INSTITUTO TECNOLOGICO DE MORELIA

DEPARTAMENTO DE INGENIERIA ELECTRICA

Electric Power System Protection

COURSE NOTES
Ph.D. Victor Javier Gutierrez-Martinez

August 2014

Contents
1 FAULT ANALYSIS AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS

1.1

Purpose and Assumptions of Fault Analysis

1.2

Relations Between Steady-State and Transient Short-circuit Conditions

. .

1.3

Modeling of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.3.1

Symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.3.2

Sequence impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.3.2.1

Sequence impedances of Y-connected loads . . . . . . . . .

19

1.3.2.2

Sequence impedances of transmission lines . . . . . . . . .

21

1.3.2.3

Sequence Impedances of synchronous machine . . . . . . .

23

1.3.2.4

Sequence Impedances of transformer

. . . . . . . . . . . .

24

1.3.2.5

Sequence networks of a loaded generator . . . . . . . . . .

29

1.4

Balanced Three-phase Fault

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bibliography

32

36

Chapter 1
FAULT ANALYSIS AND
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
1.1

Purpose and Assumptions of Fault Analysis

Short circuit: occurs when two or more points, which are at a dierent voltage under
normal operation conditions, accidentally come into contact with each other through a
small or zero impedance.
Generally happens when the insulation fails owing to:

Loss of environmental insulation properties (overheating, contamination, etc.).

Overvoltages (external and internal origin).

Diverse mechanical eects (breakages, deformations, displacements, etc. ...).

Short circuits should be studied:

During the planning, and

Operation of an electric network.

Short-circuit studies are particularly important during selection and design of the system
conductors, system structures, and the relaying and protection system.

The damaging

eects of the faults are numerous and are mainly related to the high currents which can
appear in the system. Usually, these current values can be several times the value of the
normal operational current and can occasionally produce overvoltage phenomena.
The main eects of the faults are:

Conductor heating owing to the Joule eect.

Electromechanical forces: can create breakages.

Voltage variations, which are voltage drops in the failed phases and eventual voltage
increases in the others.

The analysis of a short-circuited electric network depends on:

1. The objective required.
2. The complexity of the network being studied.
3. The degree of precision necessary.
For example, if the objective is the calculation of a LV and MV industrial installation,
the maximum short circuit current must be obtained (normally a balanced short circuit)
to determine the short-circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breakers, the thermal and
dynamic limits of the conductors, and apparatus of the installation. On the other hand, if
the objective is to adjust the protections of a HV-meshed electric network, it is necessary
to calculate short-circuit currents at any point and for any type of short circuit (both
balanced and unbalanced faults).
Short circuits are generally classied as balanced or unbalanced. Balanced short circuits:

the three phases are short circuited at the same point and time, and therefore

the resulting circuit is also balanced. For this reason, the study can be carried out using a single-phase equivalent circuit.

Unbalanced short circuits:

it is necessary to use

three-phase models which, after using adequate mathematical techniques (symmetrical

components), can be reduced to three coupled single-phase circuits.

Figure 1.1: Circuits before the fault and during the fault: (a) initial circuit and (b) fault
circuit.

1.2

Relations Between Steady-State and Transient Shortcircuit Conditions

Usual techniques for modeling and studying electric networks can be classied into three
dierent operational time frames:
1. Steady state.
2. Electro-mechanic transient.
3. Electromagnetic transient.
Fault analysis is an electromagnetic process, where the network under steady-state operation conditions suers an abrupt topology modication.

Thus, the network has to be

modeled by resorting to the dierential equations characterizing its components to accurately analyze any fault. This detailed dierential equation modeling of the fault process
can be studied for certain cases, it is not practical while dealing with networks of hundreds
of nodes and branches. For this reason, common practice for short-circuit calculation uses
a quasi steady-state model of the electric network as an adequate approximation. To establish the equations for the transient behavior of a network in a fault situation, a simple
case of an RL branch in series with a voltage-source feeding a load will be studied, as
shown in Figure 1.1. A more realistic analysis should consider the transient behavior of
real voltage sources, where the magnetic inertia of rotating machines becomes crucial.

The following dierential equation represents the behavior of the previous circuit during
a fault:

e (t) = Ri + L
where:

R = Rg + RL

and

di
dt

(1.1)

L = Lg + LL .

The solution to the Equation 1.1 is as follows:

i (t) = Ke L t + ist (t)

(1.2)

where ist
from

(t) is the steady-state current of the faulted circuit, and K is a constant obtained
the currents at the initial instant, K = i (0) ist (0). If the voltage source has the

following expression:

e (t) =
the current

i (t)

2Esin (t + )

can be calculated as follows:


 R

i (t) = i0 2Icc sin ( ) e L t + 2Icc sin (t + )

where:

E
Icc = q
R2 + (L)2
L
X
=
R
R

tg () =
i (0) =

2I0 sin ( 0 )

E
I0 = q
(R + Rc )2 + (L + Xc )2
tg (0 ) =

L + Xc
R + Rc

Rc + jXc =

1
=Z
Y

(1.3)

The above Equation 1.3 contains two terms:

1. The rst term only exists during the so-called transient period, and disappears with
time. It becomes almost equal to zero for

t>

5L
s (beginning of the steady state).
R

This unidirectional or asymmetrical component corresponds to the circuit's natural response (in mathematical terminology, it is the solution of the homogeneous
equation).
2. The second term, the sinusoidal component (also called the symmetric or periodic
component) represents the steady state or permanent response of the circuit (in
mathematical terminology, the particular solution of the dierential equation).
Owing to the comparatively small value of the series elements

R and L, when compared to

the corresponding values of the load to which systems are typically connected, the rated
current

I0

is often neglected relative to the much larger short-circuit current

the total fault current

i (t)

is not aected by the prefault initial current at

Icc . That is,

t = 0 [i (0)].

Under this assumption, Equation 1.3 can be expressed as follows:

R
i (t) = 2Icc sin ( ) e L t + 2Icc sin (t + )

(1.4)

i (t) components results in a theoretical maximum value of

This value occurs when R = 0 and = 90. Assuming the dominance of
inductance over resistance in the electric networks (that is, L > R), the maximum values
of i (t) occur when = 0 and t = , 3, 5, . . . Consequently, if the maximum instantaneous current values are obtained when = 0, the evolution of the peak current values in
subsequent oscillatory cycles, [imax (t)], can be approximately expressed as follows:
The sinusoidal behavior of

2 2Icc .

imax (t) = i (0) e L t +

and, if the initial current

i (0)



R
2Icc sin () 1 + e L t

(1.5)

is neglected:

imax (t) =



R
2Icc sin () 1 + e X t

(1.6)

Thus, a way to calculate the maximum transient short-circuit current has been established as a function of the steady-state short-circuit current

imax (t)

is divided by

2,

a formula for the evolution of the

Icc .

If the current curve

rms current I (t) is obtained.

For a more general electric network, the current Equation 1.6 becomes:



R

Xeq t
imax (t) = 2Icc sin (eq ) 1 + e eq
where

Req , Xeq ,

and

eq

are the equivalent resistance, reactance, and angle, respectively.

These values are calculated at the faulted node and are obtained using the nodal impedance
matrix (Thevenin impedance at the faulted node).

International standards recommend

the calculation of the equivalent impedance not taking into account shunt elements (such
as loads, line capacitances, and regulating transformers).

imax (t),

The rst maximum of the current

t = , t = 10ms

Equation 1.3, occurs approximately when

(1/2 cycle). This maximum current value is called the peak current.

The largest possible value for this peak current for the circuit shown in Figure 1.1b is as
follows:

Ipeak




R
X

= 2Icc sin () 1 + e

In the same way, the minimum short-circuit current value occurs when

t = ,

such that:

Imin =

(1.7)

= 0

and

2Icc

The IEC 909 standard recommends the following three methods to calculate the peak
current:

Method A is the least exact and calculates the peak current as:

Ipeak



3R
2Icc 1.02 + 0.98e X

where R/X is the minimum existing value in all the network branches.

In Method B the short-circuit peak current is calculated dierently for LV, MV, and
HV as follows:

Low Voltage (LV):

Medium Voltage (MV):

Ipeak 1.8 2Icc




3R
Ipeak 1.15 2Icc 1.02 + 0.98e X

High Voltage (HV):

where

and

Ipeak 2 2Icc

are the real and reactive parts of the nodal impedance at the

faulted point.

Method C is more exact. It denes the peak current as:

Ipeak

3R
X

2Icc 1.02 + 0.98e

where the ratio R/X is calculated as R/X

20Rc/50Xc ,

Rc

and

Xc

being the real and

reactive parts of the nodal impedance at the short-circuit point respectively, both
dened using a network steady-state frequency of 20 Hz, when the rated network
frequency is 50 Hz (typical in Europe). In the case of a rated network frequency of
60 Hz, the calculation frequency should be 24 Hz.

Assignment:

Assign values for the circuit components and obtain all quantities of interest

using Matlab (Results should be dierent between students). Consider a simulation

time in such a way that the transient- and steady-state behaviors can be properly
identied.
The most evident consequence of a short circuit is the resulting high intensity current,
where the values change from amperes under rated conditions (I0 ) to thousands of amperes
under faulted conditions (Icc ). This creates severe thermal and mechanical stresses in the
electric installation elements and equipment. Thus, the fault should be cleared as soon as
possible, isolating the short circuit from the generator using system protection equipment
(relays and circuit breakers). The relays are used to detect the existence of a fault and send

Figure 1.2: Short-circuit protection system in an electric network.

an order to the circuit breakers to carry out the fault clearing, and in this way interrupt
the current owing to the fault as shown in Figure 1.2.
The main objectives of system protection are [1]:

Minimize the duration of a fault reducing its thermal and mechanical eects, and

Minimize the number of other devices aected by the fault.

In general, the maximum fault current values are useful to determine the required interrupting rating of fuses and circuit breakers. The minimum fault values are useful to
determine and coordinate the operation of the various switching devices (relay operation).
The switching device behavior is evaluated under the worst conditions (maximum
current situations). Hence, if in the circuit of Figure 1.1a there is a circuit breaker between
the generation and the short circuit (Figure 1.1b), it should be designed and calculated to
withstand the following conditions:

When the breaker is closed (nonactive), it has to permanently withstand the steadystate rated current

In

(sinusoidal periodic).

When the breaker is closed (nonactive), it has to withstand the following current
from the onset of the fault (t

= 0)

imax =

until it clears at

t = tc .



R
2Icc sin () 1 + e L t

When the breaker is closed, it should be in a position to break the maximum current in the worst conditions to clear the fault. For the clearing (or breaking) time

10

(tc )normally between 0.06 and 0.08 s (3 and 4 cycles)the maximum current will
be:

Ic =




R
2Icc sin () 1 + e L tc

Owing to the dierence between the breaking of a periodic and

asymmetrical short-circuit current component

Ia =

Ia

dc

current, a

is dened as:

R
2Icc e L tc

and, to characterize all the breaking elements, another current called

breaking current

The breaking capacity is dened as

is the

rms

Sb =

total

p
2
Ia2 + Icc

3Un I ,

where

Un

is the

rms rated voltage and

breaking current. Another commonly used term in electric networks is the

short-circuit capacity (SCC), dened as

voltage and

rms

is dened as follows:

I=

dc

Icc

is the

SCC =

3Un Icc ,

rms steady-state fault current.

where

Un

is the

rms

rated

As mentioned before, the order to open the breaking element is delivered by the socalled protection relay after it detects the presence of the short circuit, and the worst
detection condition is when the short-circuit current has the value

Imin =

2Icc .

To summarize, the following currents are of interest during short-circuit calculations:

From the switching device perspective:

current [imax

(t)],

the maximum instantaneous value of the

the peak current (Ipeak ), the maximum current at the breaking

instant (Ic ), the asymmetrical breaking current (Ia ), the

( ), and the steady-state short-circuit current

Icc .

rms total breaking current

In general, the maximum fault

current is calculated based on the assumption of all generators in service and solid
(zero impedance) fault.

From the relay perspective:

all of the above, but in addition also the minimum

short-circuit current (Imin ). The minimum fault current is calculated based on the
minimum likely number of generators and non-solid faults.

11

1.3

Modeling of Components

This section describes the models (or equivalent circuits) of the following electrical system
components suitable for short-circuit analysis:

Transmission lines

Three-phase transformers

Generators

Loads

The models are based on symmetrical component theory. The application of symmetrical
component theory to the dierent electric network elements (lines, transformers, generators, and loads) produces the so-called symmetrical component models, also known as
sequence network. These sequence networks are useful for the analysis of power systems
where a portion can be isolated for study (the fault location), with the rest of the system
remaining balanced [2, 3].
For this purpose, a revisit of the symmetrical component theory is needed to properly
understand the component models used in the short-circuit studies.

1.3.1

Symmetrical components

In this section, the symmetrical components method is discussed. When applied to unbalanced faults studies allows the treatment of the problem on a simple per phase basis.
Furthermore, two functions developed in [4] and shown in Appendix A are used for the
symmetrical components transformations.

These are

abc2sc,

which provides transfor-

mation from phase quantities to symmetrical components, and

sc2abc

for the inverse

transformation.
In three-phase system the phase sequence is dened as the order in which they pass
through a positive maximum.

Consider the phasor representation of a three-phase bal-

anced current shown in Figure 1.3.

12

Figure 1.3: Representation of symmetrical components.

By convention, the direction of rotation of the phasors is taken to be counterclockwise.

The three phasors are written as:

Ia1 = Ia1 0 = Ia1

Ib1 = Ib1 240 = a2 Ia1

(1.8)

Ic1 = Ic1 120 = aIa1

where an operator

a has been dened that causes a counterclockwise rotation of 120, such

that:

a = 1120 = 0.5 + j0.866

a2 = 1240 = 0.5 j0.866

(1.9)

a3 = 1360 = 1 + j0
It is easy to prove that:

1 + a + a2 = 0
The order of the phasors is
order is

(1.10)

abc. This is designated the positive phase sequence. When the

acb as in Figure 1.3b, it is designated the negative phase sequence. The negative
13

phase sequence quantities are represented as:

Ia2 = Ia2 0 = Ia2

Ib2 = Ia2 120 = aIa2

(1.11)

Ic2 = Ia2 240 = a2 Ia2

Zero phase sequence currents, as in Figure 1.3c, would be designated:

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0

The superscripts

1, 2,

and

are being used to represent positive, negative, and zero-

sequence quantities, respectively.

0, 1, 2.

(1.12)

In some texts the notation

0, +, - is used instead of

The symmetrical components method was introduced by Dr. C. L. Fortescue in

1918. Based on his theory, three-phase unbalanced phasors of a three-phase system can
be resolved into three balanced systems of phasors as follows:
1. Positive-sequence components consisting of a set of balanced three-phase components
with a phase sequence

abc.

2. Negative-sequence components consisting of a set of balanced three-phase components with a phase sequence

acb.

3. Zero-sequence components consisting of three single-phase components, all equal in

magnitude but with the same phase angles.
Consider the three-phase unbalanced currents

Ia , Ib ,

and

Ic

shown in Figure 1.4.

The

three symmetrical components of the current are:

Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2

Ib = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2
Ic = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2
14

(1.13)

Figure 1.4: Resolution of unbalanced phasors into symmetrical components.

According to the denition of the symmetrical components as given by Equations 1.8,

1.11, and 1.12, Equation 1.13 may be written as:

Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2

Ib = Ia0 + a2 Ia1 + aIa2
Ic = Ia0 + aIa1 + a2 Ia2

(1.14)

0
Ia
1 1 1
Ia

1
2
Ib = 1 a a Ia
Ia2
Ic
1 a a2

(1.15)

I abc = AIa012

(1.16)

or in matrix form:

In matrix notation:

where

A is known as symmetrical components transformation matrix (SCTM) which trans-

15

forms phasor currents

Iabc

into component currents

Ia012 ,

and is:

1 1 1

A = 1 a2 a
1 a a2

(1.17)

Solving 1.16 for the symmetrical components of currents, results in:

The inverse of

Substituting for

is given by:

A1

Ia012 = A1 I abc

(1.18)

1
A1 = A
3

(1.19)

in 1.18, results in:

Ia0
1 1 1
Ia
1 1

Ia = 1 a a2 Ib
3
1 a2 a
Ic
Ia2

(1.20)

or in component form, the symmetrical components are:

Ia0 = 13 (Ia + Ib + Ic )
Ia1 = 31 (Ia + aIb + a2 Ic )
Ia2 = 31 (Ia + a2 Ib + aIc )

(1.21)

It is important to mention that from Equation 1.21 the zero-sequence component of current
is equal to one-third of the sum of the phase currents. Therefore, when the phase currents
sum to zero, e.g., in a three-phase system with ungrounded neutral, the zero-sequence
current cannot exist. If the neutral of the power system is grounded, zero-sequence current
ows between the neutral and the ground.
Similar expressions exist for voltages. Thus the unbalanced phase voltages in terms of
the symmetrical components voltages are:

16

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = Va0 + a2 Va1 + aVa2
Vc = Va0 + aVa1 + a2 Va2

(1.22)

V abc = AVa012

(1.23)

in matrix notation:

The symmetrical components in terms of the unbalanced voltages are:

Va012 = A1 V abc

(1.24)

The apparent power may also be expressed in terms of the symmetrical components. The
three-phase complex power is:

S(3) = V abc I abc

(1.25)

Substituting Equations 1.16 and 1.23 in 1.25, results in:

T


012
S(3) = AV 012
AI
a
a
T
T
012
A
A
I
= V 012
a
a
Since

AT = A,

then from Equation 1.19,

AT A = 3,


S(3) = 3 V

012T

and the complex power becomes:

012

= 3Va0 Ia + 3Va1 Ia + 3Va2 Ia2

Assignment:

Proof that

(1.26)

(1.27)

AT A = 3.

Equation 1.27 shows that the total unbalanced power can be obtained from the sum of the

a of the symmetrical components are

0
1
2
omitted, e.g., I , I , and I are understood to refer to phase a.

symmetrical component powers. Often the subscript

Assignments:
1. Obtain the remaining symmetrical components as described before.

17

2. Obtain the symmetrical components of the following set of unbalanced currents using
Matlab

Ia = 1.625
Ib = 1180
Ic = 0.9132
Plot the

abc and 012

resulting currents.

3. The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced three phase voltages are:

Va0 = 0.690
Va1 = 130
Va2 = 0.8 30
Obtain the original unbalanced phasors using Matlab.
4. Obtain the Symmetrical components of the set of unbalanced voltages:

Va = 300 120
Vb = 20090
Vc = 100 30
5. The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced three-phase currents are:

Ia0 = 3 30
Ia1 = 590
Ia2 = 430
Obtain the original unbalanced phasors.
6. Based on the denition of

a presented, show that:

(a)

(1+a)
(1+a2 )

= 1120

(b)

(1a)2
(1+a)2

= 3 180

(c)

(a a2 ) (a2 a) = 30

(d)

1
Van
=

1 V 1 90
3 bc

(e)

2
Van
=

1 V 2
3 bc

90
18

Figure 1.5: Balanced Y-connected load.

1.3.2

Sequence impedances

This is the impedance of an equipment or component to the current of dierent sequences.

The impedance oered to the ow of positive-sequence currents is known as the positivesequence impedance and is denoted by

Z 1.

The impedance oered to the ow of negative-

sequence currents is known as the negative-sequence impedance, shown by

Z 2.

When

zero-sequence currents ow, the impedance is called the zero-sequence impedance, shown
by

Z 0.

The sequence impedances of transmission lines, generators, and transformers are

considered briey next.

1.3.2.1

Sequence impedances of Y-connected loads

A three-phase balanced load with self and mutual elements is shown in Figure 1.5. The
load neutral is grounded through an impedance

Zn .

The line-to-ground voltages are:

Va = Zs Ia + Zm Ib + Zm Ic + Zn In
Vb = Zm Ia + Zs Ib + Zm Ic + Zn In
Vc = Zm Ia + Zm Ib + Zs Ic + Zn In

(1.28)

From Kirchho 's current law:

In = Ia + Ib + Ic

(1.29)

Substituting for In from Equation 1.29 into Equation 1.28 and rewriting this equation in

19

matrix form, yields:

Va
Zs + Zn Zm + Zn Zm + Zn
Ia

Vb = Zm + Zn Zs + Zn Zm + Zn Ib
Vc
Zm + Zn Zm + Zn Zs + Zn
Ic

(1.30)

or in compact form:

V abc = Z abc I abc

(1.31)

where:

Z abc

writing

V abc

and

I abc

Zs + Zn Zm + Zn Zm + Zn

= Zm + Zn Zs + Zn Zm + Zn
Zm + Zn Zm + Zn Zs + Zn

(1.32)

in terms of their symmetrical components:

= Z abc AI 012
AV 012
a
a
Multiplying Equation 1.33 by

(1.33)

A1 :
V 012
= A1 Z abc AI012
a
a
012 012
= Z Ia

(1.34)

Z 012 = A1 Z abc A

(1.35)

1 1 1
Zs + Zn Zm + Zn Zm + Zn
1 1 1
1

= 1 a a2 Zm + Zn Zs + Zn Zm + Zn 1 a2 a
3
1 a2 a
Zm + Zn Zm + Zn Zs + Zn
1 a a2

(1.36)

where:

and can be written as:

Z 012

20

Performing the above multiplications:

Z 012

Zs + 3Zn + 2Zm
0
0

=
0
Zs Zm
0

0
0
Zs Zm

When there is no mutual coupling, we set

Zm = 0,

(1.37)

and the impedance matrix becomes:

Z 012

Zs + 3Zn 0 0

=
0
Zs 0
0
0 Zs

(1.38)

The impedance matrix has nonzero elements appearing only on the principal diagonal,
and it is a diagonal matrix.

Therefore, for a balanced load, the three sequences are

independent. That is, currents of each phase sequence will produce voltage drops of the
same phase sequence only. This is a very important property, as it permits the analysis of
each sequence network on a per phase basis.

1.3.2.2

Sequence impedances of transmission lines

For static devices such as transmission lines, the phase sequence has no eect on the
impedance, because the voltages and currents encounter the same geometry of the line,
irrespective of the sequence. Thus, positive- and negative-sequence impedances are equal,
i.e.,

Z 1 = Z 2.

Zero-sequence currents are in phase and ow through the

through the grounded neutral.
path of zero sequence.

Thus,

a,b,c conductors to return

The ground or any shielding wire are eectively in the

Z 0,

which includes the eect of the return path through

the ground, is generally dierent from

Z1

and

Z 2.

To get an idea of the order of

consider the following simplied conguration. Consider

Z0

1-m length of a three-phase line

with equilaterally spaced conductors as shown in Figure 1.6. The phase conductors carry
zero-sequence (single-phase) currents with return paths through a grounded neutral. The
ground surface is approximated to an equivalent ctitious conductor located at the average
distance

Dn

from each of the three phases. Since conductor

21

n carries the return current

Figure 1.6: Zero-sequence current ow with earth return.

in opposite direction:

and since

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 ,

Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 + In = 0

(1.39)

In = 3Ia0

(1.40)

results in:

Utilizing the relation for the ux linkages of a conductor in a group, the total ux linkage
of phase a conductor is:

a0 = 2 10

Assignment:

Ia0

1
1
1
1
ln 0 + Ib0 ln + Ic0 ln + In ln
r
D
D
Dn

(1.41)

Student should obtain the aforementioned equation.

Substituting for

Ib0 , Ic0 ,

and

In

in terms of

Ia0 :



a0 = 2 107 Ia0 ln r10 + ln D1 + ln D1 3 ln D1n
3

= 2 107 Ia0 ln rD0 Dn2

Since

L0 = a0/Ia0 ,

he zero sequence inductance per phase in

22

(1.42)

W b/m

mH

per kilometer length is:

L0 = 0.2 ln rD0 Dn2

3
n
= 0.2 ln DD
r0 D3


Dn
= 0.2 ln D
+
3
0.2
ln
0
r
D

(1.43)

mH/Km

The rst term above is the same as the positive-sequence inductance.

Thus the zero

sequence reactance can be expressed as:

X 0 = X 1 + 3Xn
where:


Xn = 2f

1.3.2.3

Dn
0.2 ln
D

(1.44)


m/Km

(1.45)

Sequence Impedances of synchronous machine

The dynamic model of a three-phase synchronous machine is established from dierential

equations which relate voltages, uxes, and currents. However, these models are not very
useful for the purpose of this course.

The synchronous machine models used for short-

circuit analysis are balanced circuits dened for the fault periods of interest (subtransient,
transient, and eventually, steady state).
It has been studied in previous courses that the generator positive-sequence reactance
varies depending on the phase order of the sequence current relative to the direction of
rotation of the rotor. As consequence, one of the reactances

Xd00 , Xd0 ,

and

Xd

can be used

for the balanced three-phase fault studies. When negative-sequence currents are impressed
in the stator, the net ux in the air gap rotates at opposite direction to that of the rotor.
That is, the net ux rotates at twice synchronous speed relative to the rotor. Since the
eld voltage is associated with the positive-sequence variables, the eld winding has no
inuence. Consequently, only the damper winding produces an eect in the quadrature
axis. Hence, there is no distinction between the transient and subtransient reactances in
the quadrature axis as there is in the direct axis. The negative-sequence reactance is close
to the positive-sequence subtransient reactance, i.e.:

X 2 ' Xd 
23

(1.46)

The machine oers a very small reactance due to the leakage ux. Therefore, the zerosequence reactance is approximated to the leakage reactance, i.e.:

X0 = Xl

1.3.2.4

(1.47)

Sequence Impedances of transformer

In power transformers, the core losses and the magnetization current are on the order of one
percent of the rated value; therefore, the magnetizing branch is neglected. The transformer
is modeled with the equivalent series leakage impedance. Since the transformer is a static
device, the leakage impedance will not change if the phase sequence is changed. Therefore,
the positive- and negative-sequence impedances are the same.

Also, if the transformer

permits zero-sequence current ow at all, the phase impedance to zero-sequence is equal
to the leakage impedance, then:

Z0 = Z1 = Z2 = Zl
It is necessary to recall that in a

or a

(1.48)
transformer, the positive-sequence

line voltage on HV side leads the corresponding line voltage on the LV side by
negative-sequence voltage the corresponding phase shift is

30. For the

-30. The equivalent circuit for

the zero-sequence impedance depends on the winding connections and also upon whether
or not the neutrals are grounded.

Assignment:

Proof that the positive-sequence line voltage on HV side leads the corre-

sponding line voltage on the LV side by

30.

Figure 1.7 shows some of the more common transformer congurations and their zerosequence equivalent circuits which can be explained as follows:

1.

Y Y

connections with both neutrals grounded. As the zero sequence current equals

the sum of phase currents and since both neutrals are grounded, there is a path for
the zero sequence current to ow in the primary and secondary, and the transformer
exhibits the equivalent leakage impedance per phase as shown in Figure 1.7a.

24

Figure 1.7: Transformer zero-sequence equivalent circuits.

25

2.

Y Y

connection with the primary neutral grounded.

The primary neutral is

grounded, but since the secondary neutral is isolated, the secondary phase current
must sum up to zero. This means that the zero-sequence current in the secondary
is zero. Consequently, the zero sequence current in the primary is zero, reecting
innite impedance or an open circuit as shown in Figure 1.7b.
3.

with grounded neutral. In this conguration the primary currents can ow

because there is zero-sequence circulating current in the

a ground return path for the Y-connected primary.
current can leave the

-connected secondary and

Note that no zero sequence

terminals, thus there is an isolation between the primary

and secondary sides as shown in Figure 1.7c.

4.

connection with isolated neutral. In this conguration, because the neutral

is isolated, zero sequence current cannot ow and the equivalent circuit reects an
innite impedance or an open as shown in Figure 1.7d.
5.

connection. In this conguration zero-sequence currents circulate in the

connected windings, but no currents can leave the

terminals, and the equivalent

circuit is as shown in Figure 1.7e.

Notice that the neutral impedance plays an important part in the equivalent circuit. When
the neutral is grounded through an impedance
circuit the neutral impedance appears as

Example:
anced

3Zn

Zn ,

because

in the path of

In = 3I0 ,
I0 .

in the equivalent

A balanced three-phase voltage of 100-V line-to-neutral is applied to a bal-

Y -connected load with ungrounded neutral as shown in Figure 1.8.

The three

phase load consists of three mutually-coupled reactances. Each phase has a series
reactance of

Zs = j12,

and the mutual coupling between phases is

Zm = j4.

De-

termine the line currents by mesh analysis without using symmetrical components,
and determine the line currents using symmetrical components.
To determine the line currents by mesh analysis it is necessary to apply the
the two independent mesh equations as follows:

26

KVL to

Figure 1.8:

connected load.

Zs Ia + Zm Ib Zs Ib Zm Ia = Va Vb = |VL | 6
Zs Ib + Zm Ic Zs Ic Zm Ib = Vb Vc = |VL | 2
From

KCL:
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0

Writing above equations in matrix form:

Zs Zm (Zs Zm )
0
Ia
|VL | 6

0
Zs Zm
(Zs Zm ) Ib = |VL | 2

0
1
1
1
Ic

In compact form:

Z mesh I abc = V mesh

Solving the above equations results in the line currents:

I abc = Z 1
mesh V mesh
and the result is:

Ia
12.5 90

Ib = 12.5150
12.530
Ic

27

Using the symmetrical components method:

V 012 = Z 012 I 012

where:

V 012

= Va
0

and also recalling that:

Z 012

Zs + 2Zm
0
0

=
0
Zs Zm
0

0
0
Zs Zm

for the sequence components of currents:


1 012
V
I 012 = Z 012
resulting in:

Ia
12.5 90

Ib = 12.5150
Ic
12.530

Assignment:

A three-phase unbalanced source with the following phase-to-neutral volt-

ages:

10010

= 300 50
40140

V abc

is applied to the circuit in Figure 1.5. The load series impedance per phase is

12+j12 and the mutual impedance between phases is Zm = j12.

Zs =

The load and source

neutrals are solidly grounded. Determine (a) The load sequence impedance matrix

Z 012 .

(b) The symmetrical components of voltage. (c) The symmetrical components

of current.

(d) The load phase currents.

28

(e) The complex power delivered to the

Figure 1.9: Three-phase balanced source and impedance.

load in terms of symmetrical components. (f ) The complex power delivered to the

load by summing up the power in each phase.

1.3.2.5

Sequence networks of a loaded generator

Figure represents a three-phase synchronous generator with neutral grounded through an

impedance

Zn .

The generator is supplying a three-phase balanced load.

The synchronous machine generates balanced three-phase internal voltages and is represented as a positive-sequence set of phasors as:

E abc

= a2 Ea
a

(1.49)

The machine is supplying a three-phase balanced load. Applying Kirchho 's voltage law
to each phase:

Va = Ea Zs Ia Zn In
Vb = Eb Zs Ib Zn In
Vc = Ec Zs Ic Zn In

29

(1.50)

Substituting for

In = Ia + Ib + Ic ,

and writing the above equation in matrix form:

Va
Ea
Zs + Zn
Zn
Zn
Ia

Zn
Zs + Zn
Zn
Vb = Eb
Ib
Vc
Ec
Zn
Zn
Zs + Zn
Ic

(1.51)

or in compact form:

V abc = E abc Z abc I abc

where

V abc

is the phase terminal voltage vector and

I abc

(1.52)
is the phase current vector.

Transforming the terminal voltages and current phasors into their symmetrical components
results in:

abc
AI 012
= AE 012
AV 012
a
a Z
a
Multiplying the above equation by

(1.53)

A1 :

1 abc
V 012
= E 012
AI 012
a
a A Z
a
012 012
= E 012

Z
I
a
a

(1.54)

1 1 1
Zs + Zn
Zn
Zn
1 1 1
1

= 1 a a2
Zn
Zs + Zn
Zn
1 a2 a
3
1 a2 a
Zn
Zn
Zs + Zn
1 a a2

(1.55)

where:

Z 012

Performing the above multiplications:

Z 012

Zs + 3Zn 0 0
Z
0 0

=
0
Zs 0 = 0 Z 1 0
0
0 Zs
0 0 Z2

30

(1.56)

Figure 1.10: Sequence networks: (a) positive-sequence; (b) negative-sequence; (c) zerosequence.

Since the generated

emf

is balanced, there is only positive-sequence voltage, i.e.:

E 012
a

Substituting for

Ea012

and

Z 012

= Ea
0

(1.57)

in Equation 1.54:

0
0

Z
0 0
Ia
0
Va0
1

1
1
0 Ia
Va = Ea 0 Z
Ia2
0
0 0 Z2
Va2

(1.58)

The above equation can be represented by the three equivalent sequence networks shown
in Figure 1.10. The following important observations can be made:

The three sequences are independent.

The positive-sequence network is the same as the one-line diagram used in studying
balanced three-phase currents and voltages.

Only the positive-sequence network has a voltage source. Therefore, the positivesequence current causes only positive-sequence voltage drops.

There is no voltage source in the negative- or zero-sequence networks.

Negative- and zero-sequence currents cause negative- and zero-sequence voltage

drops only.

31

The neutral of the system is the reference for positive-and negative-sequence networks, but ground is the reference for the zero-sequence networks. Therefore, the
zero-sequence current can ow only if the circuit from the system neutrals to ground
is complete.

The grounding impedance is reected in the zero sequence network as

The three-sequence systems can be solved separately on a per phase basis. The phase

3Zn .

currents and voltages can then be determined by superposing their symmetrical

components of current and voltage respectively.

1.4

Balanced Three-phase Fault

This type of fault is dened as the simultaneous short circuit across all three phases. It occurs infrequently, but it is the most severe type of fault encountered. Because the network
is balanced, it is solved on a per-phase basis. The other two phases carry identical currents
except for the phase shift. A fault represents a structural network change equivalent with
that caused by the addition of an impedance at the place of fault. If the fault impedance
is zero, the fault is referred to as the

bolted fault

or the

solid fault.

The faulted network

can be solved conveniently by the Thevenin's method. The procedure is demonstrated in

the following example.

Example:

The one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system is shown in Figure

1.11. Each generator is represented by an

emf

behind the transient reactance. All

impedances are expressed in p.u. on a common 100 MVA base, and for simplicity,
resistances are neglected. The following assumptions are made.

Shunt capacitances are neglected and the system is considered on no-load.

All generators are running at their rated voltage and rated frequency with their
in phase.

32

emfs

Figure 1.11: The impedance diagram of a simple power system.

Determine the fault current, the bus voltages, and the line currents during the fault when
a balanced three-phase fault with a fault impedance

Zf = 0.16

p.u. occurs on: a) Bus 3,

b) Bus2, and c) Bus 1.

The fault is simulated by switching on an impedance

Zf

at bus 3 as shown in Figure

1.11(b). Thevenin's theorem states that the changes in the network voltage caused by the
added branch (the fault impedance) shown in Figure 1.11(b) is equivalent to those caused
by the added voltage

V3 (0) with all other sources shortcircuited as shown in Figure 1.11(c).

a) From 1.11(c), the fault current at bus 3 is:

I3 (F ) =

V3 (0)
Z33 + Zf

33

Appendix A
In the following section the routines

abc2sc

and

sc2abc

included in [4] are presented:

% This function transforms a three-phase unbalanced phasor into its

% symmetrical components.
% The Three phasors can be expressed in a one column array in rectangular
% complex form or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column
% magnitude and 2nd column phase angle in degree.
% The function returns the symmetrical components in rectangular form.
% The function plots the original unbalanced phasors and the
% symmetrical components.
% % Copyright (C) 1998 by H. Saadat
function [symcomp] = abc2sc(fabc)
rankfabc=length(fabc(1,:));
if rankfabc == 2
mag= fabc(:,1);
ang=pi/180*fabc(:,2);
fabcr=mag.*(cos(ang)+j*sin(ang));
elseif rankfabc ==1
fabcr=fabc;
else
fprintf('\n Three phasors must be expressed in a one column array in rectangular
complex form \n')
fprintf(' or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column magnitude & 2nd
column \n')

34

fprintf(' phase angle in degree. \n')

return,
end
a=cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
A = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
fa012=inv(A)*fabcr;
symcomp= fa012;
%scpolar = [abs(fa012) 180/pi*angle(fa012)];
%fprintf(' \n Symmetrical components \n')
%fprintf(' Magnitude Angle Deg.\n')
%disp(scpolar)
fabc0=fa012(1)*[1; 1; 1];
fabc1=fa012(2)*[1; a^2; a];
fabc2=fa012(3)*[1; a; a^2];
gure subplot(221);
[Px, Py, Vscale]= phasor3(fabcr);
[Px0, Py0, Vscale0]= phasor3(fabc0);
[Px1, Py1, Vscale1]= phasor3(fabc1);
[Px2, Py2, Vscale2]= phasor3(fabc2);
Vscle=max([Vscale, Vscale0, Vscale1, Vscale2]);
plot(Px', Py','r')
title('a-b-c set')
axis([-Vscle Vscle -Vscle Vscle]);
axis('square') subplot(222);
plot(Px0', Py0','g')
title('Zero-sequence set')
axis([-Vscle Vscle -Vscle Vscle]);
axis('square')
subplot(223);
plot(Px1', Py1','m')
title('Positive-sequence set')

35

axis([-Vscle Vscle -Vscle Vscle]);

axis('square') subplot(224);
plot(Px2', Py2','b')
title('Negative-sequence set')
axis([-Vscle Vscle -Vscle Vscle]);
axis('square')
subplot(111)

36

Bibliography
[1] T. Gonen,

Electric Power Distribution System Engineering.

New York (USA):

McGraw-Hill, 1986.
[2] P. Anderson,

Analysis of Faulted Power Systems.

Ames (Iowa-USA),:

Iowa State

University Press, 1973.

[3] T. Gonen,

Modern Power System Analysis. New York (USA): Wiley, 1988.

[4] H. Saadat,

Analysis of Faulted Power Systems. New York (USA),: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

37