Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting from

Train Induced Railway Track Vibrations

John J. Wang, G.P. Penamalli, and Lei Zuo

Department of Mechanical Engineering, State University of New York at Stony Brook
Stony Brook, NY 11787 (

Email: lei.zuo@stonybrook.edu)

AbstractAnelectromagnetic energy harvester is designed to
harness the vibrational power from railroad track deflections due
to passing trains. Whereas typical existing vibration energy
harvester technologies are built for low power applications of
milliwatts range, the proposed harvester will be designed for higher
power applications for major track-side equipment such as
warning signals, switches, and health monitoring sensors, which
typically require a power supply of10 Watts or more. To achieve
this goal, we implement a new patent pending motion conversion
mechanism which converts irregular pulse-like bidirectional linear
vibration into regulated unidirectional rotational motion. Features
of the motion mechanism include bidirectional to unidirectional
conversion and flywheel speed regulation, with advantages of
improved reliability, efficiency, and quality of output power. It also
allows production of DC power directly from bidirectional
vibration without electronic diodes. Preliminary harvester
prototype testing results illustrate the features and benefits of the
proposed motion mechanism, showing reduction of continual
system loading, regulation of generator speed, and capability for
continuous DC power generation.
Keywords- railway; railroad; vibration energy harvesting; energy
recovery; electromagnetic.
I. INTRODUCTION
Railroad transportation, including the commuter rail and
subway, play an important role in the economy and quality of
everyday life. To facilitate policy makers and transportation
agencies into making informed decisions on operating
transportation systems, it is essential that railway track-side
electric infrastructures (signal lights, wireless communication,
monitoring devices, positive train control, etc.) are well
maintained and operated.
Unfortunately, a substantial portion of railroad tracks exist in
remote areas or certain underground regions in which there is
little electrical infrastructure. In these regions, installment of
equipment such as warning signal lights, wireless sensors for
railway track monitoring, bridge monitoring [12,3], and train
positioning [7] have limited practical deployment due to the lack
of a reliable power supply or low-maintenance battery.
Therefore it is necessary to design a cost-effective and reliable
power supply to track-side sensors and equipment.
When a passing train moves over a track, the track deflects
vertically due to the load exerted by the train's bogies. The
vertical displacement of the track under the weight of a passing
train can engage regenerative devices i.e. a vibration
energyharvester. The generated power can be stored and used to
power track side equipment.
Railroad energy harvesting is no trivial issue. Various
challenges are faced such as the irregular pulse-like nature of
track vibration, and the small amplitude of track oscillation
relative to the amount of power consumed by track-side
equipment [4]. Furthermore, harvesting from sources with
irregular inputs tend to lead to irregular power outputs, which
rely heavily on conversion through electrical rectifier
components to become useful.
The majority of currently existing railway energy harvesting
technologies focus on low power applications, which include
piezoelectric and electromagneticharvesters. Existing harvesters
typically harvests in the milli- or sub-Watts power range.A
British company Perpetuum Ltd [5] developed a tuned
vibrational harvester recovering 10-50mW of energy. The
French national railway system SNCF [6] investigated energy
harvesting from train vibrations for low power wireless sensors.
Zahid.F.Mian[7] generated power by placing an electromagnetic
coil near the rail, so that when the train wheel passes by, the coil
will generate electricity due to changing magnetic flux. In 2008,
Nelson et al [8,9] studied piezoelectric techniques for harvesting
power from railcar traffic under the support of US FTA. They
mounted piezoelectric films on the bottom of rail track and
harvested 1mW energy from the longitudinal strain of the
bending rail. They also tried an electromagnetic harvester
yielding similar results. An Israeli company Innowattech Ltd
[10] (2008) developed an energy harvesting pad composed of
piezoelectric stacks. These pads replace the conventional railway
track damping pad. They also designed piezoelectric layers for
application in other positions such as the rail head, rail base, and
rail flange [11]. Considering the low energy conversion
efficiency and high cost of piezoelectric materials, Nelson et al
[12] (2009) later changed research direction to electromagnetic
harvester and was able to harvest an average power of 0.22 Watts
for a loaded train passing at 11.5 mph at in-field test.
The focus of our studies aims toward harvesting a larger
amount of power from the rail. We target at harvesting energy to
powerthe track side equipment which have power ratings up to
10 Watts or more. To accomplish this goal, anelectromagnetic
based harvester may be appropriate.
The conventional electromagneticvibration energy harvesting
system is typically composed of a mechanical conversion
element (rack and pinion, ball screw, or hydraulic piston),
mechanical magnification system, rotational
electromagneticgenerator, electrical rectifier, power regulator,
and energy storage element [13-18]. These designs may be
extended for railroad harvesting applications. Simple retrofit of
these energy harvesting technologies however will result in low
29 978-1-4673-2349-9/12/$31.00 2012 IEEE
efficiency energy conversion and poor output q
pulse like nature of track vibration [19]. In an
Nelson et al., a simple mechanical harvest
utilizing only a rack and pinion for conversion
[12]. The generator was driven at a very large
resulting in a less efficient and a low quality pow
oscillating track input will also introducelarg
within the device during the tracks switchi
motion, which will result in development
fatigueandwear.
Recently Penamalli [19] (2011), Pourgh
(2011), and Phillips [21] (2011) have develope
electromagnetic railway track harvesters. Not
and pinion harvesters designed have a featur
bidirectional linear motion into unidirectional r
This feature reduces the negative effects of m
reduces impact forces in harvester components.
harvester reliability and lifetime.Even with this
however, the generator will still produce an in
like power output [19-21]. The generator will
over a large range of erratic speeds. This in
generator efficiency, and also makes output
heavily reliant on power regulation and rectific
be useful. Operating a harvester at erratic sp
furthermore result in mechanical wear and impul
To resolve these issues, the proposed me
rectifier in our design features a flywheel inte
output shaft. Given a typical track input, the flyw
to help maintain the generator speeds close to op
electrical generator will no longer operate a
producing energy more efficiently.This also
forces on components during operation, trading
initial starting force. The flywheel also enable
produce a more continuous DC power output w
rectifier components when a train passes by
continual power output is more easily utilized an
This paper is organized as follows: In
characteristics of railway track vibration are
section 3 the proposed energy harvester design i
explained. In section 4 simulation experiment
scale prototype and these results are presented a
section 5 concluding remarks.
II. RAILWAY TRACK VIBRATION CHARA
A. Properties Relevant for Harvester Input
Sufficient understanding of the track inpu
harvester is paramount for successful railway h
The energy harvesting device is to be d
information drawn from railroad track input data
When the loaded train is moving over the tra
displace vertically. This is depicted in figur
velocity, frequency, and magnitude of displacem
on the load exerted by the train, speed at wh
moving, and track substructure (ballast, un
properties, nature of service of the train, and ma
of a track. Large track displacements occur larg
deformation of the ballast material, which is ref
settlement [23].

quality due to the
n earlier study by
ter is developed
n of track motion
e range of speeds
wer output. The
ge impact forces
ing direction of
of component
hodratet al [20]
d more elaborate
tably, these rack
re of converting
otational motion.
motioninertia and
It thus improves
feature installed
ntermittent pulse-
also be operated
n turn decreases
of the generator
cation in order to
peed ranges will
lse stresses.
echanical motion
egrated along the
wheel is designed
ptimal value. The
at erratic speeds,
reduces impact
g off for a larger
esthe harvester to
without electrical
y. This type of
nd converted.
n section 2, the
e presented. In
is introduced and
ts done on a full
and discussed. In
ACTERISTICS
ut to the energy
harvester design.
designed around
a.
ack, the track will
re 1 [22]. The
ment will depend
hich the train is
nderground soil)
aintenance history
gely due to plastic
ferred to as track
The normal load exerted by the
track is 20 to 30 kips [22, 24
displacement can of values as high
of 7mm to 12mm[22, 26-30]. The
over 25mm have been recorded fo
over 300 kips load [23].
Fig 1. Vertical deflection of t
Usually freight trains have d
distance between bogies is not
frequency is typically between 1.6
average uniform distance between
16mts and that the train is moving at
Figure 2 shows the profile of the
moving train[26, 25,28]. The fig
vibration is like discontinuous p
passing wheel. The profile will be
train is moving at a very high spe
deflection mainly depends on the ve
speed can be of values of 0.1 m/s o
an average velocity of 40mph. Tra
larger at grade crossings due to sudd
and stiffness at these installments.
Fig 2. Pulse-like vibration profil
B. Estimation of Available Energy
Before designing an employa
important to estimate the available
available for a typical track site
following equation

Where F is the normal force ex
track andd is the total time taken b
number of wheels per bogie, and
vertical displacement of the track du
e freight train wheels on the
4,25]. The range of track
as 25mm, with average travel
large track displacements of
or regions servicing trains of

the railroad track [22]
ifferent cart lengths so the
t uniform. Track vibration
6 Hz to 4Hz, assuming the
the wheel pair of a bogie is
t 40mph.
e track vibration caused due a
gure depicts that the track
pulses, occurring with each
close to sinusoidal when the
eed. The peak speed of track
elocity of the train. Peak track
or higher for trains moving at
ack deflections are often even
den changes in track structure

les of railroad tracks [31]
able energy harvester it is
e power. The average power
can be estimated using the
(1)
xcreted by wheel pairs on the
by the train to pass by, 2 is the
d is the total up and down
ue to a pair of wheels.
30

The normal force used is between 89 to 133 kN, the total
distance moved by the track is estimated to be between 20 mm
and 28 mm using the displacement profile shown in Figure 2.
Assuming the train has 160mts length bogies and moves at a
speed of 40km/hr, the average available power estimated using
Eq. 1 is found to be between 3kw to 5kw. Considering the goal
to power equipment with 10 Watts rating, we are aiming to use
only 0.3% of the available power of the track. Sufficient power
is available for harvesting.
III. DESIGN
A. Working Principle of the Proposed Innovation
Figure 3 explains the concept of the proposed energy
harvester. The harvester design mainly composed of a motion
conversion mechanism, an electromagnetic generator, and a fly
wheel. The bidirectional to unidirectional transmission includes
three shafts, three spur gears, a pair of rack and pinion, and two
roller clutches. The two racks move together in up and down
direction. The roller clutches installed at the two input shafts
control transmission of motion to the two large gears labeled
gears 1 and 2. Both gears are only allowed to rotate in the
counter-clockwise direction. This results in Shaft 3 rotating
permanently in the clockwise direction. Shaft 3 engages the
generator and flywheel through the bottom of the plate.

Fig 3.Illustration of the working principle, where the dash and dotted lines show
the transmission path when the rack moves up and down.
The yellow solid line in Figure 3 shows the motion
transmission path when the racks move downward. Gear 1 on
Shaft 1 is engaged through Roller Clutch 1, rotating in counter-
clockwise motion. Shaft 3 is driven in clockwise direction.
The yellow dotted line in Figure 3 shows the motion
transmission path when the two racks move upward. Gear 2 on
Shaft 2 is engaged through Roller Clutch 2, rotating in counter-
clockwise motion. Shaft 3 is driven in clockwise direction.
Shaft 3 always rotates in the clockwise direction, and is able
to coast. The coasting feature enables the possibility of flywheel
implementation. The flywheel acts as a kinetic energy storage
element, which is released energy to the electric generator while
it is not being driven by the track. Continuous DC power can be
produced directly from the harvester without use of an electrical
rectifier, and speed fluctuation of the generator can be reduced.
For railway implementation and installment, the generator,
shafts, and gears are all mounted to a plate. This plate is attached
and fitted across two sleeper platforms, as depicted in Figure 4.
The two racks are anchored at certain depth into the ballast.
When a train passes, the gear transmission system will move
together with the track deflection, and the racks will not move.
The erratic track vibration in both upwards and downwards
motion will drive the electrical generator and flywheel to produce

Fig 4. Harvester Installation
IV. EXPERIMENT
A. Experimental Setup
A full scale prototype shown in Figure 5 is built according to
the presented design. Preliminarily lab tests are conducted using
a servo-hydraulic testing system, the 858 Mini Bionix II. The
characteristics of the mechanical motion rectifier based harvester
are studied by performing experiments at various displacements
and frequencies.

Fig 5. Full-scale prototype of the mechanical based harvester
A testing system moves the racks up and down, generating a
voltage output. An oscilloscope is used to measure the voltage
output of the motor.The experiments are done for sinusoidal
displacement of 0.25inch and 0.5inch amplitudes and frequencies
of 1Hz and 0.5Hz. For each of the sinusoidal displacement
inputs, the voltage output is recorded for open circuit and three
different power resistors: 24ohms, 12ohms, and 6.2 ohms. In
each trial, generator voltage, device displacement, and forces
applied onto the device are recorded. Due to inadequate capacity
of the 858 Mini Bionix II load cell, no simulation data was able
to be measured forfrequencies above 1Hz. Further simulation
studies should be conducted up to 4Hz.
31


Fig 6.Experimental setup (858 Mini Bionix II)
B. Experimental Results
In this section the results of the experiments conducted with
different power resisters for two different displacements inputs of
the rack 0.25inch (1Hz) and 0.5inch (0.5Hz) are presented. The
graphs are plotted for various parameters like voltage, force etc to
show the unique behavior of the harvester design with
mechanical motion rectifier and flywheel.
Quarter inch (0.25) displacement input
Railway tracks of good quality have a track of displacement
of around 0.25 inch for a moderately loaded passing train. A
sinusoidal input at 1Hz and 0.25 inch amplitude is applied to the
rack. Voltages produced for different power resistors are almost
the same.
The force vs. time is plotted for the same 0.25inch sinusoidal
displacement input in Figure 8. The initial impact force in the
first cycle is much larger than the force required in the later
cycles. This behavior is due to the flywheel inertia and system
starting torque. Once the fly wheel reaches a certain rotational
speed, the inertia of the fly wheel will help to reduce the forces
required to continually run the harvester.


Fig 7.Voltage generated for 0.25in rack displacement at frequency 1Hz for
various resistors

Fig 8.Force required for 0.25in rack displacement at frequency 1Hz for various
resistors

Fig 9.Force-displacement loops for 0.25in rack displacement at frequency 1Hz
for various resistors
The force vs. displacement loop is plotted for the same 0.
25inch sinusoidal displacement input in Figure 9. Thisfigure
once again shows that the force required to initially run the
harvester is high, but becomes lower in the later cycles. Roller
clutch engagement and disengagement can also be seen. When
disengaged, the harvester coasts, and is purely flywheel driven.
This is represented by an idle period in the loop, when the force
required is at a minimum. The power generated in this
experiment is 1 Watt with 22.2% conversion efficiency.
Half inch (0.5) displacement input
The average quality railway track has a displacement of
around 0.5 inch when the moderately loaded trains pass by. The
experiments are conducted by giving an input of 0.5inch
sinusoidal displacement to the rack. The Figure 10 shows the
voltage output for different power resistors at 0.5 inch rack
sinusoidal displacement. Since the frequency is low the flywheel
effect is reduced when compared to that of the 1 Hz input, hence
the average voltage output is lower. With these results, we can
see the time required for 100% dissipation of flywheel energy is
around 1 second.
The force vs. time is plotted for the same 0.5inch sinusoidal
displacement input in Figure 11.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 77
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time (sec)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e


24 Ohm Open 12 Ohm 6.2 Ohm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-5
0
5
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
Time (seconds)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
e
w
t
o
n
s
)


Open 24 Ohms 12 Ohms 6.2 Ohms
flywheeldriven
external forcedriven
flywheel driven

flywheel driven
flywheel driven
external forcedriven
32



Fig 10.Voltage generated for 0.5in rack displacement at frequency 0.5Hz for
various resistors

Fig 11.Force required for 0.5in rack displacement at frequency 0.5Hz for various
resistors
The force vs. displacement is plotted for the same 0.5inch
sinusoidal displacement input in Figure 12. This figure again
displays larger loads for the starting cycle. The no-load idle time
is higher in this experiment because the operating frequency is
small. During the period without loading, the system is flywheel
driven, in which the testing machine input motion is slower than
the flywheel driven input shaft.

Fig 12.Force-displacement loops for 0.5in rack displacement at frequency 0.5Hz
for various resistors
The above Figures 11&12 showsthe smooth non linear
operation and engagement and disengagement of the roller
clutches during the up and down motion of the rack. The average
power generated in this experiment is 1.4 Watts with 16.9%
conversion efficiency.
C. Result Discussions
The results illustratethe rectifier working principle in features
of bidirectional to unidirectional transmission and flywheel speed
regulation.
In both experiments, the voltage never reaches zero value.
For the 1.0 Hz simulation, the generator consistently outputs 2 to
4 volts. For the 0.5 Hz simulation, the generator output drops as
low as 1 Volt, projecting an approximate total flywheel decay
time of 1 second. This is shorter than the time interval between
train wheels, which is roughly 0.5 seconds.These results for
continual voltage generationsignify the advantage of producing
output power that is more easily converted and utilized.
Although the initial load for harvester running cycle is
large, results show that loads to run continual cycles smoother.
This is especially apparent in the 1.0 Hz experiment, with
significant improvement in the loading distribution for continual
harvester operation. This improvement is significant in
increasing harvester reliability and wear resistance.The large
initialload is due to the flywheelsrotation inertia being constant,
which can be addressed in the future by designing a flywheel
with speed-dependent variable inertia.
D. Efficiency Discussion
During experiments, bearings are found to heat up.
Gear misalignments would also easily occur during assembly.
These factors along with the performance data illustrate friction
to be an evident issue of the prototype. To improve the
mechanical efficiency of the energy harvester, the following
areas are most important to consider: reducing gear friction,
reducing friction from shaft misalignment, reducing bearing
friction.
In order to optimize the energy harvester design for
mechanical efficiency: the number of bearings and gears should
be reduced, the diameter of bearings should be reduced
wherever possible, and the motion conversion mechanism
should be reduced into a single shaft system. Each bearing is
estimated to cause 4%-8% loss in mechanical efficiency. Each
gear engagement is estimated to reduce mechanical efficiency
by 10%. Bearing size affects bearing friction, and is especially
important to consider at the flywheel mounting positions.
Finally, shaft misalignment issues will be eliminated if the
harvester was to be designed as a single shaft system.
Since the initial submission of this paper, all of these
optimization goals have been taken into consideration and
successfully executed. A second energy harvester prototype has
been produced, showing great improvement in mechanical
efficiency up to values of 70%. These results will be
documented in the near future.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
A preliminary prototype of the proposed mechanical rectifier
based harvester is built and tested. Results illustrate that
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
77
Time (seconds)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e


Open 24 Ohm 12 Ohm 6.2 Ohm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-5
0
5
Time (seconds)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Time (seconds)
F
o
r
c
e

(
N
e
w
t
o
n
s
)


Open 24 Ohms 12 Ohms 6.2 Ohms
flywheel driven
external forcedriven
flywheel driven
external force driven
33

sufficient power can be harvested as well as the features and
benefits of the motion rectifier design. Conversion bi-directional
vibration into unidirectional rotation of the generator will reduce
the backlash impact and enable electrical generator to operate at
more efficient speed.Integration of a flyhwheel into the vibration
harvester will reduce the impact forces of pulse-like loading,
improvingreliability and harvesting efficiency. The capability
forproduction of a continuous DC output will make the power
produced by the harvester more readily converted into useful
forms.
A properly designed mechanical based harvester has the
potential to power major railroad equipment and infrastructure,
representing a safety benefit to areas lacking electrical
infrastructure. The rectifier design may have prospective energy
harvesting applications involving other erratic mechanical
vibrations such as in vehicle suspension, ocean waves, etc.
The preliminary prototype demonstrates the concept.
However, the mechanical efficiency is still less than ideal, largely
due to mechanical component friction. A second prototype has
been recently developed, focusing on improving mechanical
efficiency, harvesting larger power, and addressing some issues
of the first prototype. This prototype shall be documented in near
future work. Field tests on a railroad track are being arranged.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank the help from Prof. Yixian Qin,
Liangjun Lin, and Zhongjie Li in the experiments, Joeseph
Maldonado for assistance in prototype design, George Luhrs for
help with machining, and Prof Yu Zhou for discussions.

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