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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The French Revolution dramatically and quickly altered the political structure of France, and
the Napoleonic conquests spread many of the revolutionary principles in an equally rapid and
stunning fashion to other parts of Europe. During the late 18
th
& early 19
th
centuries, another
revolution - an industrial one - was transforming the economic and social structure of Europe,
although in a less dramatic and rapid fashion. The Industrial Revolution sparked immense amounts of
creativity, productivity, and innovation.
Causes
1. Agricultural Revolution paved the way: After buying up the land of village farmers, wealthy
landowners enclosed their land with fences or hedges. The increase in their landholdings enabled
them to cultivate larger fields. Within these larger fields, called enclosures, landowners
experimented with more productive seeding and harvesting methods to boost crop yields. The
enclosure movement had two important results.
First, landowners tried new agricultural methods.
Second, large landowners forced small farmers to become tenant farmers or to give up farming and
move to the cities.
Jethro Tull was one of the first of these scientific farmers. He saw that the usual way of
sowing seed by scattering it across the ground was wasteful. Many seeds failed to take root. He solved
this problem with an invention called the seed drill in about 1701. It allowed farmers to sow seeds in
well-spaced rows at specific depths. A larger share of the seeds took root, boosting crop yields.
2. Rotating Crops: The process of crop rotation, proved to be one of the best developments by the
scientific farmers. One year, for example, a farmer might plant a field with wheat, which exhausted
soil nutrients. The next year he planted a root crop, such as turnips, to restore nutrients. This might
be followed in turn by barley and then clover.
3. Livestock breeders improved their methods too. In the 1700s, for example, ROBERT
BAKEWELL increased his mutton (sheep meat) output by allowing only his best sheep to breed.
Other farmers followed Bakewells lead. Between 1700 and 1786, the average weight for lambs
climbed from 18 to 50 pounds. As food supplies increased and living conditions improved,
Englands population mushroomed. An increasing population boosted the demand for food and
goods such as cloth. As farmers lost their land to large enclosed farms, many became factory
workers.
For several reasons, Britain was the rst country to have an economy based on industry.
1) Coal and water to power machines
2) Iron ore to make machines and tools
3) Rivers to move people and goods
4) Good harbors for shipping goods to other lands
5) Britain also had a system of banks that could fund new businesses
6) British governments positive attitude: Britains political stability gave the country a tremendous
advantage over its neighbors. Though Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none
occurred on British soil. Their military successes gave the British a positive attitude. Parliament
also passed laws to help encourage and protect business ventures
7) Since invention was an economic activity, its pace and character depended on factors that affected
business profits including, in particular, input prices. Britain stands out as a high wage, cheap
energy economy
Other countries had some of these advantages. But Britain had all the factors of production, the
resources needed to produce goods and services that the Industrial Revolution required. They included
land, labor, and capital (or wealth).
Industrialisation
Textiles Industrialize First: The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Several new
inventions helped businesses produce cloth and clothing more quickly. Business owners built huge
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buildingsfactoriesthat housed large machines powered by water. The invention of the steam
engine in 1705 brought in a new source of power. The steam engine used re to heat water and
produce steam, which was used to drive the engine. Eventually steam-driven machines were used to
run factories.
Improvements made in transportation: An American invented the rst steam-driven boat. This
allowed people to send goods more quickly over rivers and canals.
Watts Steam Engine: James Watt, a mathematical instrument maker at the University of
Glasgow in Scotland, thought about the problem for two years. In 1765, Watt figured out a way to
make the steam engine work faster and more efficiently while burning less fuel. In 1774, Watt joined
with a businessman named Matthew Boulton. Boulton was an entrepreneur, a person who organizes,
manages, and takes on the risks of a business. He paid Watt a salary and encouraged him to build
better engines.
Water Transportation - Steam could also propel boats. An American inventor named Robert
Fulton ordered a steam engine from Boulton and Watt. He built a steamboat called the Clermont,
which made its first successful trip in 1807. The Clermont later ferried passengers up and down New
Yorks Hudson River. In England, water transportation improved with the creation of a network of
canals, or human-made waterways. By the mid-1800s, 4,250 miles of inland channels slashed the cost
of transporting both raw materials and finished goods.
Road Transportation - British roads improved, too, thanks largely to the efforts of John
McAdam, a Scottish engineer. Working in the early 1800s, McAdam equipped road beds with a layer
of large stones for drainage. On top, he placed a carefully smoothed layer of crushed rock. Even in
rainy weather heavy wagons could travel over the new macadam roads without sinking in mud.
Private investors formed companies that built roads and then operated them for profit.
People called the new roads turnpikes because travelers had to stop at tollgates (turnstiles or
turnpikes) to pay tolls before traveling farther.
The Railway Age Begins - Steam-driven machinery powered English factories in the late
1700s. A steam engine on wheels - the railroad locomotive - drove English industry after 1820. In
1804, an English engineer named Richard Trevithick designed a steam-driven locomotive. Other
British engineers soon built improved versions of Trevithicks locomotive.
Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burst of industrial growth. At that time, a British
engineer set up the worlds rst railroad line. It used a steamdriven locomotive. Soon, railroads were
being built all over Britain.
The railroad boom helped business owners move their goods to market more quickly. The
boom in railroad building created thousands of new jobs in several different industries. The rail road
had a deep effect on British society. For instance, people who lived in the country moved to cities.
Impact on Society
The Industrial Revolution affected every part of life in Great Britain, but proved to be a mixed
blessing.
Positive Effects
It created jobs for workers. It contributed to the wealth of the nation. It fostered technological
progress and invention. It greatly increased the production of goods and raised the standard of
living. Perhaps most important, it provided the hope of improvement in peoples lives. These
included healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper, mass-produced clothing. Because the
Industrial Revolution created a demand for engineers as well as clerical and professional workers, it
expanded educational opportunities. The middle and upper classes prospered immediately from the
Industrial Revolution. For the workers it took longer, but their lives gradually improved during the
1800s. Laborers eventually won higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions after
they joined together to form labor unions.
The long-term effects of the Industrial Revolution are still evident. Most people today in
industrialized countries can afford consumer goods that would have been considered luxuries 50 or 60
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years ago. In addition, their living and working conditions are much improved over those of workers
in the 19
th
century. Also, profits derived from industrialization produced tax revenues. These funds
have allowed local, state, and federal governments to invest in urban improvements and raise the
standard of living of most city dwellers.
Negative Effects
9 Population Growth & Growth of Cities: One change was a rise in the proportion of people who
lived in cities. For centuries, most people in Europe had lived in the country. Now more and more
lived in cities. The number of cities with more than 100,000 people doubled between 1800 and
1850. Because they grew quickly, cities were not ideal places to live. People could not nd good
housing, schools, or police protection. The cities were lthy with garbage, and sickness swept
through slum areas. The average life span of a person living in a city was 17 years - compared to 38
years in the countryside.
9 Working conditions were harsh as well. The average worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6
days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerful machines were dangerous. Many workers were
killed or seriously injured in accidents.
9 Living Conditions - Because Englands cities grew rapidly, they had no development plans,
sanitary codes, or building codes. Moreover, they lacked adequate housing, education, and police
protection for the people who poured in from the countryside to seek jobs. Most of the unpaved
streets had no drains, and garbage collected in heaps on them.
9 The middle class - made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy
farmersdid well. They enjoyed comfortable lives in pleasant homes. This class began to grow in
size, and some people grew wealthier than the nobles who had dominated society for many
centuries. Still, nobles looked down on the people who gained their wealth from business. They, in
turn, looked down on the poor workers. Gradually, a larger middle class - neither rich nor poor -
emerged. The upper middle class consisted of government employees, doctors, lawyers, and
managers of factories, mines, and shops. The lower middle class included factory overseers and
such skilled workers as toolmakers, mechanical drafters, and printers. These people enjoyed a
comfortable standard of living.
9 The Working Class - During the years 1800 to 1850, however, laborers, or the working class, saw
little improvement in their living and working conditions. They watched their livelihoods disappear
as machines replaced them. In frustration, some smashed the machines they thought were putting
them out of work. One group of such workers was called the LUDDITES. They were named after
Ned Ludd. Ludd, probably a mythical English laborer, was said to have destroyed weaving
machinery around 1779. The Luddites attacked whole factories in northern England beginning in
1811, destroying laborsaving machinery. Outside the factories, mobs of workers rioted, mainly
because of poor living and working conditions.
9 Rise of Global Inequality - Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized and
nonindustrialized countries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factories
running and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials from
less-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets for their
manufactured products.
9 Its immediate effect was to establish Britain as the leading economic and technological nation in the
world, with all the political prestige and power that came with that, and it imposed the PAX
BRITANNICA on Europe for a century.
9 Rise in imperialism - Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets.
Soon other European countries, the United States, Russia, and Japan followed Britains lead, seizing
colonies for their economic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one countrys rule over
many other lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy nations. Imperialism
was born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for resources to supply the factories of
Europe, and the development of new markets around the world.
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9 Environmental Pollution: Coal smoke and cloth dyes polluted the air and water.
The English city of Manchester showed how industrialization changed society. Rapid growth
made the city crowded and lthy. The factory owners risked their money and worked long hours to
make their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyed huge prots and built huge houses. The workers
also worked long hours, but had few benets. Many of these workers were children, some only six
years old. Not until 1819 did the British government put limits on using children as workers. With so
much industry in one place, Manchester suffered in another way.
Industrialization Spreads
Other countries followed the example of Britain and began to change their economies to an
industrial base. The United States was one of the rst. Like Britain, it had water power, sources of
coal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. The United States also beneted from conict with
Britain. During the War of 1812, Britain stopped shipping goods to the United States. As a result,
American industries had a chance to supply the goods that Americans wanted.
The switch to an industrial economy began in the United States in the textile industry. In
1789, based on memory and a partial design, a British worker b rought the secret of Britains textile
machines to North America. He built a machine to spin thread. In 1813, a group of Massachusetts
investors built a complex of factories that made cloth. Just a few years later they built an even larger
complex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls, came to these towns to
work in the factories.
In the United States, industry grew rst in the northeast. In the last decades of the 1800s, a
rapid burst of industrial growth took place that was more wide-spread. This boom was fueled by large
supplies of coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appearance of a number of new inventions,
including the electric light. As in Britain, a railroad building
was also a big part of this industrial growth.
Industrial growth spread to Europe as well. Belgium
was the rst to adopt British ways. It was rich in iron and
coal and had good waterways. It had the resources needed.
Germany was politically divided until the late
1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide industrial
economy. However, west-central Germany was rich in coal
and did become a leading industrial site. Across Europe, small areas began to change to the new
industries. Industrial growth did not occur in France until after 1850. Then the government began to
build a large network of railroads.
Some countries-such as Austria-Hungary and Spain-had problems that stopped them from
building new industries. The Industrial Revolution changed the world. Countries that had adopted an
industrial economy enjoyed more wealth and power than those that had not.
The countries of Europe soon began to take advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. They used
these lands as sources of raw materials needed for their factories. They saw the people only as
markets for the goods they made. They took control of these lands, a practice called imperialism.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (ANTI-WHITE FURY)
Origin
* Vague proposals of The Cripps mission
* The utmost emphasis of the British Government on Communalism and British efforts to
Balkanise the Indian subcontinent.
* The retreat of the British from Malay, Burma and Singapore, leaving their dependants to
fend for themselves, the indescribable plight of the Indians trekking back home from these
places, the racial ill-treatment meted out to Indians by white soldiers, the 'scorched earth'
policy pursued by the British in Bengal to resist probable Japanese invasion which
Businesses needed huge sums
of money to take on big projects. To
raise money, companies sold shares of
ownership, called stock. All those
who held stock were part owners of
the company. This form of organizing
a business is called a corporation.
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resulted in the commandeering of all means of communicating, war-time price rise, black-
marketeering and profiteering - all these contributed to the creation of an anti-white fury.
* The bitter campaign of the Muslim League against the congress and the Hindus provoked
the Congress to adopt more radical methods to achieve Swaraj.
QIM was the outcome of the above mentioned factors.
July 14, 1942 CWC meeting at Wardha accepted the idea of Mass struggle.
August 8,
1942
The All-India Congress Committee passed a resolution at a meeting at
Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and leave
India in Gods hand. This resolution declared that the immediate
ending of the British Rule in India was an urgent necessity for the sake
of India and for the cause of freedom and Democracy, for which
Britain and her allies were fighting against fascist powers. The
resolution approved the starting of mass struggle on non-violent lines
on the widest possible scale for the independence of the country.
Gandhi regarded the impending movement as the last struggle for
Indian Independence. In his speech before the All India Committee, he
declared it was a decision to Do or Die and it was going to be the last
struggle of his life to win the freedom of India. Gandhi gave forth the
slogan Quit India.
OPERATION
ZERO
HOUR
Before the congress could start a movement, the Government struck
very hard on August 9, 1942 OPERATION ZERO HOUR arresting
most of the congress leaders. During the Quit India Movement, the
textile strike at Ahmedabad lasted for 3 months and the city was
described as the Stalin grad of India. Nehru was placed in the Almora
Jail, Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in the Agakhan Palace, Poona. But
this did not discourage the Indians. They responded to Gandhis call
with great vigor. All over the country there were strikes and
demonstrations. The most effective resistance came from the congress
Socialists, a group within the main party. J.P.Narayan and R.M.Lohia
took the head. Those who escaped arrest on 9 August went
underground and guided the movement. Other prominent socialists
were Achyut Patwardan, Raman and Mishra, Purushotam Tricamdos
and S.M.Joshi. Mostly the students, the peasants, and the middle class
people spearheaded the movement.
Phases of QIM
The First Phase was predominantly urban and included hartals, strikes and clashes with the
police and army in most major cities. Though initially the Movement was based on non-
violent lines later it turned into violent due to repressive policy of the government and
indiscriminate arrests of the leaders. Further, it was the only all India Movement, which
was leader less.
The Second Phase of the movement started from the middle of August. A number of short-
lived local 'national governments' were also set up. Parallel Governments were established.
* First parallel government in Ballia was formed under Chittu Pandey.
* Satara in Maharasfra Prati Sarkar under Y.B.Chawan and Nana Patil
* Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P. and Bihar.
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* Bengal Tamluk in Midnapore district, Jaitya Sarkar functioned.
The Third Phase of the movement started from about the end of September and was
characterized by terrorist activities, sabotage and guerrilla warfare by educated youths and
peasant squads.
All the three phases of the movement were crushed by brutal atrocities including the use of
machine guns from the air.
Extent of Mass participation
The unprecedented response of the Indians to the Quit India Movement alarmed and
frightened the British authorities in India.
* The students, workers and peasants unions provided the backbone of the revolt. Workers
went on strikes. Peasants revolted furiously. Young women also participated.
* Muslims provided shelter to underground activists. There were no communal calshes
during the movement.
* The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not
sympathize with the movement.
* The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community. In fact,
most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War.
Response of political parties
* The Muslim League kept aloof though many Muslims did participate. The league gave
the call Divide and Quit.
* The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement.
* The Communist Party of India due to its Peoples War line did not support the
movement. The CPI after the removal of the ban on it in July 1942 had supported the
Leagues demand for Pakistan and the war efforts of the Government. The CPI demanded
its withdrawal when Russia joined the allies in the war.
* The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jaya
prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organized an
underground movement. Socialists like J.P.Narayan, R.M.Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali and Usha
Mehta were involved in underground revolutionary activities. The socialists formed a 12-
point program and tried to implement it in rural areas. They set up a Central Directorate in
Bombay and a parallel guerilla organization known as AZAD DASTA with its branches all
over India. Usha Sharma started an underground radio station at Bombay. Sucheta
kriplani formed a Satyagraha Samiti.
* Some Congress leaders like Rajaii were openly in favour of the partition of India and
against the Quit India movement.
Response of the government
* The government imposed severe restrictions on the press.
* Demonstrations were lathi charged, machine gunned and even bombed from the air.
Prisoners were tortured. Over 10000 people died.
* Ultimately the Government succeeded in crushing the movement.
Failure of the movement
The movement was infact short lived. It failed because:-
It was leaderless. Gandhi was arrested in the early hours of August 9, 1942.
The leaders singularly failed to give the people a well conceived plan or well thought out
programme of action.
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Proper organization could not stand for long before the mighty strength of an imperial
government in power.
There was a deplorable lack of co-oriantion between the organizers of the movement in
different areas.
It lacked support from other political parties. The QIM was considered to be a congress
sponsored movement and not a national struggle.
Impact of the movement
It played a vital role in Indian National movement as outlined below.
* It placed the demand for independence on the immediate agenda of the national
movement.
* It weakened the leftist groups and parties in India considerably. The Socialists and
Boses followers charged the communists with treachery as the communists did not
participate in the W.W.II because of their support to the allies, including Soviet Union and
the communists charged the Socialists with fifth columnist activity because of the formers
plan to win freedom for India with the help of the Axis Powers.
* Its importance lay in the fact that it demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling had
reached in the country and the great capacity for struggle and sacrifice that the people of
India had developed.
* Lord Linlithgow described the Quit India Movement as by far the most serious rebellion
since that of 1857. The gravity and extent of the Quit India movement by Linlithgow's own
admission may be compared to those of the Revolt of 1857.
* Quit India Movement was the final attempt for countrys freedom. Independence was
no longer a matter of bargain and this became amply clear after the war.
* The arrest of the congress leaders proved beneficial to them as it helped them avoid
taking a clear public stand on the Japanese war issue, something which otherwise would have
been embarrassing for a few months in 1944 when S.C.Boses INA appeared on the borders
of Assam at a time when on the world scale the Allies were clearly winning the war.
PRESSURE AND WIND
The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are straight
and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the
resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise. Over high pressure
area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface. Apart from convergence, some
eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the rising of air,
which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
Pressure system Pressure
condition at the
center
Pattern of wind direction
Northern
hemisphere
Southern
hemisphere
Cyclone Low Anti clockwise Clockwise
Anti cyclone High Clockwise Anti clockwise
PRESSURE BELTS
There are seven pressure belts in all. They are
Equatorial trough of low pressure / Doldrums
Sub tropical high-pressure belt (northern hemisphere)
Sub tropical high-pressure belt (southern hemisphere)
HORSE LATITUDES
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Sub polar low-pressure belt (northern hemisphere)
Sub polar low-pressure belt (southern hemisphere)
Polar high (northern hemisphere)
Polar high (southern hemisphere)
1. DOLDRUMS OR THE EQUATORIAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (5
0
N and S along the
equator)
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also known as the Intertropical Front, Monsoon trough,
Doldrums or the Equatorial Convergence Zone, is a belt of low pressure girdling Earth at the equator.
It is formed by the vertical ascent of warm, moist air from the latitudes above and below the equator.
The air is drawn into the intertropical convergence zone by the action of the Hadley cell, a
macroscale atmospheric feature which is part of the Earth's heat and moisture distribution system. The
location of the intertropical convergence zone varies over time. Over land, it moves back and forth
across the equator following the sun's zenith point. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is
better defined, the seasonal cycle is subtler, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of
ocean temperatures.
Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the equator.
When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones, one of
which is usually stronger than the other.
Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in
many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and
warm seasons of higher latitudes. Long term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result
in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.
Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator
where the trade winds feed in. Early sailors named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the
inactivity and stagnation they found themselves in after days of no wind. To find oneself becalmed in
this region in a hot and muggy
climate could mean death in an era
when wind was the only major
motive force.
Tropical cyclogenesis
depends upon low-level vorticity
as one of its six requirements, and
the ITCZ/monsoon trough fills this
role, as it is a zone of wind change
and speed, otherwise known as
horizontal wind shear. As the
ITCZ migrates more than 500 km
from the equator during the
respective hemisphere's summer
season, increasing coriolis force
allows the formation of tropical
cyclones within this zone more
possible. In the north Atlantic and
the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase
in thunderstorm activity, and under weak vertical wind shear, these clusters of thunderstorms can
become tropical cyclones.
2. SUB TROPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE BELTS / TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE CALMS
(Horse Latitudes between 25
0
N and S & 35
0
N and S Latitudes)
Circum polar low pressure
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This belt is broken into a number of high-pressure cells. The high pressure is acused due to
the subsidence and piling of the air. A calm condition with variable and feeble winds is created in this
region. The high pressure in this belt is due to the following:-
The temperature in these latitudes is comparatively lower than that on the equator.
The hot air over the equator rises, cools and spreads to north and south. The cooling causes
the air to sink. The sinking or descending air accumulates and creates a high-pressure area in
these latitudes.
Because of earths rotation, the air banks up over these latitudes.
3. SUB POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS / CIRCUM POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS
(Between 60
0
and 70
0
in both the hemispheres)
These belts lie almost around the arctic and Antarctic circles. These are well developed in the
north Atlantic and north pacific regions. The low pressure is caused by converging and rising air. Due
to great contrast between the temperature of the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,
cyclonic storms are produced.
4. POLAR HIGH -PRESSURE BELTS / POLAR HIGHS (Between 70
0
- 90
0
N and South at
both the poles)
The temperature is extremely permanently low. The cold descending air as such, gives rise to
high pressures over the poles. These areas of polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.
ISOBARS AND ISO BAR MAPS
Isobars are imaginary lines drawn on a amp, connecting places having the same atmospheric
pressure. The isobar maps are of great value in studying the climatic details of an area. When the
isobars are very close, the pressure gradient (Barometric slope) is aid to be steep and the speed of the
blowing wind will be very high. When the isobars are very far apart, the barometric slope is moderate
or gentle and the speed of the blowing wind will be very low. A low-pressure isobar surrounded by a
high-pressure isobar denotes a depression or a cyclone, whereas a high-pressure isobar surrounded by
low-pressure isobars denotes an anticyclone.
Windstorm - A windstorm is just a storm with high winds or violent gusts but little or no rain.
Gust Front- A gust front is the leading edge of cool air rushing down and out from a thunderstorm.
There are two main reasons why the air flows out of some thunderstorms so rapidly. The primary
reason is the presence of relatively dry air in the lower atmosphere. This dry air causes some of the
rain falling through it to evaporate, which cools the air. Since cool air sinks (just as warm air rises),
this causes a down-rush of air that spreads out at the ground. The edge of this rapidly spreading cool
pool of air is the gust front. The second reason is that the falling precipitation produces a drag on the
air, forcing it downward. If the wind following the gust front is intense and damaging, the windstorm
is known as a downburst.
Downburst - A downburst is created by an area of significantly rain-cooled air that, after hitting
ground level, spreads out in all directions producing strong winds. Unlike winds in a tornado, winds in
a downburst are directed outwards from the point where it hits land or water. Dry downbursts are
associated with
thunderstorms with very little
rain, while wet downbursts
are created by thunderstorms
with high amounts of rainfall.
Derecho - A derecho is a
widespread and long-lived windstorm that is associated with a fast-moving band of severe
thunderstorms. They can produce significant damage to property and pose a serious threat life,
primarily by downburst winds. To be classified as a derecho, the path length of the storm has to be at
least 280 miles long. Widths may vary from 50-300 miles. Derechos are usually not associated with a
cold front, but a stationary front. They occur mostly in July, but can occur at anytime during the
spring and summer.
How do windmills work? - Windmills work because they slow
down the speed of the wind. The wind flows over the airfoil shaped
blades causing lift, like the effect on airplane wings, causing them to
turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric
generator to produce electricity.
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Jet stream - The jet stream is a fast flowing, river of air found in the atmosphere at around 12 km
above the surface of the Earth just under the tropopause. They form at the boundaries of adjacent air
masses with significant differences in temperature, such as of the polar region and the warmer air to
the south. Because of the effect of the Earth's rotation the streams flow west to east, propagating in a
serpentine or wave-like manner at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.
General Atmospheric Circulation
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at
this low pressure zone. The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top
of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes
accumulation of air at about 30o N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and
forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 300N
and S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the
easterlies. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are
called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle latitudes the
circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising warm air that
blows from the subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies and the cell is
known as the Ferrel cell. At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and
blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell. These
three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat
energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.
General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans
The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide
input of energy and water vapour into the air. These interactions take place rather slowly over a
large part of the ocean.
Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards
South American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm
water off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associated
with the pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure
condition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation. The combined phenomenon of
southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years when the ENSO is strong,
large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The arid west coast of South America
receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major parts of
the world.

WINDS & ITS TYPES
Air moving parallel to the ground is called wind; while vertical air movement is called current.
The wind is known by the direction from, which it blows
- A wind blowing from west to east is westerly
- A wind blowing from east to west is easterly
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An instrument known as Wind vane knows the direction of wind. The wind velocity is measured
using Anemometer. The speed of the wind is expressed in kmph and knots per hour on the sea. There
are three different air circulation systems namely primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary
circulation pattern prepares the broad framework for other circulatory patterns.
The primary winds are also known as planetary winds. They include trade winds, westerlies
and polar winds.
The secondary winds include monsoon cyclones, anticyclones, air masses and fronts.
The tertiary winds include local winds like land and sea breezes. They affect only local
weather and climate.
I. PRIMARY WINDS / PLANETARY WINDS/ PREVAILING WINDS
The prevailing wind is the wind that blows most frequently across a particular region.
Different regions on Earth have different prevailing wind directions, which are dependent upon the
nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the latitudinal wind zones. These winds
constitute large-scale motion of atmosphere under the influence of pressure gradients, Coriolis force
and frictional force. It ignores seasonal heating and land water contrast on the earths surface.
In general, the following prevailing winds across the Earth may be identified, although
variations arise due to the positions and differential heating rates of the continents and oceans.
Latitude Direction Common Name
90-60N NE Polar Easterlies
60-30N SW Southwest Antitrades
30-0N NE Northeast Trades
0-30S SE Southeast Trades
30-60S NW Roaring Forties
90-60S SE Polar Easterlies
The prevailing winds in The British Isles are the southwesterly, but for much of the time,
the British Isles are influenced by polar air masses with a northwesterly or northerly airflow, that
bring with them colder showery weather. Prevailing winds in the Indian Oceans are northeasterly.
During the summer months however, a larger low-pressure system develops over southern Asia due to
continental heating. Winds in this region now reverse to form the Southwest Monsoons, which bring a
prolonged wet season to Southeast Asia and the subcontinent of India.
1.DOLDRUMS is a zone of calmness near equator on both its sides. Here winds are feeble and
have least surface movement.
2. TRADE WINDS / EASTERLY TRADE WINDS - blow between 50
0
and 30
0
latitudes in both
the hemispheres. The name Trade Winds is based on an early meaning of the word trade meaning
"steady track". These winds were very important in early, wind-based seafaring trade. The steady
track of these winds comes from the stable weather conditions in tropical areas. Strongly heated air
along the equator forms one side of an atmospheric cell that extends to about 30
o
north of the equator.
A similar cell exists south of the equator. Within each cell, the hot, less dense equatorial air rises and
begins to move away to the north (or south). This air is replaced by cooler air that is drawn in along
the surface from higher latitudes. In both cases the moving air is affected by the Coriolis Effect.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing winds are northeasterly and are called northeast
trades. In the southern hemisphere, the prevailing winds are southeasterly and are called southeast
trades. The two Wind belts converge near the equator and forms inter tropical convergence zone
(ITCZ).
3. WESTERLIES / ANTITRADE WINDS/ MID-LATITUDE WESTERLY WINDS bring
rainfall throughout the year
Within the middle latitudes from 30
o
North to 60
o
North, the winds generally blow from the
west. The convection responsible for this cell is not as strong as the convection in the tropical and
polar cells. As a result, its winds are not as steady as those are in the tropical and polar cells on either
side. In the mid-latitudes, air driven by the polar cell is rising at latitude 60
o
, and air driven by the
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tropical cell is sinking at latitude 30
o
. A portion of this sinking air moves toward the equator to
become the "trade winds", and another portion moves on toward the pole along the Earths surface.
The result of the Coriolis effect is to deflect the surface flow toward the poles to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and turn it into a westerly wind. In
general, these mild winds are strongly affected by local zones of high and low atmospheric pressure.
These winds blow uninterruptedly with great velocity.
In the southern hemisphere, beyond 40
0
& 50
0
latitude stormy westerlies are observed both in
summer as well as in winter. Hence they were known by early mariners as Roaring forties Furious
fifties screaming sixties.
4. POLAR EASTERLY WINDS / TROUGHS- Blow from polar high-pressure areas to sub
polar low-pressure areas.
A strong atmospheric cell extending from the North Pole to about latitude 60
o
North creates
the polar easterly winds. A similar movement in the Southern Hemisphere also creates polar easterly
winds. Very cold and dense air that is descending toward the Earth at the pole and pushing other air
out of its way dominates this cell. As the displaced air moves along the surface from the pole toward
the lower latitudes, it is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere. In both cases, this means that the course of the winds is bent toward the west.
Thus, the winds that were originally blowing from the pole become increasing easterly until they
reach about latitude 60
o
. At this point, they have been diverted entirely to the west and are no longer
moving toward the equator. Because the air has been warmed by its contact with the surface, it rises
and moves back toward the pole completing the one of the three major wind circulation cells and wind
belts.
II. SECONDARY WINDS /PERIODIC WINDS
They change their direction periodically with the change in season. The pattern of wind
circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating,
pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,
especially over Southeast Asia.
The Arabs who traded with India used the seasonal winds for sailing their ships. They called
these winds Mousim which means season. The term monsoon has evolved from Mousim. The
Greek philosopher Hippallus for the first time observed and recognized the seasonal winds that blow
between Africa and India.
1. MONSOONS
a. SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON / SUMMER MONSOON SEASON
In summer the land gets more heated than the sea, hence there develops a center of low
pressure. This may be called a Heat low or a thermal low. Over the adjoining sea, the air is
comparatively cool and heavy and a high-pressure area develops there. This causes the wind to blow
from the sea to the land. It is known as the summer monsoon.
The southwest monsoon appears to enter the Indian subcontinent in two branches; the Arabian
Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch causes extensive rainfall in the
western and central states and the Bay of Bengal branch gives rainfall to the northeastern states and
eastern coastal plains.
The Arabian Sea branch, which gives moderate rainfall in the Deccan plateau and Madhya
Pradesh, joins the Bay of Bengal branch over the Gangetic plains. A branch of the Arabian Sea branch
monsoon blows over Saurashtra and Kachchh in Gujarat and it gives scanty rainfall in broken spells
as it reaches western Rajasthan. But when it reaches Punjab and Haryana it joins with the Bay of
Bengal branch and blows northwards and gives good rainfall in the northern Himalayan regions.
The Bay of Bengal branch monsoon, which enters Bangladesh and West Bengal from the
south and southeast directions, bifurcates into two as it crosses West Bengal. One branch enters the
Brahmaputra valley and gives heavy rainfall in the north and northeastern regions. The Khasi-Jaintia
hills of Meghalaya obstruct these winds and cause heavy rainfall in these regions. Cherrapunji and
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Mousinram are in this region. The other branch moves towards the northwest and through the Ganga
plains it reaches Punjab - Haryana plains and joins the Arabian Sea branch. India receives about 60%
of its total rainfall during the southwest monsoon season.
b. NORTH EAST MONSOON SEASON (SEASON OF RETREATING MONSOONS)
in the winter the conditions are reversed. As the winds blow from the land to the sea, they
bring cold dry weather. They are incapable of giving rain. However, sometimes these winds blow
over seas and then pass over the adjoining land. In such a situation, they bring some rainfall to that
area. The southern Coramandel Coast of TamilNadu in India, the Vietnamese coast, and the west
coast of Japan get sufficient rainfall from winter monsoons.
During the northward march of the sun the monsoon blows towards the north and during the
southward march of the sun it blows to the south. This southward progression is called the retreating
monsoon. During the southward movement of the sun, the northern hemisphere is gripped by cold
weather conditions. During this season, the low pressure formed over the Bay of Bengal attracts air
from the north. These winds pick up moisture as they pass over the Bay and blow against the east
coast. Soon after the monsoon season, places all over India experience clear skies and high
temperatures. During this time, there will be a high diurnal temperature and a very low night
temperature. Although the land is wet and moist during these days, the temperature and high humidity
make daytime very uncomfortable. This phenomenon is called October heat. By the middle of
October, atmospheric temperature decreases fast and winter season begins in north India. October -
November months are a gap between rainy season and winter. During this period the low pressure
region that occur in the Bay of Bengal causes the formation of cyclones. These cyclones give
extensive rainfall in the eastern coastal states of India and cause destruction to the highly populated
deltaic regions of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. The influence of this rainfall is experienced in the
state of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala also.
2. SEA AND LAND BREEZES
During the daytime, both land and ocean absorb solar energy and become warmer. However,
land areas warm significantly faster than ocean areas. As a result, more heat is transferred to the air
Aravalli Mountains
One of the oldest mountains of the world, Aravalli extends from Delhi to the
northern part of Gujarat covering a distance of about 800km. The mountain range has played
a major role in the formation of Rajasthan desert (Thar desert). Lying parallel to the monsoon
winds from the Arabian sea, it cannot obstruct the moisture-laden monsoon winds. Rajasthan
receives only scanty rainfall due to this reason. The highest peak Guru Sikhar, (1722m) in the
Aravallim range is located in Mount Abu.
Land of Rain
No doubt it is Cherrapunji the village, which receives rain throughout the year is
the rainiest place on earth for many centuries, is situated about 56kms from Shillong, the
capital of Meghalaya in a height of about 4500ft above MSL in between Khasi, Gharo and
Jaintia hills. The Britishers pronounced the word Sohra as Chira. 'Sohra' means not suitable
for cultivation. 'punji' means soil. 'Cherrapunji' means the soil not suitable for cultivation.
This region has very poor topsoil has large reserves of coal and limestone beneath. Therefore
water is not available in the wells in this region although the topsoil is wet due to rainfall year
round.
The coveted place of Cherrapunji with an average rainfall greater than 1080cms was
taken over by another place in India some years back. Mousinram, 6 km away from
Cherrapunji was the place that captured the position. The Hawaiian Islands have also claimed
the honour of being the rainiest spot on earth. But recently Cherrapunji has come back to
regain the first place. Our neighbouring country Bangladesh prays not to have heavy rains in
Cherrapunji for the reason that when heavy rainfall occurs in Cherrapunji many places in
Bangladesh will get inundated.
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over the land, and the warmer air begins to rise. The rising air is replaced with cooler air from the
ocean, creating a sea breeze. In the evening, the process is reversed. The land cools more rapidly than
the water and thus the air over the water is soon warmer than the air over the land. As shown below,
this reverses the process and creates a land breeze.
3. MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY BREEZES
Diurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes occur in mountainous regions. In mountainous regions,
during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from
the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. The reversed condition in
night is called as mountain breeze. During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the
valley is called katabatic wind. Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the
mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitates. When it descends the leeward side of the slope the dry air is warmed up by adiabatic
process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.
4. HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS, AIR MASSES & FRONTS
High pressure systems form when masses of air cool, contract and begin to sink. An air mass
is a large body of air that can be identified by its temperature and humidity. As the name suggests,
these bodies are very large and usually cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometers. The area in
which it originated determines the temperature and humidity of an air mass. Names are given to air
masses based on the place of origin. The systems with highest pressure are those that are coldest
and driest.
There are four basic types of air masses: Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), Polar (P), Tropical (T),
and Equatorial (E). Each of these can be either maritime (m) or continental (c). Maritime air masses
have milder temperatures and higher humidity, while continental air masses are dryer and exhibit
more extreme temperatures.
The air in high pressure systems is generally dry and sinking, due to its cooler temperature and higher
atmospheric pressure. Therefore it is possible for air in a high pressure system to hold more water
vapor. As this air sinks, it warms and can hold even more water vapor. As a result, condensation of
the water vapor does not take place and the weather in such areas is clear and dry.
AIR MASSES & FRONTS are migratory atmospheric disturbances, which generate secondary type
of winds all over the world. They are associated with stormy weather conditions.
When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains. The
air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It is
defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. The
homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The air masses are
classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:
Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
The subtropical hot deserts;
The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
Accordingly, following types of air masses are recognised:
Maritime tropical (mT)-It is considerably wider. Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are the
extensive sources of this. These air masses overlying the tropical seas are moist and saturated
universally. They are pushed beyond the source areas and cause heavy precipitation and high
temperature conditions.
Continental tropical (cT)-It is basically hot and dry. These develop over greater Sahara area. Hot
dry winds invade Mediterranean Europe, North Mexico, and Southern California in the form of
Scorching Sirocco.
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Maritime polar (mP)-It is located over warmer high latitude oceans of North pacific (Bering
Sea), North Atlantic (Norwegian sea) and entire sweep of southern hemisphere oceans fringing
Antarctica. This is a highly efficient evaporator of readily available moisture. Hence, it is less
cold and moister than cP. North America and North Europe experience this.
Continental polar (cP)-It is confined to broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia and Canada.
Typically frozen and dusted with snow throughout winter season. The air masses located over this
region are chilly, cold and slightly modified in summer.
Continental arctic (cA)
FRONTS - Fronts are the boundaries between air masses that differ in density. The process of
formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;
(c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. These density differences are usually due to differences in temperature
and humidity of the air masses.
5. LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS & CYCLONES
Any two air masses separated by a front are being deflected in opposite directions. As a
result, a shearing motion is established along the front. This shearing motion is generally in a
counter-clockwise direction, as we see in the diagram. This produces a low-pressure system. The
counter-clockwise shear along the polar front sets up a low-pressure system known as a wave cyclone.
These low-pressure systems develop in response to atmospheric instability (vertical movement of air)
and move generally from west to east in response to the mid-latitude westerlies. The formation of
low-pressure systems is a complicated process that involves the formation and evolution of a cyclone
family. The movement of cyclonic winds is counter clockwise in the N.hemisphere and clockwise in
the S.hemisphere.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move
over to the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are known as
Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and
South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia. Tropical cyclones originate and
intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification
of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27 C; (ii) Presence of the
Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weaklow-pressure
area or low-level-cyclonic circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from
the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture, supply is cut off and the
storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 200N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.
A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around the
centre, called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km. The
eye is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong
spiralling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity
in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain
bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.
The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 -
1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day. The cyclone creates storm surges
and they inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on the land.
TROPICAL CYCLONES TEMPERATE CYCLONES
They are of thermal origin. They are of frontal origin.
They have small diameters usually from
100-500 kms.
They extend over a large area sometimes
more than 2000 kms. Appearance of dark
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cloud in the background of white clouds is
temperate cyclone.
Velocity is 100-200 kmph. They are more
destructive than temperate cyclones.
Velocity is 50 kmph. They are less
destructive than temperate cyclones.
They develop in the belt of 8
0
to 15
0
N & S
latitudes. Most prominent in the pacific
ocean (Taiwan, South Japan, East China)
They develop in the belt of 35
0
to 65
0
N & S
latitudes.
It is almost a circular storm center of
extremely low pressure.
It is just like a spear head having the shape
of an upturned V.
Rainfall is torrential and is evenly
distributed around the center. In India their
intensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengal
branch of South west Monsoon winds.
As soon as the cyclone approaches, there is
a drizzle followed by a heavy rainfall.
Extra Tropical Cyclones
The extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra
tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the tropical cyclones. They cover
a larger area and can originate over the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only
over the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate. The extra tropical cyclone affects a much larger
area as compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it
is more destructive. The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move
from east to west.
3. TERTIARY WINDS /LOCAL WINDS
Tertiary winds are generated by immediate influence of the surrounding terrain. These winds respond
to local pressure gradients set up by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere.
Katabolic winds a cold down slope wind caused by the gravitational movement of cold dense air
near the earths surface is a katabolic or drainage wind. The strongest katabolic winds are those that
blow from an ice cap off the Green Land or Antarctic ice caps. These are known by various local
names:
Bora northern adraitc coats.
Foehn Alps (on lee ward side).
Mistral Southren France (blows from Alps over France towards Mediterranean sea)
Santa Ana Southern California (is of desert origin)
Loo, Foehn and Chinook are warm and dry winds.
Local winds of India
Kalbaisakhi is a dry local wind of West Bengal during summer season. Originating from the
Chota Nagpur plateau and influenced by the westerlies, this warm wind moves eastwards and is
responsible for heavy rain and hailstones in West Bengal, Assam and Orissa. These winds many
a time cause destruction to life and property. Cherry Blossom is a local wind blows over the
interior Karnataka during the same season is good for coffee cultivation. Mango shower is
another local wind that blows during the summer season along the Karnataka coast and in
Kerala.
Loo In the plains of India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the
west in the months of May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its
temperature invariably ranges between 45
0
C and 50
0
C. It may cause sunstroke to people. Due to
intense hot condition that continues from March to May over the northern plains, a low-pressure
region is formed. During this season a dry dusty wind called Loo blows over the north western
Uttar pradesh and Rajasthan resulting in the rise of atmospheric temperature further. Other local
winds that blow in this season are the Kalbaisakhi, Mango showers, etc.
Chinook literally means, Snow eater. It keeps the grasslands clear form snow during much
of the winter.
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THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES
They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent. Thunderstorms
are caused by intense convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm is a well-grown
cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightening. When the clouds extend to heights where
sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm. If there is
insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate duststorms. A thunderstorm is characterized
by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to greater
height. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the rain.
From severe thunderstorms, sometimes-spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its
way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts. These violent storms are the manifestation of
the atmospheres adjustments to varying energy distribution. The potential and heat energies are
converted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless atmosphere returns to its stable
state.
Tornadoes occur throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. But they are seen
very frequently in the Mississippi valley and some parts of southeast USA.
Hurricanes- Mexico, Florida, West Indies.
Willy willies- Australia
Typhoons- China and Japan.
Besides our study materials the following types of questions are provided in
our PRACTICE WORK BOOKLET to make yourself comfortable with the answer
writing skills which is very much essential for performing well in the examination hall.
Elucidate the political background of 1857 revolt (About 250 Words)
Political causes for the 1857 revolt (248 words)
1. Policies such as effective control, subsidiary alliance & Doctrine of Lapse resulted
in loss of political prestige of almost all ruling princes. According to the Doctrine, any
princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East
India Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would
automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without
a direct heir". States annexed by Doctrine of Lapse Satara (1848), Jaipur (1850)
Sambhalpur (1850), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854). The
right of succession was denied to Hindu Princes. Lucknow was annexed in 1856, on
charges of misadministration.
2. Rampant corruption in the Companys administration.
3. Absentee sovereignityship character of British rule imparted a foreign and alien
look to it in the eyes of Indians.
4. Greedy policy of aggrandizement.
5. Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao
II. Another important reason for the rebellion was the unfair attitude towards the
Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar. Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general of India
at the time had insulted the Emperor by asking him to leave the Red Fort. The governor-
general also said that his successors would also have to leave the Red fort. Later, Lord
Canning, the next governor-general of India, announced in 1856 A.D. that Bahadur
Shah's successors would not even be allowed to use the title of the king. Such
discourtesies were resented by the people and the Indian rulers.