GEMSTONE

GENESIS

METHODS

1. Magma Crystalization
Magma contains a variety of elements. As it cools, the elements combine to form minerals. Exactly
what mineral is created varies with the available ingredients, temperature, and pressure. Each time
one mineral forms, the available ingredients change. Different minerals form as it goes through the
various stages of changing temperature, pressure, and chemistry. Diamonds crystallize at
temperatures higher than other minerals. Scientists now believe that they may form in the magma,
near the earth's crust where it is the coolest. If this is true, it also means that conditions for diamond
crystallization are the most common in the earth.
2. Hydrothermal
As the name implies, hydrothermal involves water and heat. As water percolates through the earth,
it dissolves minerals, just as it did with the sugar in our rock candy. Deep inside the earth, it meets
with magma. Special uids then escape from the magma that contain water, carbon dioxide and
volatiles (substances that give off gas). These hydrothermal uids move through fractures in the
crust. Along the way, they may dissolve minerals or combine with other ground water. Mineral rich,
they begin to cool in veins. If combined with the right combination of temperature, pressure, time,
and space, crystals form.

The most widely-used gemstone exploration techniques today are

ground-penetrating radar, known as GPR; trace-element analysis, which
involves seeking signature elements as clues to where gems may lie; and
use of a device called a "terra thumper," which identies differences in the
structure of the host rock through seismic analysis.
GPR has proven useful in providing subsurface mapping of potential
gem-bearing pockets, or "vugs," but the readings can be confused by
moisture in the ground, and they can't separate gem-bearing pockets from
the non-gem-bearing ones.
Experts disagree on whether using devices like GPR can ever be costeffective in exploration for gemstones, which normally occur in small lodes
and do not fetch as much as diamonds or gold in the marketplace. Despite
results like these, some believe that GPR is the wave of the future for
gemstone exploration. The main drawback with GPR is the penetration
depth.

3. Environmental Changes
GPR only works on ground level and is not applicable to airborne
Great stresses exist inside the earth. Under the right conditions, the temperature and pressure can exploration. Making GPR airborne-friendly involves some complicated
rise to the point where existing minerals are no longer stable. Under these conditions, minerals can physics which presently lead to diminishing returns.
change into different species without melting. This is known as metamorphism.
There are two types of metamorphism:
The use of GPR is not meant to replace trenching or drilling. but merely
to nd the most likely places to dig About 99 percent of GPR usage
Contact metamorphism : occurs when magma forces its way into an existing rock formation.
worldwide is for civil engineering applications such as the locating of
Under the intense heat, existing rocks begin to melt and eventually recrystallize as new species
buried pipes and other structures. Whether GPR manufacturers will work
that are stable at higher temperatures.
toward improving mining applications will depend on the extent to which
miners embrace the technology.
Regional metamorphism : Enormous compression forces exist where land masses come
together, creating an area of intense heat and pressure. As the temperature approaches the
Another popular technique for prospecting is trace element analysis of
melting point of rock, the minerals become unstable. Over time (possibly millions of years) they
areas suspected of containing gemstones. An extensive study has been
change into new varieties.
made of an alluvial sapphire deposit in Montana by researchers from the
University of Toronto.

STUDY CASE
Successful Application of Ground Penetrating Radar in the Exploration of
Gem Tourmaline Pegmatites of Southern California
Jeffrey E. Patterson and Frederick A. Cook

Data Processing
Data processing of radar data can be similar to processing for seismic reection data as
the returned signal provides a time series for each trace. Because these data were
recorded in continuous mode along a linear prole, we found that the most effective
processes were those that assisted in characterizing anomalies according to frequency,
phase and amplitude. A series of deconvolution and migration tests (not shown here)
provided little improvement in the data, and in most cases degraded them; hence, the data
were processed using complex trace analysis (Taner et al., 1979) that provides
information about local variations in frequency, phase and amplitude and that can thus be
valuable in tracking characteristics of anomalies.

Application of ground penetrating radar has been successful in delineating gembearing zones in the Himalaya pegmatite mine of the Mesa Grande district of
southern California. The high frequency of the electromagnetic signal allows
features as small as a few cm to be resolved within 1-2 meters of the surface of a
mine wall. Careful initial setup consisted of:
1) selection of antennas with sufciently high central frequencies,
2) recording with a short time of scan to reduce end of scan noise levels, and
3) choosing appropriate color schemes to highlight extreme amplitude variations.
Operation during data collection insisted of pre-painting marking points on the mine
face and air launching the signal to reduce false anomalies caused by rocking of
the antenna on the rough surfaces. Data processing using the Hilbert Transform
provided images of the cavity geometry that was then used by the blasting captain
for accurate placement of explosives.
Data Acquisition
In ground penetrating radar, an electromagnetic pulse of several nanoseconds
duration (1 ns = 1 x 10-9 s) is transmitted via a tuned antenna into the subsurface
where it may respond from rocks with contrasting electrical properties. Returned
signals are sensed by a receiving antenna and recorded digitally in a manner
similar to seismic prospecting. This allows the signals to be displayed, processed
and enhanced using many standard signal-processing techniques.

Conclusion
The development of high resolution geophysical methods, particularly
ground penetrating radar, to produce detailed images of subsurface
structures has led to the ability to identify gem tourmaline-bearing zones
within the Himalaya sheeted pegmatite in southern California. When
appropriately recorded, processed and calibrated with geological
information, resolution of features (pockets and vugs) as small as a few
cm within approximately 2 m, or 10's of cm within about 5 m of a wall
surface may be obtained. This approach thus provides an opportunity to
nd gem-bearing zones that may not exhibit "typical" indicators and/or that
may be in areas that are no longer actively mined.

References
http://pegmatite.com/Gem-Star-GPR.pdf
http://www.gemsociety.org/article/gem-formation/