Section H3: Low-Frequency Amplifier Response

In this section of our studies, were going to revisit the basic BJT and FET
amplifier configurations - but with an additional twist. The basic
configurations are the same as we investigated in Section D of the WebCT
notes (chapters 5), with the similarities and differences as noted in the table
below:

Then Now
External capacitors
(bypass & coupling)

Ideal (short for ac)
Non-ideal (keep in
small signal circuit)
Transistor output
resistance, r
o

Very large
may usually be ignored
OK, well
keep this one
Input and output
characteristics
Resistances
(R
in
, R
out
)
Impedances
(Z
in
, Z
out
)

BJT Approximations
>>1 so (+1)
i
B
negligible, so i
E
i
C

OK, unless otherwise
noted

Were going to start out by looking at each of the basic amplifier stages in
terms of analysis and finish with strategies for designing for a specific low
frequency characteristic. All amplifiers are presented as capacitive-coupled
to stages that may occur before and after. Recall that this is the easiest way
to ensure dc isolation, but may not be feasible in certain circumstances or
under certain conditions. Direct coupling between stages means that no
coupling capacitors are used - this technique alleviates the space and
fabrication demands that large capacitors require, but may make multistage
amplifiers more difficult to design since the dc levels of previous stage(s)
affect the bias levels of subsequent stage(s).

Note: in the circuits that follow, the actual signal source (v
S
) and its
associated source resistance (R
S
) have been included. Previously, we knew
that this source and resistance was there but we just started our
investigations with the input to the transistor (v
in
). This should not cause too
much heartburn - the analysis process is the same and the relationship
between v
S
and v
in
is a voltage divider.

In some instances in the following discussion, I will be using slightly
different notation and taking a different approach than your author.
If this results in confusion, or you are more comfortable with his
technique, let me know without delay and we'll work out any
wrinkles!

Following the procedure outlined in the previous section, we want to use the
method of superposition to get the time constant associated with each
external capacitor and obtain the low frequency response through


=
i eqi i i i
L
R C
i

1
.

For the low frequency response, this technique is known as the Method of
Short Circuit Time Constants. Also note that, although the crude
approximation for the low frequency cut-off is used above and in the
following discussion, a better approximation for
L
is given by




Note that your author goes through somewhat elaborate derivations of
voltage and current gain for each configuration, often for specific
circumstances. I am not going to subject you to entire derivations, since we
have done it SO many times before and it does become more mind numbing
with each repetition! Please realize that all hes doing is using the same
techniques we used in earlier sections, but now the capacitor impedances
must be explicitly included. Therefore. unless I get any strong objections, I
will present the final form of the frequency dependent gains that have been
normalized to the midband (maximum) expressions that we have derived
previously. As usual, questions or comments - lemme have 'em!

The approach were going to take to sketch the Bode plots is to define the
maximum (midband) gain in terms of our previous results, define the zero(s)
and pole(s) that must be considered from the frequency dependent
expressions, create a composite plot using asymptotic behaviors
(+20dB/decade for a zero, -20dB/decade for a pole), and then introduce
appropriate corrections at the break frequency(ies).

Low Frequency Response of the Common-Emitter Amplifier

The generic common-emitter amplifier circuit of Section D2 is reproduced to
the left below and the modified small signal circuit is given below right
(based on Figures 10.7a and 10.7b of your text).


( ) + + + +
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
Z Z P P L


Setting the independent source, v
S
,
equal to zero results in the
dependent current source also being
equal to zero. Figure 10.7b is
modified to reflect these conditions
and the resulting circuit we will be
using for analysis purposes is
presented to the right. Now, our
task is to look at the capacitors one
at a time (set the others to infinity
or, equivalently, set their
impedance to zero):

C
B
: with C
E
and C
C
shorted, the resistance seen by C
B
is equal to

in S B S CB
R R r R R R + = + =

|| ,

since the open current source removes R
C
and R
L
from consideration.
Note that we are using the previous expression for the input resistance of
the CE configuration; name, R
in
=R
B
||r

=R
B
||r
e
.

C
C
: with C
E
and C
B
shorted, the resistance seen by C
C
is equal to

L C CC
R R R + =

since, once again, the open current source separates the input an output
circuits.

C
E
: with C
B
and C
C
shorted, the resistance seen by C
E
is equal to

r R R
R R
B S
E CE
+
=
||
|| ,

which is found by calculating the equivalent input resistance (R
S
||R
B
+r

)
and reflecting it to the emitter circuit (i.e., dividing by ). And.for the
last time.the input and output circuits are separated, so R
C
and R
L
play
no role in the equivalent resistance seen by C
E
.

Putting this all together, we can define the time constants for the CE circuit
as:

CE E CE CC C CC CB B CB
R C R C R C = = = ; ; ,

and an approximate value for the lower corner frequency, in radians per
second, is given by

|
|
.
|

\
| +
+
+
+
+
=
+ + = + + = + +

r R R
R C
R R C r R R C
R C R C R C
B S
E E
L C C B S B
CE E CC C CB B CE CC CB
PCE PCC CB P L
||
||
1
) (
1
) || (
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
.

Note that a zero is also introduced into the transfer function by the bypass
capacitor C
E
, but that the frequency of the zero (located at
E E ZCE ZCE
R C 1 1 = = ) is usually much lower than
L
, making the
approximation given above for
L
valid (FYI: the capacitors C
B
and C
C

introduce zeros at at zero so they dont even come close to mattering!). A
capacitive-coupled CE amplifier therefore has a zero and three poles, where
the placement of the poles and zero determine the low frequency response.
Conversely, a direct-coupled CE stage has a single pole and zero (from the
bypass capacitor), where the zero is generally at a much lower frequency
than the pole and does not contribute to the lower break.

To refresh your memory, and present the voltage gain in terms of v
out
/v
S

(i.e., including the voltage divider at the input), the midband voltage and
current gains for the CE configuration are given by

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
in S
in
e
L C
midband v
R R
R
r
R R
A
||
and
) (
C L e
B
C B
midband i
R R r
R
R R
A
+
|
.
|

\
|
+

.

The frequency dependent gain expressions, using the frequencies defined
above and normalized to midband values are

) )( )( (
) ( ) (
2
PCE PCC PCB
ZCE
vmidband
v
s s s
s s
A
s A

+ + +
+
= and
PCC imidband
i
s
s
A
s A
+
=
) (
.

Low Frequency Response of the Emitter-Resistor Amplifier

The circuit for the emitter-resistor configuration introduced in Section D3 is
given to the left below and the modified small signal model is shown below
right (based on Figures 10.3a and 10.3b of your text).




Following our strategy of the
previous section and setting v
S
=0,
we obtain the simplified circuit to
the right that we can use to define
the time constants associated with
the capacitors C
B
and C
C
.

C
B
: Setting C
C
to infinity
(Z
CC
=0), and realizing that the
open current source separates the input and output circuits, we can
derive the equivalent resistance seen by C
B
as:

in S E B S CB
R R R r R R R + = + + = ) ( ||

,

where R
in
for the ER configuration is R
B
||(r

+R
E
).

C
C
: The equivalent resistance seen by C
C
is the same as for the CE
configuration:

L C CC
R R R + = .

The time constants for the ER amplifier are therefore defined by

CC C CC CB B CB
R C R C = = ; ,

and the lower corner frequency is approximated by

) (
1
)) ( || (
1
1 1 1 1
L C C E B S B
CC C CB B CC CB
PCC PCB L
R R C R r R R C
R C R C
+
+
+ +
=
+ = + + =

.

Note that, for a direct-coupled ER amplifier, the lower corner frequency
would ideally be equal to zero since there are no coupling capacitors. The
midband gain expressions (with a voltage divider on the input for A
v
) are
given by

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
S in
in
E e
C L
v
R R
R
R r
R R
A
||
and
) (
C L E e
B
C B
i
R R R r
R
R R
A
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

.

The frequency dependent gain expressions, using the pole frequencies
defined above (each capacitor still introduced a zero at zero), and
normalized to midband values are


) )( (
) (
2
PCC PCB vmidband
v
s s
s
A
s A
+ +
= and
PCC imidband
i
s
s
A
s A
+
=
) (
.
.

Low Frequency Response of the Common Base Amplifier

The common base amplifier circuit is shown below and left, while the
modified small signal equivalent is given below and to the right (based on
Figures 10.10a and 10.10b of your text).




The simplified circuit we will use to
determine the equivalent resistance
for each capacitor is given to the
right.

C
E
:
If the bypass capacitor is not
included. Let the impedance
of C
C
equal to zero, and the
equivalent resistance seen by
C
E
is

( )

B e E S
B
E S CE
R r R R
R r
R R R + + =
|
|
.
|

\
| +
+ = || || .

If the bypass capacitor is included, R
B
is shorted and the equivalent
resistance seen by C
E
is

e E S CE
r R R R || + = .

C
C
: Since the input and output circuits are separated, the bypass
capacitor does not play a role in the equivalent resistance seen by C
C
,
which is given by

L C CC
R R R + = .

C
B
: If the bypass capacitor is included, it sees an equivalent resistance of

( ) [ ]
E S B CB
R R r R R || ||

+ = .

The relevant time constants for the common-base configuration are
therefore

CE E CE CC C CC CB B CB
R C R C R C = = = ; ; ,

where
CB
=0 if R
B
is not bypassed. An approximate value for the lower corner
frequency, in radians per second, is given by

CE E CC C CB B CE CC CB
PCE PCC CB P L
R C R C R C
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + = + + = + +

,

where the composition of R
CE
depends on whether R
B
is bypassed. Also note
that the first term in the summation drops out whenever R
B
is not bypassed
with C
B
.

The input circuit usually controls the low frequency cutoff of the CB amplifier
since the CB configuration has a relatively small input resistance. In design,
it is common practice to set the corner frequency of the output circuit at
least a decade below the specified lower frequency limit to minimize its
effect.

Low Frequency Response of the Emitter-Follower Amplifier

The low frequency behavior of the EF (also called common-collector)
amplifier is similar to the CB configuration in that there are two time
constants involved and one has a much smaller resistance than the other.
The figures below are the basic EF configuration preferred by your author
and the corresponding low frequency small signal model (based on Figures
10.11a and 10.11b in your text).




The simplified circuit used to
calculate the individual capacitor
equivalent resistances is given to
the right. Specifically,

C
B
: The equivalent resistance
seen by the coupling capacitor C
B

is found by setting C
E
to infinity
as

in S L E B S CB
R R R R r R R R + = + + = )] || ( [ ||

,

where R
in
for the EF configuration has been previously defined as
R
B
||[r

+(R
E
||R
L
)].

CE: Setting CB to infinity allows us to find the equivalent resistance seen
by CE to be

[ ]

) || (
) || (
S B e E L
S B
E L CE
R R r R R
R R r
R R R + + =
(

+
+ = .

The relevant time constants for the emitter-follower configuration are
therefore

CE E CE CB B CB
R C R C = = ; ,

An approximate value for the lower corner frequency, in radians per second,
is given by

[ ] { } ) (
1
/ ) || (
1
1 1 1 1
in S E S B e E L B
CE E CB B CE CB
PCE CB P L
R R C R R r R R C
R C R C
+
+
+ +
=
+ = + = +

,

For an EF amplifier, the input resistance, R
in
, is much larger than the output
resistance. This means that the input time constant is larger than the output
time constant or, equivalently, the break frequency of the input circuit is
lower than that of the output circuit. Therefore, the -3dB point is determined
by the output circuitry in the EF configuration. In design situations, the
break frequency of the input circuit is set at least one decade below the
output corner frequency so it will not interfere with the specified cutoff.

Design for a Given Frequency Characteristic

In the previous sections, we have discussed how to analyze various amplifier
configurations and determine the low and mid-frequency response. What
were going to do now is look at several approaches that may be used to
design an amplifier to satisfy a specified lower break frequency.

If the amplifier has only one corner frequency (i.e., the transfer function has
a single pole), life is good and we simply equate that pole location to the
specified cutoff. However, most times life is interesting and not this simple -
we will have (at least) two corner frequencies that interact with each other.
The following three design approaches are given by your author for the case
of two corner frequencies, where the specific approach to be used for a
design depends on the degree of separation of the two corner frequencies.

Approach 1: If the poles can be separated by at least a decade, we let
one dominant pole produce the entire 3dB drop. This is similar to the case
of a single pole, since there is virtually no interaction between the two. As
the frequency goes to zero, the dominant pole (at the higher frequency)
will define the corner frequency before the second pole begins to take
effect.

Approach 2: If the input and output resistances are approximately
equal, we set the two pole frequencies to be equal; i.e., we have a
double pole. This means that each pole contributes evenly at the break
point or, equivalently, that each pole contributes a 1.5dB drop so that the
total decrease will be 3dB at the desired corner frequency. For example, a
normalized voltage gain expression with each pole at frequency
P
, is
given by

2
2
2
) (
) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
P P vmidband
v
s
s
s
s
A
s A

.

If we further specify that we want this normalized gain to have a
magnitude of 0.707 (-3dB) at a corner frequency
0
,

2
1 ) (
2 2
0
2
0
2
0
0
=
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
=
= P P vmidband
v
j
j
A
j A

.

Solving for the frequency of the double pole in terms of the specified
corner frequency, we get

55 . 1
0

=
P
. (Equation 10.14)

Note that the actual frequency of the double pole is below the specified
design corner frequency. This is to be expected, since the poles are
interacting - if each had been located at
0
, there would have been a 6dB
drop instead of the 3dB desired.

Approach 3: The first two approaches achieved the desired corner
frequency by controlling pole placement. In contrast, this method chooses
equal capacitor values, a technique that will allow for interchanging of
components. Again restricting ourselves to a two-pole system with pole
frequencies
P1
and
P2
, we set the expression for the normalized gain
magnitude equal to 0.707 ( 2 1 = ) at the specified corner frequency,
0
:

2
1
) )( (
) ( ) (
2
2
2
0
2
1
2
0
2
0
2 1
2
0 0
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
= =
P P
P P vmidband
v
j j
j
A
s A

.

Solving the above expression for
0
, we get

( )
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
0
4
0 P P P P
+ + = .

If
P1
and
P2
are both less than
0
, the last term in the above expression
may be neglected and we can solve for
0
as

2
2
2
1 0 P P
+ = . (Equation 10.17, Modified)

Once we get to this point, it depends on the actual composition of the
time constants associated with
P1
and
P2
. The strategy is to set the
capacitors of each pole equal. Knowing the resistive components in the
equivalent resistances and the desired corner frequency, the capacitor
value is the only unknown in Equation 10.17 (the modified version above)
and may be calculated.