101

Waxes
}.
Section II
103
, J~affin WaxjaCrude ou
VThe presence of P.(i~!.im!1.~waxes in crude oils presents a host of
problemsg:>j:h~pr()~ucer,transporter, andrefiner."th~~b_l_lil.~-up. ofparaffins .
and asphaltenes represents the organic equivalent of scaleformation, and
their presen~~_i_Il theTOrmati~~'tubin?4transfer lines, storagevessels,and
.2!pelinesca~l~ad toserious p.robl~111S.~Ql:l!<:pls_as~<2_<:i(lted withtheir
presence rangeIf_qm_1P.inor: to. severe'~Il~_(le'peI1~_ontheir quantity and
compositio_Il. However,~J:_e_.par:;iffIn waxesarevaluablesourcesof refined
productsranginglr.9~E:l9!9r oil}?jt:!f~!e);,
,1 If oneexaminesthenature of aproduction reservoir,it becomesevi-
\ dent th<iith~~i_~gll<;:ill_r:~~ l?ihavemuchthesameasadistillationapparatus,
~Whenthesereservoirsareta~Q,Jfle volatilecomponents are.Oftenthefirst
~t:!:li~::f:~;1~;;t~~~ ~~i~:~E~ti~f"tb;;::ea~J{;-*:~:~~~~~~;:e:St:
result~th-;;' p~essure-drops.(andthereforethedriveeff~~IlCYdec;eas~s'j:~;;d....
t.nem:obiH ry of the remainingheavy_fr~c}ion.declines.As this_<2_~~!:lI~'. ..thejob
2~PLo-d~ingth~<ii~!iiiii~friii.f._ri!1~J?e.~()rpgs iI}.(Teas.inglydi~clllil andspec:l'al
measuresmustbeundertaken tocombattheseeffects.
- 4Ad#i1:iOD'!LdlffI_c~j'ties--~rise' ~s-the' depth ~f production..horizons
~" ~~_the JI1IJ.l>ili.tx .9f lighter crude fractions is considerably
greater thanthehigher molecular weightasphalteneandparaffinwaxfrag-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
}.
6
Petroleum Companies
and Waxes
104
_ments, the over~urden acts _~~~~~~ip~rmeab~e me~!>.r.flIl~~__a!Iowi:Qg_J ight
fragments u_pward migration. VThe .overall. result is the accumulation of
increasingly-h-~avy crude fra~-tionsoccupYing th-eres~;~cir.
.r:':.-.---".--- .. -- ...... -'- -'- .. -.-_._- ..... --... -----.--._ ... ---- ... ~.-.- .. ----
Paraffin W~ Production Problems
~---....._.~-'-___,___-, ..., - - - ...-, , , '- , - ...---..~- ", , _. ..'_'_ ..- ... ".~- - - - - , - - ..- ~~
'i The increased concentration of heavy wax fragments within aging u~g_
increflsingly-deeper reservoirs isjust the beginnings of the producer's PIQ_b.:,
lems-:J \rariable t~luid.velocit!eSIe;;1!_ltl!!g_ft0IllYi~~Q~itys:[e_~~!_~ax deQD-
~sit~m;in the fOl}P:~J ;i9Page:!~ubLllg, <lIldn(it1l.ra} c~9ke forIIl~i9I\ i?Y_ci~-
_~9.:asphaltenes and waxes 9,11converg~ t()_r~.str_i.~!:..p_r9_g_g~~~<?!l; Once the crude
exits the weJ 1_!r!_t.!1~ffrJ iIl~~,-tJ ;~a!_D!~~_!V~S-s-~J , ~Ilci_s~o~(lg~ __!?:I.!_~_~~ __ all nege;
~ted Q}0:hqu:_esenc_e--Dfp:fr..affiIl_\'I<J .X~~ inteImingledJ Vith __ e~s,
._2E4s, __ !l_Ilcl ~_!'!:Q~!Q_g_ by:p.!:o.ducts~Discontinuou~_~Qf_fa__f_e;; ...fl~_t ?:~..~i_~~s for the
formation QLwL:l~ crystals, and solid phase emulsions, combinatio_g_
- - , ._- - - _, _, .- , - - -
~axi~E?b:<l!teDe deposits, and gelled crudes frequently appear ..
'" M a.:9:Y of these problems can be effectively resolved by lh~__allpmp_riate
__ <lp_plkat~_()n_ of crystal modifier cjtemicals; however many factorsde~_!_~ne
..!Eef~~?~.i.t;ygf~_1!~_htr:~a_tP._~!!t;s_,,! ~!2~_appl~c~tio!1 gf de~~~_u~~~~
~~e::m~g_t _()_f_th:~_s_~ chemicals should be as earlyin tpe production ~tream as
__p_Q_s!ple:''!t:: .. ~E_C:~~~llreis important to both the process of emulsionE~~~1?-
ti<?Il~nd crystal modification and, aswe shall see in much greater detail in the
" -~ . .
chapters that follow, L~_~~ _oEeof the primary physical variables deten;niniQg_
the effectiveness of chemical treatment.
--~-t-- .. -.'~-" _- _"_. .- .. - _.
.J l.?:.r.~v_v.<lX __ depcsition within the producing reservoir isan extr~_lE~
_difficult problem to resolve once it begins and, in many instances, j t ~nVQlx~
the cessation _of natural drive production from these reservoiraf Re~
-U-~tffi~~ts often involve the use of solvent soaks, hot water, or hot oiLJ l:..e.i!k_
~e~ts-to' revitalize P~9duction." Each of these meth:()_~~_~r_c:_sharacterized ~
~trerigth~~Akp~ss~SlJ )1,l_t th~~~p-;QiY~}yeli shut-intimeth~U__~
~ t9..11-PLQdu~er,
" While it is true .that wax. and asphaltene deposition can be moderated
~rod-;;cti()n rates, -iris also-'t~e that-~ tr;de--off e) y i S ts be-tw~~-~th~f2rma-
-ti~,nO[n~~~;ill)}" ;;:lE:~a.:-~~p~alte~~_~?dw~ ~llOke?!fhes_~~~t~!~~~~~?~~
as speed controls for the production rate of crude oil from a completed ~
anai:fth:_~~~ c9Ii-stralllts i.rei.i!l()!~~~th~- consequencesi:a~~32!~i()~~t
y nthe ILf~_c::xpe~t:<:t~cI9_f_<.!_J 2_r()cluciIlg sit~'!~_~ll~_PE()_~~s_ of bringi~Ks:rude
_Qil.!~J _l~.~1l.rface, the. f1?~v,,:!ocity_!S!0.9_~9~>th_~upro b<l:Qili!.Qf~ax deposi-
~~~;~~:i;lr~~n~;~~_:~~;~~~l~~~]~I-l~i[~J ~J ~~U-~~ih~St~;
J l~g_.2t(l_s_p~teJ ?:e.. <i_ep().0_ti?!1 !__~s..!:_ease_<:i_by !_ll_<:__!:.eBJ I.!i!lg incr~ases in
streaff!i!!~!1_tial;:'ifhus, the job of the prod_\ls1J gI}_.~~nginc:eri~2..~-
~~J _tll_c:_g~l!!?:!:l_~_~.l?I_a.ceg_~;;-J ;C~- fO~~~~~!!I_E:__i~_ E~()<il:1:~~i<:>_!!__!V hile llli!in-
~iE:~?-_g .. tlt~)ife expectancy of the \\T~I.Is .\lnder his or her supervision,
:--- Section II, Chapter 6
<~
\\f~
105
"/ ~_ovaLof_Par.affin W i U C Deposits
:j~e_, '~,d~Rosition has occurred, tl1~Qptions available to production
and facility engineers ,!_ rl,,~!~ W~-1JS~nof,hotQiL,hot water, hot water and sur-
f,:c.~~!,,<l~~~olve.nts. Because~age of !11~~~ IIl~':.~_ods has associatedintrinsic
risks, their applicatiQl}~<l matte~Qn.~.deral)_l_~.~gn~ 'fr_he.use of hot oil
,_t~ea~c:~!S_in ~~:re_~tJj.<::!~<!__V\',=11~,~a,n,~gravate the problem in.. the long run,
even though the immediate results appear good_;~...tecbniqlJe tlSllaJly
~!~~!h.,e. h.~.a.tingof gored oil from the production site and circulating it
dow:; :ir;;;~ i1~ ~ ~ i~l~h~~~!,~t~:sb_~~~S~~taltllollghli_gllt~! ..~_~~~l"~hiCh .
act asmorta!_for th.e,h~0~r:_!V~~s! ~I~.!.~I!lp:v~,d-,tll~.!Iighfrmshing.tr.(\c:t_iQns,
become concentrated~TIYs. effecU~__ l2?cr_ticular1y ,dam(igi[1K!Q,.tJlenear-well-
bore, <lr:~,L~~n.(Irepeated__l!eannents.!Daycause severe,?~st:_ru~,tio!1~ 1;_Qi!_t,wi_ll_
~g_u,ire increasingly severe treatments tQ"r.em()v~.
'" g(),LW.'!te:rand combined hot water and surfactant treatments mustbe
~~a.,refully considered prior tr;;implementation, because S9m~.producing for-
mati9..!!?_~~wat~:r,sensie. However, W.lle,I1_ cOI1ditions ~l!o~.,..these procec
Al}!:~s3 ,: requite effective;' ~h_~l'~tn;~_<;I:tg1~I.~_pgJ~)lmed,!l~ng__Qm_Qi1.1rucks
that heat the water ,~water ;lnd_s_1,!.rfac_tanL~Il9:J>ume,it d0W?_th~~l;>iI1g_.. t()_
remove the dep<2_sits.. The hotwater .tc;ch.I!i_gl}.~~fE~I__frol!l the same,limit_~:
tions as the hot oil,_IIl~thod, and higher molecular weight waxesLthosewith
higher mel.!i!!g_p_Qin_~) irecoJJ.<::en.t:ril:t~_'i, .
.J The combined hot wat~r:,~rfactant method allows the su~nsion of
soli~bY;he~l}r:fac:!aDt'sbipolar interaction at theinterface l;le,1}-V~.~Q the water
Eld wax. ~~l!!ucl;l_ ofthehigher fractions are carried out of the well assus-
.Ee~?;.i<?n_s!On~ additional advantage of the use of combined hot water surfac-
J \ / Organi~_Ile_RQ$ition,ControL
v Although good prodllc::_tioflpractices can minimize the formation of
~ph;:tlten~ andwai-deP9sits, the economic viability of awell de~aIl9s.;l min-
imum production ratev'I'his production rate may not alwaysbe achieved by'
-=-E_!:?~duc:i()ll~ngrn~e~ing utechnIques, and it is in these cases that chemical
trea~n.~becomes anecessity. As mentioned earlier,Vc:!],stalmodifierchemi-
I,cals are l,ll?.~t_~~ec~velyapplied asearly in theproduction str~<:tm_apossible.
" The lack of capillary injection facilities complicates the logistics of crystaL
modifier-a:aaruon,-ancl ofte~'~es;;fi:sin tlie"i~proper addition of chemical
uncier_.le,s~tl!<l!lopiimai conditions. '
v_g i s g~t,tmc;ommon tosee deposition occurring ill thewell, ~!ldchem-
icals bei_?g!!.cLded,g:t~!,the,,~ellh~<ld~ile thj~EE~_cti~elE:~Y_p.r.:~~<:J:1~.c.9Iltin-
ued deposition intransferlines and storage vessels, the source ofthe problem
'g~untr~~ted:W~ri~us att~Il1p!~to add crystal modifier down the ,backside
are only partiallr.~_l!.c_c:~s_gul, since this intermittent chemical contact with pro-
duction fluids"~annot maintainoptimal chemi~al dose levels. .
------,., - --'~'-' ...._--. ...., .. ,. '" "",,_ , _.
Petroleum Compani es and Waxes ...:
J Wax and Work.Over
J SOIIl~.1Q~;.ttionsin th<;_--j.Vgrld ~~~(i::~UZh se~~-~~~-~p;~blem.'L_witb~,\vM<
deposits that ~ell,lIJ :e.~hu.Hn.fu:C_1Ll!lli_n_g o,P~!,3.:!i()Il_L9P<;l_.Feekh',or l!l-Q!1~l_lly
~\lThese operaP9_l!s.ar~....Q~.tly_fl.nd tim~~::.c().Ils~rnin&. but f>rod~_y_(~!::.
..mesjustifY them'!Very oft@_these procedures cq_ulc!l>~_<.lyoiQ~(i_QU~.c!uce.d
jn %r_e.guepcy, byth_eplacernenjofa capillary injection str:in.g'_iI}Q_the_<;:QI}::l!!:
ual ad('}ition_Qf_tlI_e. aRP!Qpriate__<::IJ st<:t_lm9_difier chemicaltHo~~ver, iQ,_IIlau-y
_Qf__lh~se locations the c:_Qst of labor is so lowthat it Il}_a.!s.~~ economic S~l}.s_~to ,
.,performthe. pulling jobs,dean t~ tubing,_ and replace th~t:oule.~bjQg
~_fuQs~L~J Qrl>i~he~LQxJ abo.ITn:. The one fallacy in this economic-P-!!;.tllJ !=
,inV&y~o;~;!l~:~f~~d!i~~~~:~_~i~~t: :~~~~~~~_ansfer facil-
_~~ whicI: produced fluids can be re9:i~~s_e_cl~Nle.th~p'IjIl!~Ij~~are dis-
~~emble..<!l.,s!~.<l.ned, and returned toseMc:.e,Likewise, the servicelifeof these
lines COu~J 2~.f}(,_tmg_e,cl,fuLlongperiods by the E~r in.jecti~ gf crystal
modifier~. ~th well-pullin_g_~cl}iI?-~::l()Qping,proc~.dme.~.PIese.!1l.~ignificant
risks to the field operator, since the likelihood of asudden catastrophic..J 2r~
sure incre~~_~~c-ould result in tubing or line rupture, .
J IJ I~~~aland Mechanical WilX_Control
- . . J Several methods of w.a.:J <,_control <l:~el:;r<lcticed b_ypr()_cll}ctiO!1_Qp~ions,
~ent o~_<:_l'll_de C!.y~riO~g]_is~~_c~sunder_~~<:_()_<=ear:,-~~ross moun-
tains, through arctic <::_ol_cl, aI1f:lacros~~~~l!erini deserts demands significant
planning and fOL~t~0~ghi5f~r?ducti;nflUids. e x It -th~wellh_ea.d"-'_t;Q_e
.....I:()_l?l~ms of maintaining a free-flowing'conduit for its transportbecome
~.J yhe ~ax c~12!~E:t_()fs(nneprociuc:tionstr~rgsissohigh th'!;tsp'~-=-
~~ethods..are eIIlpl()yedto keep the fluidsliquid' !::_ineh~~n1.
,,0Ile of the more effectivejnethods OLpL9vi_cl_in_g for:.tl1l.i<:!_ mobility; _b_Qwev~r.
. their design, energy r<::.q_~i~.<:ments,. andoperation involveconsid~_r-_a.:ble costs,
tant tre<l!ll1e~g_Vt:!!: hot oil isthat waterhas ahigher specific heat than oil, and,
.therefo~e it;:;-suallyarrivesatthe siteof deposition with ahigher tempe~atu-;e;
,- J S<:>l,~~l1t__!:!"e.~~Il1eI1tsofwax and asphaltene depositions areveryoften the.
most s~.<=<:~__fyLr~lllediation method, but they are much more costly:~
amount ofw~,t.l1ascan be carried bysolvents such asxylene or ker~eneis a
-f;:;-;;-c~-;;--of th~_IIlgl~~,!~-:yeight of the " \ V ax -and its concentration. it' i~<;Wt
_ uncomm~I1_.tofl!1:<:i_aJ Q% \ V ~, if}solvent that issolidatroom temperi!u.~e.J ..~~~
th_ea.rE._()lll2! of solvent used can be considerable ir;jome' applications. Solvent
remediatiorLlJ le.thlli.!~;~X!:'_1l.~l!all.Yr~served for applications where ho~,oil or
_hot water methods have...M!owrLlittle..2.!l_<;,<::e.~~/ Sorr~etiriies:-coriibi~ation sol-
vent/ surfactan tpackages shc>_~.incr<:_a~~~_I?~rformance_v:<,;rs~vel1t_alone and
are used to crillanc.e._the._carcying_~:~!l2~Qty,C?f_~hes9ly_e_l!t. This practice ismore
.~!D.QrUllllKt_h_q_dsd<o_~izned_ for_th~r:.~IIl()Y<ll ()f a~Pllalter;t!:~'.l?~! it ~ll prok
,,_~blycOIltin1!e.toincr~ase it: p_()pul~ti!Yf()r:_\V~r~rn(')V<lLi12 th~fu_t!!~.
106
:--- Section II, Chapter 6
107
/j~ !Injl~C(udeOUlran$p.C)rt.
~~.any of the production methods above fail to answer the problem of
ownership transfer once the crude oil reaches field storage fac!liti<:s.7Pipeline
_ " .. - --. -._ - _ _ . --"'_ -, --- - -_ -~
_ ~panies and crude oil movc:rshave aresponsibility to protect their equip-
_ rnent fr-Qplda~~~ that can occur from the purchase gf crude oils that are
below_ c~r:~il?:sp~ci.flcatiOllSof water and wax content.\,IThes_ ~_ _ p_ e._ c:ifi.catiQns
~~5!~Pl<l!2_ c:l_ t~at the crude oilsthey purchase f(ll~withinaxange Ofpour
_ p.ojnts that_ wiILno1:_ r~ultjIl_ damageto theirfacilities. This place_ s.tlH:~plJ J -:cien
of the_ c:ostoic:llemical treatment on either the producer or the transporter ..
- - - - - - - : : r ~l1~or_ ~~~~ r..~Sll!trec!_ !-~u_ rchase _ chel11ica~prior_ t.o_ 7hipping
the crude, th~_ _ c:~~~J ssubtractedfromtheprice he i~_ V\j!Ellgtopay. On_ Q:~
other hand, if Qleproducer takes_ on the_ (~ggoLtJ :~'!~the 2ellin_ KJ 2r:ic:~ _ _
he requests will b~.J Il~re9-se.dto offset his,added <:~_ t.~~E--w~ cl_ :~!c:':l.l
.J reat~~~~a~~~e_ uslla!lY arlesessity!This s.i.t;_ u'!tion then r_ aisesthe ques-
tion of the most ecol!Q!lli_ c:al and effectivepla_ cement of crystal Ir;tQdiieLprod-
~~ inth.~ production or-tr-a~~p-;~tstream. Throughout this discussion it
Petroleum Companies and Waxes ...:
JAltho.!:l.g!:)i_ ne heat:eJ ::s_ .~p. be successflllly_ e_ mployeci fr()~",!~!:.~ellheag
~theri_ ~glac_ i!!!j~~tll~p!1xsical.lli!tm~2f_ the crystallizing, " YaJ (~~.has .!l_ QL
been altered. This lackof alteration canbe aproblem once thefluids are sent
~iag~~tTh;-p!e~~lfing conditions 2:Lt~m.J ?~E.~~~re and f!.~_ i?':,Illo~e_ r.I1_ ~l1t
~~y:QEJ ,g~ battery f'!~L.the formationof vv;]X crystalsand lead to gels
and sludge. Thus th~Q[_ <?bl~m..s<<?fw?Xesinthep-.rQduction stre?-Ill.have now
bec~t:: _ th.t:: problems of the gatherillg facility._
i " Lin~I,!g)_ _ ~~Q_ pr,,!ctJ ced frequently by crude handling operations .
..J T~~ pr:,.<:l_ ctice_ requires that}a-unching and capture sites be.~!1g!g~.~~(Li.pt,Q,
the transfer:.f.'!9.1.i!h:'s d~~igp. Pigging ()p~:rati0Il~.~c: ..~gIlq~<::ted~~J ::l<1:Il<:l.vvi.ili:
_ 9~!.~<:o:r:p()E~!:i:o~ of s().l,:,ents and chemicals, <l.Ilci%e_ !'~E:'~~~_ ?:_ r.I1"!terial block-
2R~s_ _;:l!:e._ !!l0s!_ _ gft.en._ gL~~ted ro. _ w:,!s_ t_ e.. t(~arns. ~he variery ~!.:!:',._ de~e. ..<?f
_ s~e.~i~tic~Y211 of _ piggingcie:~c~sis ~taggering, ranging from simple projec-
tileS.J 2devices with onboard telemetry, butac()rpmoIld~ominator to.. each
i;fuat th~i;ie~~ployed after:d~rpaie._ ha~been Q.etestd: TEil~~4:te.i~the~fac:t.
ffEEl~Qg ~E~-~e.l~g~!~~t_ ~e.~r_ :.~.E!s:Il}t:'I_ l@!i()l) to aremedial method.
J .c:9!I~q:ttIbingtechnol~ hasbec0l1!e..':l:l?: imJ l.o_ r!,,!:ntl'll~':ll1oL<::()n.:dllct-
ingwell cle'!..I1.:.!:!I?..P!g.C:.~~_ l!~~,~: This techno}.<:.>_ gy 1E_ Y21:.:e~.fue_ .r:~cllrectIOl1 ofwell
..~~ci~_ t!5>~.to.fllli~_ _ h,~t:~tion fa~iliti~s or flaring operations. while the coiled
tub~ngis_ ~~__ !he~e!l. ReilY)'_ <:gH~~;t t@i~g. re~~s.cu:eplaced at the wellhead by
large trucks, thewell fluids are diverted, and high-pressure nozzles on the end
of the c~iled tubing ar e pb.ced 'i~the well.J TaIlker tr~~ls fil~Qwith solvent
- - " ,- - ~,,- - - -...,,- - - - - - . _ ._ _ .' _ - - ,..- ." " ._ -
_ _ providethe ~~J 2_ ~.~re pumps ~ith fluids that ayeused to clean the well
_ tubing as_ th~s_ oilC":ci tu1:)ingIi> lo_ weredinto the well:The value Q_ f_ tl}i.?J :Iletho_ cL
_ i~_ app':l!:~Il! in.:mi!I1Y_ ilreas of the world, since c:~rtainint_ eg!'<l~eQ_ rO_ Quction
~!11_ j)~Iliesmaintain afleet of coiled tubing trucks that remain busy alarge
~centage of the time:
, - ~--~..,.- .,- - .- ....-.--~...- ...~..
108
J J Treatment Pr_9blem _
Thc:_cgpple'j{Illixt~reof chemi<:.~l_sEe~~~~PE~~~_,:t incru~e_()il~makes
)t rr~_cess'!!Y!:? ~~r:_~id~rsi~eiarIa~~t()rswhendesigni_fl_g; atreat:n~~~~
___lQ!:_iield applic::.a_ti()p':"Waxes m~b~tl1_e_ Ill~_i!1 issue,_~lltcompOllrl(!i~
trea.!:,?~ntQif!i_<:lllties_are the presence of oth~~c()_~pJ~xmliltipk <lgg!~
~_!J._~_emuls.0~_i!~p!:t(lltenes, ~ilt, c()_:r:r__Q~iQIl_bY-PI_()dll<:ts,-<J,Dd. in9!:g~.!:l:ic
scales.Mostof thesemateriaI;'-canbeincorporated intothewax,or conversely
~----- --_-.._.,--- ------,-_.-- .._-_
>-- Section II, Chapter 6 /
shouldhavebecomeevident thai ~em)nt ofthese chemicalsshouldbe
,_<is e~Jyjn theproduction streamasp()ssibleYThemere actof transferrin_~_~~e
problemfromanupstreamlocation toonedownstream isnot helpful, and in
_mostc~ses,it!Scounterproductive.
J-jWan_CJ'ude Oils_i!l_lldth_1LRefinery_
Itisironic, _~ny_r:~sP~(:_t-~/ that thosecrude streamsthat;;tre_I1.:l()~!~
__!k!!lttoprodw;;_~<Ull.transPQ!"_t areoftenthesourceof muchof thepr()fitreal;
izecLb:y_th_e)_-~~e.rY: T~~!lll production andtrans;:r of Waxy Qilsl~
.r~fineryi~~sc:.nti<!.Lfor the profitabilityof the refinery, Although storage of
thesecrudestreams canbedifficultsincetheyprodl.lfc:_gelsandSlllgg~jri'ma~'
sivestoragetankS;-cnidernovemeiitfaCilitiesgenerallyapportion theI~fulery
infiuent-streaJD-ioffi.iIiitainagood tumover.:JThus_tg<= waxyfee<J stocksa.E~
-Wcr-0:tl-l_1{g~t~~ cr~d_~,~ pr-i0r_!_o.!hi_P~_~~!_-to i;temal refin~ryQrQ~esses.
. ~n the_r~fin~ry,_ waxycrudeblendsarefedintothedeli(iltingunits,
wheretheyareprepare<iJ()r_theC!!~~llationp~()s:es~e~."rheatmospherj_~nd
vacuum_<!istilla_tion proc:essesremove the lighter fuels,aIld the bott_(j!!1.e
..2_hipps;_d_JQ_solv~l1t processesto separatethe waxesfromthe asphalt.mes. The
waxfractions are then subjected t()_coldsolvent additions thatpr oduce wax
--_ .. _-----_. -------.- -'-."--.- _ .. " . v
. _s11,llI~ <!I_eYils:.llumfil.t~r~g. __t9 Ie!l!QY..~_.!!1Q!()r oi]. pepel2<ii~gon the
demand formotor oil and wa,}(, the atmospheric andvacuumJ()~er bo~toI.!!
can be djyt;!ted to- ~~_gfuicc.l'acki~g-fi.~f~ti~_v'waxy c-rudes,,!:re~able
sources of feeg._~tocks...!.~ __C:_:lta1~~_c:r<l.c:~_~rs/ apQ__ .w:29,ll_Ce high-Yields o(
.YE~'thLe. fuel pro..ducts,..
J The preceding discussion givesan overviewof someof the problems
____tJ.s:.ru..hy~the prodU:c1:iQIJ, tra~~port, and refinlng()f w~ c~~d~-~ilsrone of
_t_he..most importa~t p<:>il!1~ to emerge' from-thTsdiscussIonis.the need for
__ det~~ed_J?l<lnning:P~i.Ilg hy__the_eachacili!Yfromthf__producer to the
._IS:.tlP~!.i:-;necessarytoa'rid or remove!h_s:_~ffects of waxaccumulation. The
discussionalsopoints to thevalue_~~es haveto th~_eIlg-=pro<;l,.l,lc_t mbL!!nd
_'Ylly.it)~so.important to prgyid~adequatemeasures t_..Q _aff()E9-~<lilability
to_th~~r:y..-
. . J ~_d w~ crudeoils~~<:_flt~~~allengetothose handling theIJ.!.
y_ut t.b.~.)' haveyall.l~~aclcl~d. qualitiesthat emulsionstreamsgenerallylack. The
followingdiscussionswill developabackground for theunderstanding of the
nature of waxproblems andprovideaninsightintohowtheymaybehandled.
109
:'.. ","
_, ...:;:,:_", ",<::::.- r ;_:,',
, Solids and Waxes ~"L,I
,; ~~_~es ..f~~qu.('!~tlycambineto. f<?rm,if,lciusianaggregatt;s,
whichcomplicatethetr~<l!gt.~~t of waxesbytheaci9:ij,iQI},ot<1. crystal modifi-,
_.c:.r..~0"~ 'Inthesec?:esit ishelpf~~Ea.ca~sid~~';;likelyarrangement of this
complexaggregate. It helpstolook at bath options of whether thefarming
_waxcrystal servesas~rectl()n paint for thesolid,or thesolidservesasa
nucleationp~i~tfa~~~~~.ri~~i.Qf ~~,~rystalliza.ti().n, (seeFig. &-2)(Ineither
case,terripe~~0!eis._~primeco.nsideratiC;n~)ecausc;thesolidrernains So.lid
~ical tem12er.a.tllre~ _pr~'.:<ll~_l} tunder m!;>.s~ field.conditions.
It also~e_!e~ta}naw thenatureof thesolid,far example,whethe~Itis
.~_phaltene, sand,scale,or corrosionby-product.Thisisusuallyde!~J]lJ.jned-,
by hat fil~!~_,th_e __ <:rud~~J__~len~:_Qjl hkncl"and9:9:;:t!y?:j_IlgQ1e fil-
teredsolid:_!0hesalidissilt(sandl,~will_~~e an<l!lig.l1is.<::h9,r_acter be~_aue,
_()_~.its SiOsunit-cell structure,thusacationicsurfactantsuchas anaminecam-
< bipedwithafattysulfa~oyiJJ.lik~h:.__haw activityll}o~dj~.pe.r~ing 1;}1~silt.
J On~_t_lg~~il~!s, disp_<::!"~~ci.).~h~_\Vax crystalJ;rablembecomesprimary,and
againtemperatureiscrucial totheapplication. IKtlteJemperatllreisbelowthe
. crystalliiatiantemperature of theproblemwax,all approachather thancrys-
tal.modificationwill berequired to. treat theaillrhe advantageof usingan
,', " - - -~-.~.----,-.--_-_ _. '- " ...-_;:.;,.' .
J JWax and Emulsions
Acombinationwaxand emulsionispresentinasystem,<lI!.ci theviscos-
.i.!y__Qf.~~.fu!i<!_!lli~)svery highand nat red~~~dJ:>y"he~t- alld,dt;-emulsifier
alane. Hawqn an eff..~c~iv~_~reatme.nt'p[.Q.gr_arn ..hs;jmp-!~_rr.!~DJ.~.(Lt9_ resolve
~.d xr~l.the W~_? Firstlet'stakealookatsamelikelystructural
aggregates that might be present in this mix. Solidphase emulsions are
knownto.occur inwhichthewaxhasaccumulatedat theinterfacebetween
thewaterandail. Thisisnat so.surprising,sincebath themoleculesthat sta-
bilizethe interface (e.g.,fattyacids) andwaxeshavealkyl groups that can
cambine (seeFig. &-1).
As canbeseenfromthediagram,thewaxmoleculescancombinewith
thefattyynlsof thecarboxylicacidsstabilizingtheinterface. Consideringthis
viewand'lthefactth~.Lthe.~!p-ulsianisnat resolvedwithheat andade-emulsi-
fier,then anabviausappra_~h!\,;~llclbeto.<1ppiYa~ry~~aL~adifier to.inter-
ferewiththeseiflteraC!i21}~. SoacOl~pl(:t~!},_Ee~sonaJ:>le approach wouldbe
to.includethecrzstal modifier ~_P!lrtaf tll.e_elll~!si911J<:~~~.~tian treatment.
Another aspect of this treatment is that a crucial temperature wouldbe
expected,sincethe melting paint of thewaxshould beapproached when
attemptingto.de-emulsifythisail.
Vi
thewaxescanforminthem. Itiscommonto.seecombinationsof theseprob-
J ~IB,s.in)ivariety o.f'F;rad~cti()i.a~eas,~efiDe~ry' ~'t~~ag~, -;~d'~rudeail ship-
._!!!~E:~tI:.he chal_leIlge!sto.determinewhichproblemto.attackfirstinorder
that themast efficientsolutionmaybeimplemented.
Petroleum Companies and Waxes ..::
~
CJ
c
~
0
- V i
. . -s
~ E
. . . . . (!)
=
1:l
" ' " "
(!)
~
:0
co
+- '
C/)
X
co
3 =
. . . t
I
(l)
" O i l
u :::
110
:--- Section 11, Chapter 6
.........-.-......... ---~~~-~ -..-.......- -..--..--..--~--.--- -.- - -.- -- - --.~- - .
Fig. 6-2 Wax on solid vs. solid on wax
Solid Deposit
On Wax
Wax Formed
On Solid
112
v'
S~=~~~~!re~~~!~tt:~!t~e~~~i~~~:!~!:!~or
!hcein<=orporation of the_cry_t&modifier into th~r<2J ViI!g':':<1 ]' cryst4t_h!!.Lth.!:? __
mixing of_!-~<:.p()lYI1ler:.moQifier is inadequate. This problem is sQJ ?etilJ l_~
~c::___b)' the.il!_clllsionof ~dispersant to the modifier prodllct.YTJ ledis:
persant divtds;..J he_polYmerir:HQ smaller fraction~~_!can mix m<2r:_s~adily
']ViIh the crudeunderlowconditions of sheai~_rs~~!~!!!;t-i~~used, h9.W~
ever, must be compatible with thechemigry of the crystal mOdifierfTypical
~ill.ts-::fur_ rheseap_Qli_C:(l~i2.!1s are_usuallYI1~nl~~ic_po~~tll~T_Sma~ufac-
_t4J :eci,from ethylene oxide. propylene oxide, ()r~1}1EH1J res q[J :>oth.
< J Oth_erco~c.~~s t?a~iacethe chemical company include the prevailing,
~.p~~t1!re of the_c:hemical11~epoint and ~h,epllysi<=aA_s!~~~ o[tl;_l~erni.c:~L
_J J _~~duct<it.th~stemper<itme.Vyery often the concentrated crystal modifier,
~~._s_(~Eg under prevailing !emI1eratures and must_be diluted or_oth-
~e~s~rpo_difi_edto enableits pumping:vPbYs_ic<:i1 modifications suchaspowder
or emulsion are among some of the options available, but delivery syst~_rn_
(pumps) would also require altering, and this isnot generally acceptable to
thecustomer.
, \/ Waxes and Asphalten~s
'" Asphalte!le~ present a speciaJ ' case because they. are high-molecular-
weightco~ple:~ he,ro-atomic poly-cyclicspecies that e~~1J iSapolyrnQ_IJ 2_qj_<::
~_gregat<:._~~~~vi.or. These stlJ :l:~turesare almost a~wa)'s_fou_Ild iIl_",:s_socia_ti5?D
with waxes when theyare retrieved from wells, storage tanks, or pip~lin.~s,
J They ter{d-toformbecause of the removal of aIl~turaliyoccurring mixture of
_~nd--~aTtenes that act as natural dispersantsforthe asphahen~0fhe
removal oi_th~se natllrally occurring_ :r-~~iIland maltenes. can be accoIIl~
__pli.~h<::gQx-_suchsmall shear forces as the off-gas oflight-endalkanes_(e~&,
_l1lethane, ethane, butane, pentane, and. hexane). - '-
.-- .I' ~~sins and maltenes can also be destabilized by inductive forces at th~
-E ! P _ ~ . __lJ r_fu~f .orI;}ductive inteI<lc:ti()~S._ "it~ _()J h~Lasphalt~nes or..p~1!ff!.ns.
IThis may explain why they are so often found associated with paraffin waxes.
J , Th~'ltur~ft_heIll<lltenes and resins that stabilize the asphaltene I"S'<::m.9!~
_thc::_subll!litso(th_(:asphaltene andare likelyprecursors of the asphaltene. An
approach to a treatment of asphaltenes would be to approximate the struc-
ture of these stabilizing molecules. A possible key to atreatment would then
involvethe useof materials that havefatty character and ahetero--atomic par-
ent molecule.
!~~lJ lfa!_e js.th_iitit Ill_ight.aJ soafJ !_()_gispers.e_lh~_~<lX crystal~
V If the solid isacorrosion by-product, it isgenerally in the form of an oxi~i~c:;.Q.
_metarsair, and again these saltscan be dispersed with an amine sulfate.
:--- Section II, Chapter 6
113
f : : ; <~_,
Petroleum Companies and Waxes ..::
J ires1:!ogMethodOIC)gieS
_~ou,...p~_~nt_testi"g
'.j '!'~_~~iI1_gp~ocedures for the determination of waxpro!>lernsincrude oils
haveevolvedover theyears fromsimplevisual tests to complex and elaborate
~th~ds r~quiring considerable equip~ent <tIldexpense,Y()ne of the~~arly
tests-employedinvolvesthe heating of acrude oil sample in apour-point tube
'(~siiaiiy,athin~walledPyrex tube with 50ml capacity) to atemperature of
~;bou~Y s o o Ffo; approximately 30minutes ( to assure the waxes have melt-
~Mter the 30-minute heating period, the tube isfitted withathermome-
reran;:rcork arrangement that allowsthethermometerto beimmersed inthe
oil, a9d the wEore-arrangement isallowedto.cocl.ro.raom temperature.
JThe we c9Qt_a!Iljggthesample isturned onits side and held at a,gO_o
angle!Q the,uprightfor_5 seconds, and observed for fluidmovement.vth~~_
~~ is repeated iI_l_~:__I"incremen ts as the temperature drop,s.J1[ter the
sample_teI!lperature has equilibrated at room temperature, it isplaced in a
~rat~rs-teITt,md_air cooled to atemperature at which it no longer
flows,when held at 900 to the upright for 5seconds. This temperature isthen
reported -~s_i4r::pou.r~-p;int of the sample (seeFig._ ~3). , ,.
V Although this test isstill used, and provides agood means of screening
ch~f!lk~U!,eatrnent t,eyerlt.~cals, ~provides only the barest information about
the nature of the waxproblem. Alth~ghJ.he oil sample has stopped flowing
~ihlnthe5csecond period atits pour point, this method provides no infor-
.mationabout what viscositythis represents/V ariances inviscositiesfor differ-
~'sa~ples-it their pour p;;i~ts can range se;ei'ar thousands of centipoise.
Anoth-;:;;-shortcominginvolvesthe formation of awaxskinat the liquid
air interface. Since the partial pressure differential at the liquid-air interface
is substantially different than the partial pressure differentials in the bulk
fluid, awaxskincan format this surface. This waxskinthen impedes theflow
of the sample when held at a900 angle to the upright. Thus, the pour point
measures impedance to flowunder verymild conditions of shear and there-
fore might b~better characterized as a forward yield point temperature.
Nevertheless, pour-p()iI1ttestilUL!_~~eryimportant method.cmd it still rep-
I ~~~~ one. of!b:e.fastest methods of screening crystal IIl()ciifierchemicals.
'{The main point to keep in mind isthat, at best, pour-point testing provides a
qualititi~e techniquethat isimportant for initial screening tests.
J;;"i~ittestigg ..
Over the years, several testmg procedures havebeen developed for the
measurement of wax.deposits produced bycrude oils.vA<:;_()mplet~ listing of
these test metnodol;;gies is'not possible, since they are often proprietary to
-the-laboratories that employth,~nt But abrief description of someof thepub-
'liclyavailaolemethods 'can be given'.
J \ ,..- - \ }- v - , ,..Q_ ,;) \ \ I"\ JL..-v~(}v - '_.Q.
Air Space
5Seconds
@90 Angle
Cooling Bath
5Seconds
@900 Angle
-----------------------------------~
Temperature (Decreasing)
Fig.6-3 Pour-point testing
Cooling Bath
Heating Bath ~160F
-- - --- - - - - --- - -- - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - -~
Time (Increasing)
y
115
Coldfilt~!~I!I_ggmg_.t_est_>
Another method and apparatus employed for deposit testing iscalled
thecoldfilter pluggingtest (seeFig. 6-5). Thismethod and thevariousincar-
nations of equipment employedarealsohighlyindividual, and several differ-
ent configurations exist. The cold-filterplugging test isconcerned primarily
withestimating the onset of crystallization, although it can be modified to
include grossdeposit tendency testing.
The concept employed bythis method involvesthe ideathat aswaxes
form, theycanbecome impediments to thefreeflowof oilsthrough restrict-
ed openings. Several devicesare used to provide these restricted openings,
and include: finemeshwirescreens, glassfrits, formation coresamples, spe-
cial metal filters, and ahost of different devices.Thesedevicesaregenerally
submerged inthe sampleof oil, whichiseither cooled staticallyor dynami-
cally,andavacuumisapplied acrossthefilter, Thetimeandtemperatures are
Cold-finger tests havebeen devisedto answer some of the questions
about the conditions of temperatures atwhichdepositsform. Thesetestsare
often performed using equipment designs that range fromquite simpleto
veryelaborate. The basicconcept of thesetestsisthat asurface (coldfinger)
isplaced in asample of heated crude oil, and cooling fluid (provided bya
thermostated circulatingheating and coolingbath) iscirculated through the
interior of thecoldfinger.
The oil isgentlyagitated about the coldfinger withamagnetic stirrer
while the oil is maintained at a temperature above its cloud point, and
deposits formon the coldfinger's surface. The amount of deposit collected
after the test hasbeen run isameasure of theproblems thefieldwill experi-
encewiththe oil. The duration of the test canrange from3-40hours and is
highlydependent upon the individualsconducting the test.
The extent to whichconditions of pressure and temperature are con-
trolled determine the degree of sophistication of the instrumentation. If
duplication of thefieldconditions of pressurearedesired, special device-con-
struction considerations must be taken into account. Under normal condi-
tionsof pressure (1atm) no special construction considerations arerequired,
and this typeof construction ismost widelyused bytestinglaboratories (see
Fig. 6--4).
As implied above, one of the shortcomings of the cold-finger test isits
duration, whichishighlyvariable. Thisleadsto conclusionsabout thenature
of thedepositsthat arenotjustified basedonthedifferencesof shear andres-
idence duration of fieldfluidsversusthoseof the device.Anadditional com-
plicatiori ariseswhen attempts are made to quantifythe deposits produced.
Reproducible recoveryof the deposit fromthe probes, whenrun under the
same conditions, is difficult and often leads to loss, as the time it takes to
recover the deposit from the cold finger varies while the temperatures
increases. Thus, the coldfinger method isgenerallyonlysemi-quantitative.
J
Petroleum Companies and Waxes ...:
y
Fig. 6-4 Rudimentary cold-finger apparatus
Stirring Hot Plate
Sealed Oil Container
-4-1---Metal Cold Finger
Mounting Plate
Outlet
Circulating Heating
Cooling Bath Inlet
Fig. 6-5 Rudimentary design of cold-filter plug device
Liquid Nitrogen
--- Trap Optionally Used
VacuumPump
Jacketed Container

Circulating Fluid
Filter
Circulating Heating
And Cooling Bath
118
Dyg~_1111~_ rheol()ft._,
.-- Dynamicrheology hasnearly become anindispensable tool inparaffin
testing laboratories, because of itsflexibility and sensitivity (seeFig. 6--7).
v _Rolle~~ClUcI~~~sitte~t
The rolled ball deposit test isamong someof theroutine testing meth-
odsusedfor chemical screening tests. Thistest consistsof rolling asampleof
solidparaffin isolated fromthe area under study (e.g., tubing, transfer line,
or storage tanks) into a3-4 gramball. Theball isthen placed inacontainer
of water, solvent, or water-plus-surfactant, and after aquiescent period the
extent of disruption isobserved. Thesamples arethen subjected toaperiod
of agitation, and observed for the extent of disruption. The container and
contents aregenerally duplicated, and oneset of samplesisheated, whilethe
other isnot, prior totheagitation. The intent of thistest istodetermine the
effectiveness of various solventsand surfactants asdeposit removal aids. This
test isqualitative innature and issubject to the individual prejudices of the
one conducting the tests.
j
!
V
measured, andwhen thefilter stops theflowof oil, thisrepresents theplug-
ging point, andthetest isterminated. Thismethod isoften claimed tobesen-
sitiveenough togiveaccurate measurements of thecloudpoint temperatures
of crude oils.
One of theobviouslimitations of thistestprocedure isthecomplication
introduced by sands, emulsions, and other discontinuities contained inoils.
Another shortfall isthat unless thefiltrateistrapped inacoldtrap, thequan-
titativeutility of thistest method isof no value. Test conditions must beaccu-
rately controlled sothat temperature isconstant or variableinareproducible
way,andvacuums must becarefully reproduced.
J Dynamic test loops
~---severaI dynami~t~~isand testing deviceshavebeen designed for usein
the study of fluid pumping characteristic. These devices range in cost and
complexity fromthousands to hundreds of thousands of dollars, and it can
take alarge room to field portable units. Many employ computer-interface
technology and cover abroad range incomplexity of operation. Depending
onwhat information isdesired, thesedevicescanusefromafewtomany sen-
sors (or transducers).
These devices generally use pumps to circulate fresh (or recycled)
crude samples through aconduit of specific dimensions, and measure such
variables astemperature, fluid velocity, pressure, viscosity,pH, conductivity,
water content, etc. The general concept of their operation isthat by varying
theconditions towhich thesample isexposed (pumping rate, temperature,
pressure, etc.) reliable data about thetransfer of fluids canbeobtained (see
Fig. 6--6).
:--- Section II, Chapter 6
}.
~
~
If
~
~
~
'"
;:l
~'
'"
s ..
~
> <
~
Fig. 6-6 Bas icdes ignof dynamicloop
Sample
Preheater
(Optional)
I Computer I
Heating Cooling
Container
Counter
1- - -
,
,
I
Pressure Transducer
1:~I'('l%t/1

Circulating Heating
Cooling Bath
Thermisto
.._
.._
\Q
y
rSpindle
Heating Cooling J
,
,
,
- ,
Shear
:Lamella,
Analog Signal Out
.. Graphical Output
-,
,
Fig. 6-7 Dynamic viscometer
Fig. 6-8 Sonic Portable Laboratory
Multimedia Center
,
r
,
,
r
r
,
Communications
Ester/Amide
Coating
ToDB-2S
Connector
AID Converter
PCIMCIA Card f----
Timer &Receiver
Probes
Computer
Sound Generator
Bridges Therimsors
Control Box
122
Summary
The preceding discussion givesan overviewof some of the problems
facedbytheproduction, transport, andrefining of waxycrudeoils.Oneof the
Further, the deviceisdesigned to be portable and operate in awide
range of remote environments.
Because the unit employs probes for measurement, several measure-
ments can be conducted remotely, under prevailing conditions of tempera-
tureand pressure. Theunit isalsomodular, and canbefittedaspart of some
complementary package including such other devices as the dynamic test
..loop described above.
j Supplem~~n,al tes~.pr~c:ec:l.!lrf!$ .
A test method has been described that utilizes athin viewingwindow
consisting of twoplates of quartz, through which iscirculated the crude oil
under study, whileabeamof polarized light impinges on the window. The
transmitted light isthen passed through avariable defraction grating on the
opposing side, and thewavelengths areanalyzed. The advantages claimed by
those promoting this method are that the crude oil can besampled under
pressure from aproducing well, or stemtest, and maintained at pressure
whilecirculating asamplebetween theplates of thecell. Thecell canbeheat-
ed or cooled, and it isalso claimed that this technique isveryaccurate for
determining the onset of acloud point (seeFig. 6-9).
sound isused asameans of imparting shear forces to the
sample
akinetic model isused in conjunction with temperature
measurements togenerate physical profiles of thesystem
Waxycrude oilsexhibit changing viscosityprofiles asthetemperature is
changed. Thixotropy andyieldpoint measurements areroutinely performed
asareother teststhat seektodetermine cloudpoints and temperature versus
viscosityprofiles. Several models of rheometers areavailable, and their costs
range fromafewthousand dollars tomore than $100,000. The test methods
performed range incomplexity fromsimpletemperature/viscosity profiles at
standard pressure to high-pressure procedures performed in expensive
closedsystems.
viSonic testing
_-- th~-'so;:;-ic'PortableLaboratory isadevicethat consistsof acollection of
electromechanical sending andreceivingdevicesthat areinterfaced toacom-
puter through ananalog todigital converter (A/D converter) (seeFig. 6-8).
Theconcepts of operations performed bythisunit arebasedonmanyof those
employed bythedevicesmentioned above, withtwonotable exceptions:
:--- Section II, Chapter 6
}.
~
~
; ; ;
()
!
'"
; :l
5
'"
; :l
" '-
~
~
Graphical
Information
Fig. 6-9 Generalsetupfor light-beamcloud-pointdevice
Focal
Lens
rSample Out
Heated
Cooled
Chamber
Sample In ~
N
~
Barrow, Gordon M. Physical Chemistry. 2nd ed. NewYork:McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1966.
Becker, H.L. "Noteson Chemical Test Procedures in theOil Field."
unpublished, 1983.
Handbook of Chemistry, and Physics. 56th ed. Cleveland: CRCPress, 1975-1976.
References
Problems
6-1. What common forces of interaction between bipolar emulsifiers and
waxes explain the increased difficulty of addressing either the wax
problem or theemulsion problem?
6-2. What property of crystal formation phenomena explains the often-
observed pour- point reduction byasphaltenes?
6-3. Will resolution of an emulsion inawaxcontaining crude alwaysresult
inlower viscosity?Explain.
6-4. Wouldoneexpect theaddition of aneffectivecrystal modifier toacom-
bination systemof emulsion and wax to aid in the resolution of the
emulsion?
6-5. Ifthe highest fraction of waxin acrude oil melts at 60 C, would one
expect to seeareduction in pour point bythe introduction of apoly-
mer withpendant groups that melt at 65C?Explain.
most important points toemerge fromthisdiscussion istheneed for detailed
planning. Planning byeach facilityfromtheproducer totherefiner isneces-
saryto avoidor remove the effectsof waxaccumulation. The discussion also
points to thevaluewaxeshavetotheend product mix, andwhyit issoimpor-
tant toprovide adequate measures toafford itsavailabilitytotherefinery.
Waxesandwaxycrude oilspresent achallenge tothosehandling them,
but theyhavevalue-added qualities that emulsion streams generally lack. The
treatment of waxproblems incrude oil isnot alwaysassimpleasadding acrys-
tal modifier. Sometimes itisnecessary toresolveemulsions, disperse solids, or
suspend asphaltenes before acceptable treatment is achieved. The physical
conditions of the prevailing environment must alsobe considered; the best
chemistry intheworldwill dono good if it cannot bepumped.
The preceding chapter also discussed some of the methods employed
for the characterization of waxy crude oils. Each of these methods has its
strong andweak points, but iftheyarecarefully applied they canbeof signif-
icant valuetothoseinvolvedinthiswork. Although several other methods are
usedinthiswork, most havenot received thestatusor acceptance of thoselist-
ed above. The extent of the problems faced bythe producers, transporters,
and refiners will determine the continued advancement of test methodolo-
gies.
:--- Section 11, Chapter 6
124