e)!
The location counte" is set to 400A %$ the )i"ectie0
OGG 400A
Aence this )i"ectie #ust a&&ea" at the %eginning o- ee"$ co#+-o"#at &"og"a# %e-o"e the &"og"a# ent"$
&oint!
Since a co#+-o"#at &"og"a# contains onl$ one e/&licit seg#ent i!e!' the co)e seg#ent' )ata' i- an$' #ust %e
)e-ine) (ithin the co)e seg#ent an$(he"e a )ata )e-inition state#ent (ill not %e t"eate) as an e/ecuta%le
state#ent!
This can %e )one at the %eginning o- the co)e seg#ent %$ Uu#&ing ac"oss )ata )e-initions using a VM?
inst"uction!
The gene"al st"uctu"e o- a co#+-o"#at &"og"a# is0
!MO>EL T:NY
!@O>E
OGG 400A
ENTGY0 VM? L4
3 )ata )e-initions using >B' >O' >>' etc! co#e he"e
. . .
L40
. . .
3 Getu"n to >OS
MOH AX ' 6@00A
:NT 54A
EN> ENTGY
E/a#&le0
.MO>EL T:NY
.@O>E
OGG 400A
ENTGY0 VM? STAGT
MESSAGE >B C:@S 595D ' CPD
STAGT0
3 >is&la$ the st"ing
MOH AA ' 0MA
7
MOH >X ' OFFSET MESSAGE
:NT 54A
3 Getu"n to >OS
MOH AX ' 6@00A
:NT 54A
EN> ENTGY
8
Othe" >i"ecties
.STARTUP
Gene"ates &"og"a# sta"t+u& co)e!
The .E-!T )i"ectie acce&ts a 4+%$te e/it co)e as its o&tional a"gu#ent0
.EXIT 1 ; Return exit code 1
.E-!T gene"ates the -ollo(ing co)e that "etu"ns cont"ol to MS+>OS' thus te"#inating the &"og"a#! The "etu"n
alue' (hich can %e a constant' #e#o"$ "e-e"ence' o" 4+%$te "egiste"' goes into AL0
mov al, value
mov ah, 04Ch
int 21h
:- $ou" &"og"a# )oes not s&eci-$ a "etu"n alue' .E-!T "etu"ns (hatee" alue ha&&ens to %e in AL!
.586
Enables assembly of nonprivileged instructions for the Pentium processor.
.686
Enables assembly of nonprivileged instructions for the Pentium Pro processor.
The USE16, USE32, and FLAT Options
When working with an 80386 or later processor, MASM generates different code for 16 versus 32 it
seg!ents" When writing code to e#ecute in real !ode under $%S, &ou !ust alwa&s use 16 it
seg!ents" 'hirt&(two it seg!ents are onl& applicale to progra!s running in protected !ode"
)nfortunatel&, MASM often defaults to 32 it !ode whenever &ou select an 80386 or later processor
using a directive like .386, .486, .586 or .686 in &our progra!" *f &ou want to use 32 it
instructions, &ou will have to e#plicitl& tell MASM to use 16 it seg!ents" 'he use16, use32, and flat
operands to the segment directive let &ou specif& the seg!ent si+e"
,or !ost $%S progra!s, &ou will alwa&s want to use the use16 operand" 'his tells MASM that the
seg!ent is a 16 it seg!ent and it asse!les the code accordingl&" *f &ou use one of the directives to
activate the 80386 or later instruction sets, &ou should put use16 in all &our code seg!ents or MASM
will generate ad code"
*f &ou want to force use16 as the default in a progra! that allows 80386 or later instructions, there is
one wa& to acco!plish this" -lace the following directive in &our progra! efore an& seg!ents.
option segment:use16
Example:
.586
option segment:use16
M