Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
List of figures
List of table
3-4
4-5
5-7
8-10
10-11
11-12
12-14
14-15
4.1 Experiment
16
4.2 Discussion
16-17
4.3 Simulation
17-19
4.4 Project
19-20
20
20-21
Bibliography
22-25
Appendix
26
LIST OF FIGURES
9-10
11
15
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Gagnes nine events of instruction
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to
criticisms
by
some
(conservative/traditional)
educators,
constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert
knowledge. In a better way, constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help
students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. Tools
such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students
formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and
convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment can be provided by
the constructivist teacher. Constructivism transforms the student from a passive
recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always
guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just
mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.
To me, it means that, their involvement in any kind of learning activity is
greatly increased, which can always generates more ideas for them to manipulate,
not always depends on what their teacher gives them. Also from my own
understanding is that constructivism actually attracts the students interest to learn
and makes them want to learn more and more. So it is the students that attracted to
that lesson, not the lesson that attracted or should be reaching out the students.
cognitive, emotional,
environmental influences
and experiences
reinterpreting
knowledge
interpreting and
understanding
reality
making sense
or abstracting
meaning
acquiring information or
knowing a lot
I
S
memorising
L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G
acquiring
facts, skills,
and methods
Piagets
Theory:
Development
Cognitive
4 stages:
- Sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete and formal
Active learning
LEARNING
THEORIES
Ausubels Theory:
Reception Learning and
Expository Teaching
Deductive General to
specific
Advance organizers
The fourth and final stage is the formal operation stage (12 to adult).
Now, not only child can think logically, like the concrete operation stage child,
but they can also think abstractly. They have the ability to manipulate the
meaning represented by symbols. Piaget said that this is the ultimate stage of
development.
10
Specific
Objects
Experiment
Inductive
approach
Simulation
Role-play
Other activities
General concept
11
Guide and help students to relate all the pieces of information that they
have gathered. The use of concept maps is really important. It can help
students to generate or create their own mental map.
My opinion from own understanding is that the Ausubels theory is
Verbal information
Intellectual skills
Cognitive strategies
Motor skills
Attitudes
Stimulus recognition
Response generation
Procedure following
Use of terminology
Discrimination
Concept formation
Rule application
Problem solving
Looking at this hierarchy, we can get the idea that Gagnes theory is
also using deductive approach. Teaching and learning should started from the
very basic and simple one before go to the next stage, which is more
complex. Logically, this theory should work for example before pupils know
why plants cannot live without the sunlight, of course pupils have to know the
basic needs of a plant. In addition, the theory outlines nine events and the
corresponding cognitive process which should be found in any instructional
context.
Instructional events
1. Gain attention
6. Elicit performance
8. Assess performance
13
14
Discussion
- teacher as facilitator
Experiment
- follow-up question
TEACHING AND
LEARNING
STRATEGIES
FOR SCIENCE
Use of technology
Simulation
- analysis and
presentation of data
- easier and faster
Project
Visits and use of external
resources
- Project-based learning
real life situation.
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4.1 Experiment
Though teachers with high morale, motivation and a mastery of knowledge,
learner difficulties and capacity to facilitate learning are important (Grauwe, 1999;
Zadra, 2000), correct use of an appropriate teaching method is critical to the
successful teaching and learning of science. In my opinion, this is very important
because students may learn names and definitions theoretically. But for them to
master and really understand what the topic is all about, they need to experience it
and observe subsequent reactions or situations.
In experiment, cooperative learning is involved. Cooperative learning is a
comprehensive approach to teaching that derives from a theory of education and
encompasses key assumptions about what students should learn and how they
learn. The shared responsibility and interaction are likely to generate better intergroup relations and result in better self-images for students with histories of poor
achievement (Joyce and Weil, 1980).
4.2 Discussion
We always heard about discussion used in learning. To me, it is a very useful
learning strategy because all students can voice out their thinking. A discussion is an
activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based on valid reasons.
Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity. Teachers should
play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking question that stimulate
thinking and getting students to express themselves (Kementerian Pendidikan,
2003). However, discussions need to be carefully planned. From my point of view, if
it is not well-planned, it could result bad outcomes where students dont the right key
of the topic. Arguably, good discussions can take more thought than a lecture might.
It is important to plan an activity that gets at the most important issue in the class.
The problem to solve or question that the group discusses has to be open-ended
and complex enough that they have something to chew on.
A good teacher always has plan B in mind. Planning several follow-up
questions helps to prevent the discussion from coming to premature closure. Set the
question so they have to do more than only come up with the easy answer. Have an
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alternative activity if the first one does not engage students as anticipated.
This does not mean that if a discussion does not heat up immediately we should
ditch it and revert to lecture. Students need to practice discussion activities a few
times before they become proficient at them. Hang in there with them as they learn
to discuss easily and well (Middendorf and Kalish, 1996).
In a more common sense, I think expectation that every student will
participate should be created. This can be done by telling them this explicitly, and by
designing activities that require different students to have different responsibilities
across the semester. Direct students to be sure and let everyone speak. Again,
randomness can help. For example, when you tell students that the reporter for
today's discussion will be the person whose last name is closest to the start of the
alphabet, some quiet students will end up reporting. If the same people answer all
the time, you might say, "Let's hear from someone we haven't heard from yet." And
then don't call on the students you have already heard from that day.
4.3 Simulation
Simulation is an event or situation made to resemble clinical practice as
closely as possible. Simulation can be used to teach theory, assessment,
technology, pharmacology, and skills (Rauen, 2001). The emphasis in simulation is
often on the application and integration of knowledge, skills, and critical thinking.
Unlike a classroom setting or a paper-and-pencil test, simulation allows learners to
function in an environment that is as close as possible to an actual situation and
provides them an opportunity to "think on their feet, not in their seat." Simulation has
been successfully used as a teaching strategy in both clinical and formal education
(Eaves and Flagg, 2001).
Simulation has been used in the aviation, transportation, and nuclear power
industries and the social and behavioural sciences have all used simulation to teach
concepts; to allow risk-free practice; and to teach, practice, and/or evaluate criticalthinking skills. In healthcare, the first types of simulators were the stagnant models
(eg, rubber body parts). These types are still used to learn basic skills, such as
insertion of urinary and intravenous catheters (Issenberg et. al, 1999).
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4.4 Project
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or
a group of students to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally
requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of
a report, an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other
students. Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time
management skills, and independent learning (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003).
Project-based learning (PBL): best defined as instruction relating questions
and technology relative to the students everyday lives to classroom projects.
Students form their own investigation of their own group which allows students to
develop valuable research skills. The students engage in design, problem solving,
decision making, and investigative activities. It allows students to work in groups or
by themselves and allows them to come up with ideas and realistic solutions or
presentations. Students take a problem and apply it to a real life situation with these
projects (Wikipedia Encyclopaedia).
Project-based learning (PBL) provides complex tasks based on challenging
questions or problems that involve the students' problem solving, decision making,
investigative skills, and reflection that include teacher facilitation, but not direction.
Project Based Learning is focused on questions that drive students to encounter the
central concepts and principles of a subject hands-on.
With Project-based learning students learn from these experiences and take
them into account and apply them to their lives in the real world. PBL is a different
teaching technique that promotes and practices new learning habits. The students
19
have to think in original ways to come up with the solutions to these real world
problems. It helps with their creative thinking skills by showing that there are many
ways to solve a problem.
21
Bibliography
developmental
theory
[On-line]
UK:
Available:
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teaching strategy with multiple applications. J Nurs Educ.;40:110115. In
Rauen C. A. (2004). Simulation as a Teaching Strategy for Nursing Education
and Orientation in Cardiac Surgery. American Association of Critical-Care
Nurses.
Fogg, P. (2001). A history professor engages students by giving them a role in the
action. Chronicle of Higher Education. 48(12). A12-13. In Jarvis L., Odell K.,
and Troiano M. et. al (2002) Strategies for Application and Presentation &
Staff Development and Presentation; Role-Playing as a Teaching Strategy.
Grauwe, A. D. (1999). The challenges for the school of the future: International
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Hill, W.F. (2002) Learning: A survey of psychological interpretation (7th ed), Allyn and
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In Rauen C. A. (2004). Simulation as a Teaching Strategy for Nursing
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Steffe, L. P., & Gale, J. (1995). Constructivism in education. Mahwah, New Jersey:
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APPENDIX
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