Universitas Bangka Belitung

Jurusan Teknik Pertambangan

SIG Pertambangan
(Theory of Spatial Analysis : GIS Processing)

Oleh :
Irvani

Universitas Bangka Belitung

Jurusan Teknik Pertambangan

SKS, Penilaian & Kehadiran :

Banyaknya SKS = 2 SKS (Teori)
Penilaian :
- Absensi 10%
- Tugas 20%
- Teori (UTS & UAS) 70%
Kehadiran minimal 75% dari 14x perkualiahan

Universitas Bangka Belitung

Jurusan Teknik Pertambangan

Referensi :

Bonham-Carter, G.F. (1994) Geographic Information System for Geoscientists: Modelling

with GIS. Delta Printing , Ontario, 398 p.
Harris, J.R. (ed) (2006) GIS For The Earth Sciences. GAC Special Paper 44, Geological
Association of Canada, 616 p.
de By, R.A. (ed) (2000) Principles of Geographic Information Systems. ITC educational
Texbook Series, Netherlands.
Huisman, O. And de By, R.A. (2009) Principles of Geographic Information Systems. ITC
educational Texbook Series, Netherlands.
Mitchel, A. (1999) The ESRI guide to GIS Analysis. Volume 1: Geographic patterns &
Relationships, ESRI Press, 186 pp.
Kennedy, H. (ed) (2001) Dictionary of GIS terminology. ESRI Press, Redlands, 116 p.
Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2001) Geographic
Information Systems and Science. John Wiley & Sons, 454 pp.
Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F., and Rhind, D. W. (eds) (1991) Geographical information
systems: principles and applications, Longman.
Zeiler, M. (1999) Modeling Our World: the ESRI Guide to Geodatabase Design. ESRI Press,
Redlands, 198 p.
ESRI Homepage ( http://esri.com/index.html ) : understanding GIS, industry applications,
user conference, virtual campus, ESRI Press books

Universitas Bangka Belitung

Jurusan Teknik Pertambangan

Materi/Pokok Bahasan
I Pendahuluan (P.1)

VI Theory of Spatial Analysis (P.7-9)

a. Metode AHP
b. Principle Steps
II Overview of GIS (P.2)
in GIS Spatial
c. GIS Processing
III Map Projection and
VII
Introduction
to ArcGIS or
Coordinate System (P.3-4)
MapInfo (P.10) (Option)
IV GIS for Geoscience (P.5)
VIII Case Studies/Latihan (P.11-14)
V GIS Database (P.6)

Three Important Steps of GIS

Data Acquisition
Data analysis (processing)
Data presentation
5

GIS Analysis (Mitchell, 1999)

A process for looking at geographic patterns in spatial data
and at relationships between features
Steps of performing GIS analysis:
Frame the question: what information we need? Often
these are inventory or locational questions, such as: How
much? Or Where?
Understand your data: what youve got, what you need
more
Choose a method: which method(s) will effectively
produce the required information
Process the data: perform the necessary steps in GIS
Look at the results: create a map, values in a table, or a
chart; evaluation on results validity

Integration and Modeling Spatial Data

GIS analysis can involve single spatial data
layer, but most often involve multi data layers
The integration of data provides the ability to
ask complex spatial questions that can not be
answered otherwise
Answers to locational and quantitative
questions require the combination of several
data layers to be able to provide a more
complete and realistic answer
The ability to combine and integrate data using
a set of analytical functions is the hallmark of a
GIS

Integration and Modeling of Spatial Data

Using: prescriptive models:

predictive models:

quantify relevant factors

forecast likelihood of future events

Classification of GIS Analysis

Aronoff (1989), de By et al. (2001):

Retrieval, (re)classification &

measurement operations
Overlaying operations
Neighbourhood operations
Connectivity operations

Classification of GIS Analysis used here

1. Data retrieval, exploration and
preparation: indexing, data query,
(re)classification, measurement,
descriptive and spatial statistics,
geometric correction
2. Overlaying operations
3. Neighborhood operations
4. Connectivity operations
5. 3D Analysis

1. Data exploration and preparation

1.a. Spatial Index
Spatial indexes are indexes used by spatial
databases to optimize spatial queries
Indexes used for non-spatial databases cannot
effectively handle features, such as how far the
distance of two points and whether points fall within
an area of interest.
Special purpose index structures are important for
accessing spatial data, and for processing spatial
queries.
Common spatial index methods include: Grid, Z-order,
Quadtree, Octree, UB-tree, R-tree, X-tree, kd-tree,
and m-tree

Each node of a quadtree is associated with a rectangular region of

space; the top node is associated with the entire target space.
Each non-leaf node divides its region into four equal sized

quadrants
correspondingly each such node has four child nodes
corresponding to the four quadrants and so on
Leaf nodes have between zero and some fixed maximum number of
points (set to 1 in example).

www.cse.iitb.ac.in

R-Tree Index
Typically the preferred method for indexing spatial data
Objects (shapes, lines and points) are grouped using the
minimum bounding rectangle (MBR)
Objects are added to an MBR within the index that will lead
to the smallest increase in its size
R10

R11

R2

R10 R11 R12

R4

R1
R5

R6

R1 R2 R3

R4 R5 R6

R7 R8 R9

R3
R8
R7

www.cse.iitb.ac.in

R9

R12

Data nodes containing points

1.b. Data query (retrieval)

Data retrieval involves the selective search, manipulation and
output of data without the requirement to modify the geographic
location of the features involved.

(linked) Spatial and attribute data are retrieved.

No changes are made to the location of spatial
elements, and
No new spatial elements are created
To find out what exist at a particular location.

What is at... ?
Retrieval of spatial data (points, lines, polygons

www.itc.nl

or mapping units in a raster map), which are an

answer to the question Where is ....?
Retrieval of information using conditional,
logical and arithmetical operators

Selection Queries
Based on geometric /spatial characteristics
WHERE IS.?
or Using attribute data associated with spatial features
WHERE ARE FEATURES WITH?
or a Combination of both
www.itc.nl

Selection Queries
Spatial selection using topological relationships
containment (within)
overlap (intersect)
neighbourhood (adjacent)
distance (within or beyond a distance)
or combination
www.itc.nl

Data retrieval (raster model)

Rock

PIXEL INFORMATION

Slope

Row
Column Value
6
7
2
x: 10300
y: 56456

Soil

Map 1 Soil 2
Table Soil
Soil:
Silt
Thickness:
5

Recnr
1
2
3

Map 2 Rock 3
Table Rock
Rock:
Granite
Strenght: High

Soil Thickness
Sand 10
Silt
5
Clay
15

Map 3 Slope 2
Table Slope
Slope:
Gentle

Data retrieval by attribute values

Map: city blocks
006
004 005
001 002 003
011 012
009 010
007 008
019
017 018
015 016
014
013
026
024 025
022 023
020 021
033
031 032
029 030
028
027
038 039
036 037
034 035
044 045
042 043
040 041
046 047 048

Attribute table: Attribute map:

City blocks
Land use
Landuse
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
016
017
018
019
020
021
022
etc.

Residential
Residential
Residential
Commercial
Commercial
Recreational
Residential
Residential
Residential
Residential
Residential
Commercial
Residential
Residential
Institutional
Residential
Residential
Residential
Commercial
Residential
Residential
Institutional

Landuse:
Commercial
Institutional
Recreational
Residential

www.itc.nl

Examples using the Map calculator in Ilwis

Using single and multiple RETRIEVAL selection criteria:
Grass = Landuse = grassland
Landwat = iff (landuse = lake) or (landuse = riverbed),
water , land)

Mainfault := (faults = fault) and (length > 5000)

=
:=

dependent ilwis map

independent ilwis map

1.c. (re)Classification
(re)Classification involves the selection and
presentation of a selected layer of data based on the
classes or values of a specific attribute
It involves looking at an attribute, or a series of
attributes, for a single data layer and classifying the
data layer based on the range of values of the
attribute
Reclassification will produce a new map
Examples:
Reclassify a soil map into a PH map
Classify an elevation map into classes with intervals
of 50 m.
www.itc.nl

10

Classifications
Based on the number of classes before and after the classification, three types
of classifications can be differentiated:
a) one to one (1:1):
The number of classes before is the same as the number of classes
after the classification process: there are no changes in the
geometry of the spatial objects, they have been re-assigned.
b) many to one (M:1):
The number of classes after the classification is smaller than the
number of classes before the process: generalization, aggregation,
merging, dissolving
c) one to many (1:M):
The number of classes after the classification process is more than
the those before the classification: in vector format spatial objects
are split in different objects; in raster format e.g. unique IDs are
assigned to each pixel in the output map
www.itc.nl

Example: A geological map

www.itc.nl

11

Reclassified geological map

Geological map reclassified in
7 classes based on geological
age

Geological map reclassified in

3 classes based on type of
lithology

Many to one classification

www.itc.nl

Reclassifying a map with attribute data

Attribute map: Land Use
Attribute table:
City blocks
Cityblocks Landuse
001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015

Institutional
Commercial
Commercial
Residential
Residential
Residential
Industrial
Residential
Industrial
Industrial
Residential
Industrial
Residential
Residential
Residential

Map: City blocks

www.itc.nl

12

Reclassification based on attribute value

(in Ilwis)
Ilwis)
Soils

Infilt

30

30

25

COLUMN(X-AXIS)

COLUMN(X-AXIS)

Soilstab.tbl
Recnr
1
2
3

infilt

Type
Alfisol
Mollisol
Redzina

Infilcol
30
30
25

iff((soils=2) or (soils=1), 30 , 25)

www.itc.nl

Reclassification based on attribute name

Soils

Newmap

Mollisol

Alfisol
Redzina
COLUMN

(X-AXIS)

3
COLUMN

(X-AXIS)

newmap:=iff(soils=redzina,3,0)

13

Data reclassification from tables

(re(re-assigment based on attribute column)
Soils

Infilt

30

1
3

25

COLUMN (X-AXIS)

COLUMN (X-AXIS)

Soilstab.tbl
Recnr
1
2
3

Type
Alfisol
Mollisol
Redzina

Infilt

infilcol
30
30
25

Soils.soilstab.infilcol

www.itc.nl

Data classification by slicing

DEMCLAS

DEM

COLUMN (X-AXIS)

CDEM
Bound class
200 1
400 2
900 3

demclas

COLUMN (X-AXIS)

900 m

class 3: 400 - 900 m

class 2: 200 - 400 m

0 meter

class 1: 0 - 200 m

Clfy(dem,cdem)

www.itc.nl

14

Automatic classification
The user specifies only the number of classes in the output data
.
set, the software determines
the class break points.
Examples are: Equal Interval and Equal Frequency

(Zmax-Zmin)/n
n: number of classes

www.itc.nl

2 10

1
2

(a) Original data set

New
codes

Original
codes

1
2
3

1,2
3,4
5,6

No.
of
pixel
s
9
8
3

(b) Equal interval classification

New
codes

Original
codes

1
2
3

1
2,3
4

No.
of
pixel
s
6
5
6

(c) Equal frequency classification

Examples using the Map calculator in Ilwis

Reclassification:
Demcl = iff(dem < 3000, low, iff(dem < 4000, moderate, high))
Reclassification using a table (outmap = inmap . Table)
Landval = landuse . Landvalue
Reclassification using a domain (outmap = clfy ( inmap , domain)
Landvalc = clfy(landvalue , landvalc)

15

TYPICAL MEASUREMENTS IN
GIS
DISTANCE (of two points)

PERIMETER (of a polygon)

25 M

60 KM

208 KM2

AREA (of a polygon)

Measurement (through geometric coordinates and topological

relationship)

Nr% Col%
1
3
4
-1

1
3
4
0

Area&
70897947.20
222894910.92
222467705.65
516260563.77

Peri&

Name$

45240.33
NoName
91584.20
NoName
83332.41
NoName
-1.00000E+038 TOTAL_AREA

Polygons areas and length

www.itc.nl

16

Measurements for each feature type

Feature type

Measurement

Point

x,y coordinates

number of points

distance between points

x,y coordinates of the beginning

and the end vertex points (nodes)

length

direction

length

shortest distance between the start

and the end nodes

curvature

distribution of direction

x,y coordinates of opposite corners

width and the length

Area

x,y coordinates of the centre

radius

area

perimeter

X,Y coordinates of the centroid

Extent of the polygon, e .g. the x,y

coordinates of the lower-left and
upper-right corner of the smallest
rectangle that covers the polygon
exactly.

Line

Point

Straight
line

Curved line

polygon

Box

Circle
Polygon

www.itc.nl

Measurements between features

Feature 1

Feature 2

Distance measurements

Point

Point

Euclidean distance (the length of a straight

line) between the two points

Point

Line

The distance between the point and the

nearest location on the line.

Point

Polygon

The distance from the point to the nearest

location on the boundaries of the polygon

The distance from the point to the centroid

of the polygon.

line

Line

If the two lines are not intersected, the

shortest distance between the two lines. If
they are intersected, this value would be
zero.

Line

Polygon

The shortest distance from a location on the

line to a location on the polygon boundary.
If the line touches or intersects the polygon
boundary, this value would be zero.

The shortest distance from a location on the

line to the centroid of the polygon.

The shortest distance between the two

boundaries. If any distance value is zero,
the two polygons are touched.

The distance between the centroids of the

two polygons

The x,y coordinates of the intersection

points between two polygon boundaries.

Polygon

www.itc.nl

Polygon

17

1.e. Descriptive and Spatial Statistics

Statistics deals with regularities and variability of events
Descriptive statistics concerns with obtaining summary
measures to describe a set of data
Spatial statistics concerns with making inferences about
underlying processes from observed patterns
Classic descriptive statistics tools in GIS include
measurements of Central Tendency (mean, median,
mode) and Dispersion (variance, standard deviation)
Spatial statistics in GIS includes Centrographic
Statistics, Point Pattern Analysis, Quadrat Analysis,
Nearest Neighbor Analysis, Spatial Autocorrelation,
Morans I, Gearys C Ratio , Correlation and Regression
(e.g. Lee and Wong, 2001)

Map of lung cancer for white males in USA

18

Spatial statistics of gold deposits in Great Basin, SW

USA (Setijadji
(Setijadji,, 2002)

1.f. Geometric Correction

Raster images (e.g. satellite images, geophysical
images) are typically geometrically corrected in the
remote sensing processing software (e.g., ERDAS,
ER Mapper, Ilwis)
The rectified images are exported into GIScompatible formats such as geoTIFF
When integrating multi data layers in GIS, different
spatial references (e.g. UTM, Latlon) within both
vector and raster spatial data layers can either be
transformed (projected) into a preferred coordinate
system or maintained within their original ones.
Modern GIS (such as ArcGIS) can project
coordinate systems on-the-fly.

19

ArcGIS handles different map projections on-the-fly

County, geodatabase feature class,

UTM, NAD 27

ArcMap

Geologic map, shapefile, LatLon, WGS 84

On-the-fly
Projection !
Aeromagnetic, geoTIFF, Lambert
Conformal Conic, NAD 83

Mineral deposit, tables, LatLon

39

2. Overlaying operations
Map overlaying involves the integration of
multiple referenced / overlapping data layers
vector based (geometrically complicated and poor
operator performance)

raster based (cell by cell)

www.itc.nl

20

(Vector) overlay using polygons

Polygon intersection operation

Result : new set of

polygons common to
both maps

New topology has

to be constructed

(Bonham-Carter, 1994)

Polygon operators, examples

Polygon clipping: restrict spatial extent to generalised outer boundary

Polygon overwrite: first layer has priority over the second layer

21

Vector overlay , examples

impose

Bonham-Carter (1994)

stamp

join

compare

(Raster based) overlay operation

tools
Arithmetic functions (+, - , * , /)
Relational functions (< , > , =)
Logical operations (and , or , xor , not)
Conditional functions ( if , then , else )

22

Using Map calculation in

ILWIS
Output map

New map on
screen
SUM_Rain
Suitable

Logical or Arithmetic expression

Combine existing maps with

logical and arithmetic
operators
storm 1 + storm 2
Iff(slope > 50, 1, iff(slope > 20 , 2, 3))

www.itc.nl

Arithmetic operations
Map A

Map C

15 15 12 12

MapC= MapA + 10 15 15 15 12

16 12 12 12

16 16 16 16

Map B
4

MapC1= MapA + MapB

Map C1
9

10 10

10

Map C2
- 11 11 11 60
71 33 33 60
- MapC2= ((MapA - MapB)/(MapA + MapB)) *100 71 71 14
14
7

14 14

10

11 11 60 60

23

Relational functions
Map A
5

Output = MAP A > MAP B

Output

Map B
4

0 = FALSE
1 = TRUE

www.itc.nl

Logical functions
Boolean operators
A

AND

intersection

OR

union

XOR

exclusion

NOT

negation

24

Overlaying using AND statement

Landuse =
forest

Slope = steep

AND

www.itc.nl

Relational and logical

operators
F

F
F

F
F

F
F

F = forest
7 = 700 m
6 = 600 m
4 = 400 m

Map D
0

MapD=(MapA= Forest) and (MapB <500)

MapD1=(MapA= Forest) or (MapB <500)

Map D2

MapD2=(MapA= Forest) xor (MapB <500)

MapD3=(MapA= Forest) and not (MapB <500)

Map D1

0 1

Map D3

0 = false
1 = true
www.itc.nl

25

Conditional functions
Map C
F
F

? ?

? ?

MapC= iff(MapA= Forest,1,?)

F
F

F
F

MapC1=iff((MapA= Forest)
7

and (MapB= 700),1,0)

F = forest
7 = 700 m
6 = 600 m
4 = 400 m

Map C1
1

0 0

0 = false
1 = true
? = undefined

www.itc.nl

Crossing operation
Cross table
G G F

G G G G F

G G G G F

G L

L F

Landuse Geology Npix

L F

L F

Legend
Landuse
F forest
G Grass
L
Lake

Geology

Forest * Alluvial

Forest

Alluvial

Forest * Shale

Forest

Shale

Grass * Alluvial

Grass

Alluvial

Grass * Shale

Grass

Shale

10

Lake * Alluvial

Lake

Alluvial

S S

G*S G*S F*S F*S F*S F*S

S S

G*S G*S G*S G*S F*S F*S

S S

A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A

Legend
Geology
A
S

Alluvial
Shale

Cross
map

G*S G*S G*S G*S F*S F*S

G*A L*A L*A F*A F*A F*A
L*A L*A L*A F*A F*A F*A
L*A L*A L*A F*A F*A F*A

www.itc.nl

26

Two-dimensional table
Landuse
G G F

G G G G F

G G G G F

G L

L F

L F

L F

Legend
Landuse
F forest
G Grass
L
Lake

Alluvial

Shale

Forest

Suitable

Unsuitable

Grass

Unsuitable

Suitable

Lake

Unsuitable

Unsuitable

Output map

Geology
S S S S S S

S S U U U U

S S S S S S

S S S S U U

S S S S S S

S S S S U U

A A A A A A
A A A A A A
A A A A A A

Legend
Geology
A
S

Alluvial
Shale

U U U S S

U U U S S

U U U S S

Legend
Output map
S
U

Suitable
Unsuitable

www.itc.nl

3) Neighbourhood operations
Evaluate the characteristics of an area
surrounding a specific location
interpolation functions
topographical functions
search functions

27

Interpolation
The procedure of estimating unknown
values at unsampled sites using known
values of existing observations
Typical examples:
Point interpolation (rainfall, spot heights,
etc)
Line interpolation (contours)

Point Interpolation
Point interpolation is a process of using points
with known values to estimate values at other
points
It is a means of converting point data into surface
data
Two main methods are known: Global and Local
methods.
Global method uses every control point available
to make the estimate of the unknown value.
Local method uses a sample of control points for
estimation.

28

Global Methods
Trend Surface Analysis approximates
points with know values with a polynomial
equation
Regression model relates a dependent
variable to a number of independent
variables in an equation which can then be
used for prediction or estimation

Local Methods
Local interpolation method uses a sample of
control points in estimating the unknown value.
Proper selection of control points is important.
Package may suggest number of points.
Distribution is more important than number, but
more points imply better interpolations
Control point selection
Simple option is nearest points
Within a radius
Quadrant/octant

29

Two contrasting methods in point interpolation for

creating surface
Point data

Thiessen Polygons
(Triangulation, TIN)

Gridding:
Inverse distance
weight
Kriging (geostatistics)
etc

59

Thiessen Polygons
Thiessen polygons are constructed around a
sample of known points so that any point within a
Thiessen polygon is closer to the polygons
known point than any other known points. Also
called as the Voronoi polygons
Thiessen polygons are made through the
construction of the Delaunay triangulation (or
TIN)
Polygons are perpendiculars to each side and
midpoint

30

Triangulation and
Thiessen
polygons

.
E

.
.

Point data

Delanuay
triangulation

.
J

Thiessen
polygons

Gridding Methods
Inverse Distance Weighted Method
Inverse distance weighted (IDW) method
assumes that the unknown value of a
point is influenced more by nearby control
points than those farther away.

Density Estimation

Density estimation measures densities in a grid

based on a distribution of their known values.
Kernel estimation: associates each point with
kernel function bump over bandwidth.

31

Thin-plate Splines
Thin-plate splines create a surface that
passes through the control points and has
the least possible change in slope at all
points
Additional methods to improve results
include thin-plate splines with tension,
regularized splines, and regularized
splines with tension

Kriging (Geostatistics)
Kriging is a geostatistical method for
spatial interpolation
Assumes spatial variation is neither totally
random nor deterministic
Three components:
a spatially correlated component representing
the variation of a regionalized variable
a drift or structure, representing a trend
a random error term

32

Comparison Gridding and Triangulation Methods

Focus
Amount of data
Interpolation
techniques
Geostatistics
Honoring the original
data and position
Contouring method

Geographic analysis

Gridding (raster) method

Triangulation method

Modeling continuous
phenomena
Few,
sparsely distributed

Efficient representation of a
surface
Dense,
relatively evenly

point data
Applied

distributed data
Not applied

Applied

Not applied

No

Yes

Detecting a contour line

crossing into or
intersecting the edge of a
given grid-square and
drawing the line through
Spatial
that coincidence
grid-square.
Proximity
Surface analysis
Dispersion

Interpolating values on each

triangular face, and
joining straight-line
contours across triangles
Elevation, slope, aspect
calculation
Volume calculations

65

Linear interpolation
200 mtr
d = 60 mtr

E1

100 mtr

d
E2
e = E2 + (d / D) * (E1-E2)
= 100 + 0.6 *100
= 160

33

Topographic functions
To calculate values that describe the
topography at a specific location
A neighbourhood is uses to
characterise local terrain
h

Typical examples:
Slope calculation
Aspect calculation

= 100 * (h/d)
for : slope in %

Slope map
Contour line
map

Slope class map

34

Slope calculation (in percentage)

x

Example of DEM (pixelsize 100 mtr)

3D view
y

20 30 40
15

25 35

10

20 30

x (east)

DTM

DTM

Elevation

15 25 35

dx filter

0 +1

(115 + 025 + 135)/2 = 10

Elevation

30 25 20

dx filter

= 11
%

0 +1

(130 + 025 + 120) /2 = -5

x
y

=
=
=

(x x y y )
pixelsize

100%

slope angle (as a percentage)

x-gradient map
y-gradient map

Search functions
Search functions determine the value of a target feature according
to some characteristic of its neighbourhood
Search function

Description

average

the average of the values in the

neighbourhood
a measure of diversity of the values in
the neighbourhood, such as variance
or standard deviation
the number of occurrences for each
value in the neighbourhood is
determined; the value occurring most
frequently is the calculated result
the maximum/minimum value in the
neighbourhood is returned.
the summed total of the values in the
neighbourhood

diversity

majority

maximum, minimum
total

35

Search functions

The county boundaries first has to be

derived from a political boundary map.
Next, the selected county is used to
extract the corresponding portions of
the land use map. Only then the
search operation which counts how
many land use types do occur within
the county is applied.

4) Connectivity operations
To characterise spatial units that are
connected
Contiguity functions
Proximity functions
Buffer zones
Thiessen polygons
Nearest feature identification

Spread functions
Seek functions
Network functions

36

Contiguity functions
Determine land units to be used as nature reserves.
Include forests, rivers and swamps under the condition
that the minimum area is 400 km2 with no section narrower than 10 km
Input:

Output:

land cover map

contiguous areas

Swamp

Fields

Forest

River

Proximity functions
The measurement of distances
between features (distance in units of
length, travel time, etc.)
Typical examples:
Determination of buffer zones along groundwater
exploration wells
Construction of Thiessen polygons
Determination of accessibility to drinking wells

37

Distance calculation A
The distance from a source pixel to its horizontal vertical
neighbors is 1, and the distance from a source pixel to its diagonal
neighbors is the square root of 2 (=1.41421).

C2=A2+B2

Proximity analysis

38

Buffer zone determination

Distance
calculation

Rainfall
stations

Distance zones
around rainfall
stations

Accessibility mapping
RULES:

Road

Road:

2 km/hour

Fields:

1 km/hour

Bush:

0.7 km/hour

Swamp & river

Inaccessible

River

Well

Swamp
Fields
Bush

UNIT OF MEASUREMENT:
Time

30 min.

60 min.
90 min.

39

Spread functions
SPREAD FUNCTIONS EVALUATE
PHENOMENA THAT SPREAD, DILUTE
OR ACCUMULATE WITH DISTANCE

TYPICAL EXAMPLES:
Determination of inundated area due to dam
construction
Determination of flooded area due to dike
burst
Spreading of pollution

Spread functions
Accumulated cost of each cell to the
source
a source cell
b cost per unit for each cell
c - accumulated cost of each cell along
the minimum cost path to the source.

(a)

Horizontal - Vertical:
(cellN +cellN1)/2
Diagonally:
1.414216 * ((cellN +cellN1)/2)
(b)

(c)

40

Spread functions
Areas with an elevation below
2.35 m.a.s.l.

Areas with an elevation below

2.35 m.a.s.l. and connected with
the
dike failure
Total volume: 1.000.000 M3
Total area: 3.000.000 M2

Dike
failure

Spread functions (Iteration with propagation)

4

Propagation

First
Iteration

Iteration: successive repetition

of a mathematical operation,
using the result of one calculation as input for the next.
Propagation: the newly calculated
value for a pixel is used in calculating the next line instead of in the
next iteration.

Second
Iteration

Third
Iteration

Fourth
Iteration

Flooded Cell

41

340
330

Water level: + 290 M

320

Total volume: 8.500 M3

310

Total area: 7.600 M2

300
280

290

340

Water level: + 295 M

330
320

Total volume: 61.000 M3

310

Total area: 14.000 M2

300
280

290

Seek functions
SEEK FUNCTIONS DETERMINE
OPTIMUM PATHWAYS USING (A)
SPECIFIED DECISION RULE(S)
TYPICAL EXAMPLES:
Determination of the path of water flow
Highway planning

42

Seek functions
Contour map
paths
x: starting points
x

Flow
Automated flow path
generation

Seek functions
32

64

16

128
1

2
(e)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

A: surface value of each cell (in

mtr)
B: flow direction (8 connected)
C: flow path from 3 different
locations
D: Accumulated flow
E: Direction / 8 connected

43

Network analysis
Network analysis is a widely used analysis technique. Network analysis
techniques can
be characterized by their use of feature networks. Feature networks are almost entirely
comprised of linear features. Hydrographic hierarchies and transportation networks are
prime examples.
An example network analysis is as follows.
The determination of the shortest path between connected points or nodes within the
network based on attribute values. This is often referred to as route optimization. Attribute
values may
be as simple as minimal distance, or more complex involving a model using
several attributes defining rate of flow and cost.

Network analysis
Network partitioning
Optimal path finding
1
C

L
6

J
5

I
4

Nodes

Costs

Lines

Costs

100

100

100

100

100

100

1000

10

1000

20

500

44

5. 3D-Analysis

Three dimensional analysis expands the 2D analysis capabilities of generic GIS that
involves a range of different capabilities
The most commonly utilized method is the generation of perspective surfaces.
Perspective surfaces are usually represented by a wire frame diagram reflecting profiles
of the landscape, e.g. every 100 metres. These profiles viewed together, with the
removal of hidden lines, provide a three dimensional view.
Most GIS software packages offer 3-D capabilities in a separate module. Several other
functions are normally available. These include the following functions :
user definable vertical exaggeration, viewing azimuth, and elevation angle;
identification of viewsheds, e.g. seen versus unseen areas;
the draping of features, e.g. point, lines, and shaded polygons onto the
perspective surface;
generation of shaded relief models simulating illumination;
generation of cross section profiles;
presentation of symbology on the 3-D surface; and
line of sight perspective views from user defined viewpoints.
For users who are demanding a solid 3D modeling (esp. geologists), the above method
is not considered 3D analysis, rather it is 2.5 D Analysis or 3D Display

GIS Modeling Levels

2D Display

3D Display (often called 2.5D

Analysis)

3D Analysis (often called

true, solid 3D)

one z value at a single modeling

process

Surfaces may have multiple

z values for a x,y location

stack can create volume between

surface layers, but each surface does
not have a thickness

This level of analysis is

typically not yet supported by
GIS, but utilizes special
package somehow linked to
GIS

This is the analytical level which is

commonly supported by GIS

45

Universitas Bangka Belitung

Jurusan Teknik Pertambangan

Terima Kasih

46