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Gi I Tích
Gi I Tích
Hunh Quang V
KHOA TON-TIN HC, I HC KHOA HC T NHIN, I HC QUC GIA
THNH PH H CH MINH, 227 NGUYN VN C, QUN 5, THNH PH H
CH MINH. EMAIL: HQVU@HCMUS.EDU.VN
z
f (xR , yR )
z = f ( x, y)
(xR , yR )
Mc lc
Chng 1.
Tch phn bi
1.1.
1.2.
S kh tch
1.3.
14
1.4.
nh l Fubini
19
1.5.
25
1.6.
37
Chng 2.
Tch phn ng
41
2.1.
Tch phn ng
41
2.2.
Trng bo ton
51
2.3.
nh l Green
55
Chng 3.
Tch phn mt
61
3.1.
Tch phn mt
61
3.2.
nh l Stokes
68
3.3.
nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky
71
3.4.
ng dng ca nh l Stokes
76
3.5.
80
Gi cho mt s bi tp
87
89
Ch mc
91
iii
iv
Mc lc
Chng 1
Tch phn bi
Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu tch phn Riemann trong khng
gian nhiu chiu.
Trong mn hc ny, khi ta ni n khng gian Rn th ta dng chun v khong
cch Euclid, c th nu x = ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn th | x | = ( x12 + x22 + + xn2 )1/2 .
[ a2 , b2 ] [ an , bn ] vi ai < bi vi mi 1 i n.
nh ngha. Th tch (volume) ca hnh hp I = [ a1 , b1 ] [ a2 , b2 ] [ an , bn ]
c nh ngha l s thc | I | = (b1 a1 )(b2 a2 ) (bn an ).
1
1. Tch phn bi
c
a
f (xR )| R|
R
z
f (xR , yR )
z = f ( x, y)
(xR , yR )
(inf0 f )| R0 |
R R R
R R
(inf f )| R0 | = inf f
R
R R
| R0 | = (inf f )| R|.
R
1. Tch phn bi
xp x trn
supR f
tng Riemann
f (xR )
infR f
xp x di
xR
R
I
c = c | I |.
Z
I
v
U ( f , P0 ) < e +
Z
I
Ly P00 mn hn c P v P0 . Khi
U ( f , P00 ) L( f , P00 ) U ( f , P0 ) L( f , P) < 2e
() Gi s vi e > 0 cho trc bt k c php chia P sao cho U ( f , P)
L( f , P) < e. Bt ng thc ny dn ti 0 infP U ( f , P) sup L( f , P) < e vi
mi e>0. Do infP U ( f , P) = supP L( f , P).
Tnh cht ca tch phn. Ta c nhng tnh cht tng t trng hp mt bin:
1.1.2. Mnh . Nu f v g kh tch trn hnh hp I th:
R
R
R
(a) f + g kh tch v I ( f + g) = I f + I g.
R
R
(b) Vi mi s thc c th c f kh tch v I c f = c I f .
R
R
(c) Nu f g th I f I g.
CHNG MINH. Ta chng minh phn (a), cc phn cn li c phn bi
tp.
Vi mt php chia P ca I, trn mt hnh hp con R ta c infR f + infR g
f ( x ) + g( x ), x R. Suy ra infR f + infR g infR ( f + g). Do L( f , P) +
L( g, P) L( f + g, P).
R
Cho e > 0, c php chia P sao cho L( f , P) > I f e v c php chia P0 sao cho
R
L( g, P0 ) > I g e. Ly php chia P00 mn hn c P v P0 th L( f , P00 ) L( f , P) >
R
R
00
0
I f e v L ( g, P ) L ( g, P ) > I g e. Suy ra
L( f + g, P00 ) L( f , P00 ) + L( g, P00 ) >
Z
I
f+
Z
I
g 2e.
Z
I
f+
Z
I
g + 2e.
f+
Z
I
g 2e < L( f + g, Q0 ) U ( f + g, Q0 ) <
Z
I
f+
Z
I
g + 2e.
f + g 2e <
I
R
R I
R
do I ( f + g) = I f + I g.
Z
I
( f + g) <
Z
I
f+
Z
I
g + 2e, e > 0,
1. Tch phn bi
R
R ca P ta c R f ( x R )| R| I f < e. C th chng minh rng nh ngha ny
tng ng vi nh ngha ca Darboux 1.1.
Ta c th hi nu ta dng nhng cch xp x khc th c mang ti cng mt
tch phn hay khng? Thc ra nu ta mun tch phn c nhng tnh cht nht
nh, gm chng hn tnh tuyn tnh, th ch c duy nht mt loi tch phn tha
cc tnh cht . Xem [Lan97, tr. 575].
Bi tp.
1.1.3. Mt h nc hnh ch nht kch thc 4m 8m c su khng u. Ngi ta o
c chiu su ti mt s im trn h nh trong bng sau. V d trong bng ny su
ti im cch b tri 1m v b trn 5m l 4.6m. Hy c lng lng nc trong h.
v tr
3.1
4.5
4.6
4.0
3.7
4.1
4.5
4.4
( x2 +
R
I
f =0
1.2. S kh tch
1.2. S kh tch
Qua ca tch phn, ta thy vic xp x da trn mt gi thit: nu bin thay
i t th gi tr ca hm thay i t. Nh vy s kh tch ph thuc cht ch vo
s lin tc.
1.2.1. nh l (lin tc th kh tch). Mt hm lin tc trn mt hnh hp th kh tch
trn .
y l mt iu kin cho s kh tch m ta s dng thng xuyn.
CHNG MINH. Chng minh ch yu da vo tnh lin tc u ca ca hm.
Ta dng cc kt qu sau trong Gii tch 2 (xem chng hn [Lan97, tr. 193]):
(a) Mt tp con ca Rn l compc khi v ch khi n ng v b chn.
(b) Mt hm thc lin tc tp con compc ca Rn th lin tc u.
(c) Mt hm thc lin tc trn mt tp compc th b chn.
Gi s f l mt hm lin tc trn hnh hp I. Khi f lin tc u trn I, do
cho trc e > 0, c > 0 sao cho | x y| < f ( x ) f (y) < e.
Ly mt php chia P ca I sao cho khong cch gia hai im bt k trong mt
hnh hp con ca P l nh hn . iu ny khng kh: nu chiu di cc cnh ca
cc hnh hp con ca P khng qu th chiu di ca mt ng cho ca mt
f )| R| e | R| = e| I |
(sup f inf
R
R
0,
x 6=
1,
x=
1
2
1
2.
1,
xQ
0,
x
/ Q.
1. Tch phn bi
V d.
1.2. S kh tch
C
Ui0
R T
Nu hnh hp con R ca
Ui0
R T
P0
no , do
f )| R|
(sup f inf
R
R* T
2M| R| = 2M
R* T
R* T
i =1
R T
R T
10
1. Tch phn bi
(sup h)| R|
R
R* T
R* T
R* T
M| R| = M
M| R| = M
i =1
Tng t:
h)| R|
(inf
R
R* T
R* T
R* T
i =1
R
I
h = 0.
3
C v
n=1 |Un | < e.
Ni cch khc, mt tp con ca Rn l c o khng nu ta c th ph tp
bng mt h m c hnh hp c tng th tch nh hn s dng cho trc bt
k.
sao cho
i =1 Ui
1,
x = q , p, q Z, q > 0, gcd( p, q) = 1
0,
x
/ Q.
3T " o" y ch o Lebesgue. L thuyt tch phn ca Henri Lebesgue xut hin nm 1901, sau
1.2. S kh tch
11
e. V 0 p q 1e , nn tp
Ce l hu hn. Ta ph Ce bng mt h U gm hu hn cc khong con ri nhau ca
khong [0, 1] c tng chiu di nh hn e. Cc im u mt ca cc khong ny
sinh ra mt php chia P ca khong [0, 1]. Ta c RU (supR f )| R| RU | R| < e.
p
Trong khi nu s x = q dng ti gin khng thuc Ce th 1q < e, do
R/
U (sup R f )| R | < e R/
U | R | e. Vy U ( f , P ) < 2e. T y ta kt lun f kh
R
tch, hn na [0,1] f = 0.
trong [0, 1] sao cho nu x =
dng ti gin th
1
q
sup
>0
B( x,) D
inf
B( x,) D
= lim
sup
B( x,) D
inf
B( x,) D
!
f
R rng o ( f , x ) c xc nh v khng m.
1.2.10. B . Hm f lin tc ti x khi v ch khi o ( f , x ) = 0.
CHNG MINH. () Gi s o ( f , x ) = 0. Cho trc e > 0, c > 0 sao cho
supB( x,) f infB( x,) f < e. Suy ra f (y) f ( x ) < e v f ( x ) f (y) < e, v th
Sm
i =1
Sm
i =1
{ R x | x T } ph T c mt ph con hu hn { R j | j = 1, 2, . . . , k}.
Cc hnh hp Ui v R j , 1 i m v 1 j k sinh ra mt php chia P ca I,
c to ra t cc ta nh ca cc hnh hp.
12
1. Tch phn bi
R T
R T
R* T
2M| R| = 2M
R* T
R* T
thc tt c cc cnh ca mi Ui c hnh hp Ui0 sao cho |Ui0 | < 2|Ui |. Khi
Ui0 cha Ui , do i=1 Ui0 C, v i=1 |Ui0 | < e. V C compc nn h {Ui0 }i=1 c
mt h con hu hn {Ui0 }nk=1 tha nk=1 Ui0 C. Suy ra nk=1 |Ui0 | < e. Vy C c
k
th tch khng.
m=1 C1/m .
Ta s chng minh
f )| R|
(sup f inf
R
RS
RS
1
| R |.
m
Vy ta c
| R| < me.
RS
1.2. S kh tch
13
i =1 Ci .
e
2i
= e. Vy C c
Bi tp.
1.2.15. Hm c nh ngha trong V d 1.2.9 lin tc ti cc s v t.
1.2.16. Tp hp cc s hu t trong khong [0, 1] c o khng nhng khng c th tch
khng.
1.2.17. Mnh 1.2.6 c cn ng khng nu thay th tch khng bng o khng?
1.2.18. Chng t hi ca mt tp c o khng vi mt tp c th tch khng th c o
khng.
R R
1.2.19. Chng t nu f kh tch th | f | kh tch v I f I | f |.
14
1. Tch phn bi
f ( x ), x D
F(x) =
0,
x I \ D.
Mt cch t nhin ta nh ngha :
nh ngha. Tch phn ca f trn D l tch phn ca F trn I:
Z
D
f =
Z
I
F.
1, x D
D (x) =
0, x Rn \ D,
gi l hm c trng ca D. Khi
B . Tch phn
R
D
R
D
f =
R
I
f D .
15
|D| =
Z
D
1.
Ta thng thay t th tch (volume) bng t din tch (area) khi s chiu n = 2
v bng t chiu di (length) khi n = 1.
1.3.1. nh l. Mt tp con b chn ca Rn c th tch khi v ch khi bin ca n c th
tch khng.
CHNG MINH 1.3.1. Cho D l mt tp con b chn ca Rn , ly mt hnh hp I
cha D v ly hm F bng 1 trn D v bng 0 ngoi D. Tp hp cc im khng
16
1. Tch phn bi
Tng t 1.2.3 ta c:
1.3.3. Mnh . th ca mt hm kh tch trn mt tp con b chn ca Rn c th tch
khng trong Rn+1 .
CHNG MINH. Gi s D Rn b chn v f : D R. Gi I l mt hnh hp
cha D v F l m rng ca f ln I, bng khng ngoi D. V f kh tch nn F kh
tch trn I. Theo 1.2.3, th ca F c th tch khng trong Rn+1 . th ca f l
mt tp con ca th ca F.
17
f =
Z
D1
f+
Z
D2
f.
Kt qu ny cho php ta tnh tch phn trn mt min bng cch chia min thnh
nhng min n gin hn.
CHNG MINH. t f 1 xc nh trn D = D1 D2 sao cho f 1 = f trn D1 v
f 1 = 0 trn D \ D1 . Tng t, t f 2 xc nh trn D sao cho f 2 = f trn D2 v
f 2 = 0 trn D \ D2 . V f kh tch trn D1 nn t nh ngha tch phn ta c ngay f 1
R
R
R
R
kh tch trn D v D f 1 = D f . Tng t f 2 kh tch trn D v D f 2 = D f .
2
f =
Z
D
( f1 + f2 ) =
Z
D
f1 +
Z
D
f2 =
Z
D1
f+
Z
D2
f.
18
1. Tch phn bi
V d. Trong mnh trn ly f = 1 ta c kt qu: Nu D1 v D2 c th tch v
D1 D2 c th tch khng th | D1 D2 | = | D1 | + | D2 |.
Chng hn khi tnh din tch mt hnh ta vn thng chia hnh thnh
nhng hnh n gin hn bng nhng on thng hay on cong, ri cng cc
din tch li.
Bi tp.
1.3.8. Gii thch ti sao mt hnh tam gic th c din tch, v din tch bng phn na
chiu di mt cnh nhn vi chiu cao ng vi cnh .
1.3.9. Ti sao min phng bn di th y = 1 x2 , bn trn on 1 x 1 c din
tch?
1.3.10. Chng minh 1.3.4.
1.3.11. Chng t tch phn ca mt hm b chn trn mt tp c th tch khng th bng
khng.
1.3.12. Gi s A B Rn , A v B c th tch. Chng t B \ A c th tch v | B \ A| =
| B | | A |.
1.3.13. Gi s A B Rn , f kh tch trn A v B, v f 0. Chng t
R
A
R
B
f.
1.4. nh l Fubini
19
1.4. nh l Fubini
nh l Fubini trong khng gian hai chiu cho mt cng thc c dng:
ZZ
[ a,b][c,d]
f ( x, y) dA =
Z bZ d
a
Z
f ( x, y) dy dx =
Z
f ( x, y) dx dy.
z
z = f ( x, y)
Rd
c
f ( x, y) dy
a
x
b
x
20
1. Tch phn bi
Z bZ d
a
f ( x, y) dy dx
Z
c
i =1
m n
i =1
f ( xi , y) dy |xi |
f ( xi , yj )|y j | |xi |
j =1
f ( xi , yj )|xi ||y j |
1i m,1 jn
ZZ
[ a,b][c,d]
f ( x, y) dA.
f =
Z Z
A
f ( x, y) dy dx.
CHNG MINH. Chng minh ny n gin l mt cch vit chnh xc cch gii
thch bng xp x vi tng Riemann trn. Gi P l mt php chia bt k ca hnh
hp A B. Khi P l tch ca mt php chia PA ca A v mt php chia PB ca
B.
i vi tng di, ta c:
Z
L
f ( x, y) dy, PA =
B
RA
RA
RA
=
RA
=
=
inf
xR A
inf
f ( x, y) dy | R A |
inf f ( x, y) | R B |
xR A R
B
inf
y R B
RB
R A RB
f ( x, y) | R B |
inf
R A RB
|R A |
!
inf
xR A R
B
|R A |
f ( x, y) | R B |
|R A |
inf
f ( x, y)| R A || R B |
inf
f ( x, y)| R A R B | = L( f , P).
R A RB R A RB
R A RB R A RB
R
B
f ( x, y) dy, PA ) U ( f , P). T y ta
c ngay nh l.
1.4. nh l Fubini
21
f ( x, y) dA =
Z b Z h( x )
g( x )
f ( x, y) dy dx.
F=
Z bZ d
a
Z
F ( x, y) dy dx =
b
a
h( x )
Z
g( x )
f ( x, y) dy dx.
Ghi ch. Trong trng hp min khng n gin ta c th tm cch chia min
thnh nhng phn n gin tnh, da trn c s 1.3.7.
H qu. Cho f l mt hm b chn, khng m trn khong [ a, b]. Gi D l min di
th ca f bn trn khong [ a, b]. Nu D c din tch th din tch bng tch phn ca f
trn D:
|D| =
Z b
a
f ( x ) dx.
22
1. Tch phn bi
f ( x, y, z) dV =
Z Z Z h( x,y)
g( x,y)
f ( x, y, z) dz dA.
F ( x, y, z) dV =
ZZ Z b
I
ZZ Z b
D
F ( x, y, z) dz dA
F ( x, y, z) dz dA
Z Z Z h( x,y)
D
g( x,y)
F ( x, y, z) dz dA.
H qu. Cho f l mt hm b chn, khng m, xc nh trn min phng b chn D. Gi
E l min di th ca f bn trn min D. Nu E c th tch th th tch bng tch
phn ca f trn D:
| E| =
ZZ
D
f ( x, y) dA.
1.4. nh l Fubini
23
Bi tp.
1.4.4. Cho g lin tc trn hnh hp [ a, b] [c, d] [e, f ], chng t
Z bZ dZ f
ZZZ
g( x, y, z) dz dy dx.
g( x, y, z) dV =
[ a,b][c,d][e, f ]
(a) Gii thch v sao tch phn sau tn ti, sau tnh n:
1.4.5.
ZZ
R
( x y2 ) dA
R 1 R 1
0
R1
0
y2 dy
2 xe
R x
1 x/y
e
dy
x
dx.
dx.
R 1 R 1 sin x
dx dy.
(c) 0
y
x
R 1 R 1 x 2 2 2
2 )2 dy
(d) 0
x
(
x
+
y
dx.
0
1.4.7. Tnh tch phn
RRR
E
R2R3R4
0
z2
x3 z cos(y2 ) dy dz dx.
1.4.10. Chng minh nguyn l Cavalieri5: Nu hai khi ba chiu c th tch, v hai lt ct
vi bi mt mt phng nm ngang bt k c cng din tch, th hai khi c cng th tch.
5Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri l mt nh ton hc sng vo u th k 17.
24
1. Tch phn bi
y = e2x
y = e x
1
x
2 f
xy ( x, y )
2 f
yx ( x, y )
lin tc.
2 f
dA =
[ a,b][c,d] xy
2 f
xy
ZZ
2 f
dA.
[ a,b][c,d] yx
2 f
yx .
y l mt chng minh dng tch phn bi ca mt nh l quen thuc trong Gii tch 2 ni
rng nu cc o hm ring cp hai u lin tc th th t ly o hm khng nh hng
ti kt qu.
25
fi
x j ( x ) 1i m, 1 jn .
r (h)
= 0,
h 0 | h |
th nh x f 0 ( x ) c gi l o hm (derivative) ca f ti x. Vy o hm cho mt
lim
26
1. Tch phn bi
f =
Z
A
( f )|det 0 |.
f =
Z
A
( f )| det J |.
Cng thc i bin cho php ta thay mt tch phn bng mt tch phn khc
trn mt min c th n gin hn hoc ca mt hm n gin hn, nu nh ta
bit c php bin i gia hai min ly tch phn.
V d. Trong trng hp 1 chiu Cng thc i bin cho phng php i bin
tch phn quen thuc trong Gii tch 1. Thc vy, cho x = (t) vi t [ a, b],
y lin tc v : ( a, b) (( a, b)) l mt vi ng phi. Cho f kh tch trn
([ a, b]). Theo Cng thc i bin:
Z
(( a,b))
f ( x ) dx =
Z
( a,b)
27
f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt =
Z
[ a,b]
Z
( ( a),(b))
f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt =
Z (b)
( a)
f ( x ) dx =
( a,b)
f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt
Z
[ ( a),(b)]
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx.
f ( (t)) (t) dt =
Z
( a,b)
f ( (t))| 0 (t)| dt
Z
( (b),( a))
Z ( a)
(b)
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx =
Z (b)
( a)
f ( x ) dx.
Z b
a
f ( (t)) 0 (t) dt =
Z (b)
( a)
f ( x ) dx.
( x, y) mang tp A thnh tp B th
ZZ
B
f ( x, y) dxdy =
ZZ
A
( x, y)
dudv.
f ( x (u, v), y(u, v))
(u, v)
(v2,1 , v2,2 ).
28
1. Tch phn bi
| ( A)| =
Z
( A)
1=
Z
[0,1]2
v1,1
v2,1
v1,2
v2,2
|.
e2
v2
e1
u
v1
HNH 1.5.1. Din tch ca hnh bnh hnh sinh bi v1 v v2 l |det(v1 , v2 )|.
Nh vy cng thc i bin ni rng din tch ca hnh bnh hnh sinh bi
hai vect trong R2 chnh l gi tr tuyt i ca nh thc ca ma trn to bi cc
ta ca hai vect. C th thy iu ny bng cch s cp nh sau. Din tch ca
hnh bnh hnh sinh bi v1 v v2 l
q
q
|v1 ||v2 | sin = |v1 |2 |v2 |2 (1 cos2 ) = |v1 |2 |v2 |2 hv1 , v2 i2
q
= (v21,1 + v21,2 )(v22,1 + v22,2 ) (v1,1 v2,1 + v1,2 v2,2 )2
q
= (v1,1 v2,2 v2,1 v1,2 )2 = |det(v1 , v2 )|.
L lun trn p dng cho s chiu bt k cho ta mt kt qu ng ch , gii
thch ngha hnh hc ca nh thc: Gi tr tuyt i ca nh thc ca mt ma trn
l th tch ca hnh bnh hnh sinh bi cc vect ct ca ma trn. Bn thn du ca nh
thc cng c th c gii thch, nhng ta gc vic ny li.
Gii thch Cng thc i bin. Chng ta s khng chng minh Cng thc i
bin v mt chng minh s kh v di, vt khi phm vi mn hc ny. Cc quyn
sch [Lan97], [Rud76], [Spi65], [Mun91] c chng minh cng thc ny. Mt dng
tng qut hn ca cng thc ny s c chng minh trong mn hc o v
Tch phn, thng qua tch phn Lebesgue.
Di y chng ta a ra mt gii thch, tuy cha phi l mt chng minh,
nhng s gip ta hiu r hn cng thc. Xem thm [Ste08, tr. 10121017].
cho n gin, xt trng hp A l mt hnh ch nht. nh x mang min
A trn mt phng (u, v) sang min ( A) trn mt phng ( x, y).
29
( A)
( u0 , v0 )
( u0 , v0 )
u
u
u ( u0 , v0 )
nn on tip
u ( u0 , v0 ) u.
r 0 (t)t
r (t + t)
r (t)
v ( u0 , v0 ) v.
Vy hnh ch nht cong c xp x bi hnh bnh hnh sinh bi hai vect tip xc
trn. Din tch ca hnh bnh hnh ny l tr tuyt i ca nh thc ca ma trn
cc ta ca hai vect ny:
|det
u
(u0 , v0 )u,
(u0 , v0 )v |
v
(u0 , v0 ) |uv
u
v
|det J (u0 , v0 )|uv.
= |det
=
( u0 , v0 ),
30
1. Tch phn bi
V d. Tnh
RR
x 2y
R 3x y
x 2y = 0, x 2y = 4, 3x y = 1, v 3x y = 8.
t u = x 2y v v = 3x y. Min bao bi cc ng thng u = 0, u = 4,
v = 1, v v = 8 l hnh ch nht D = [0, 4] [1, 8] trong mt phng (u, v).
y
1
V
(u, v)
= det
( x, y)
u
x
v
x
u
y
v
y
2
= det
3 1
1
= 5 6= 0
1
(u,v)
( x,y)
1
= .
5
x 2y
dA
3x y
ZZ
D
1
5
u
|det J (u, v)| dA
v
ZZ
D
u
1
dA =
v
5
Z 4Z 8
u
0
dv du =
8
ln 8.
5
(0, ) (0, 2 ) R2 \ {( x, 0) | x 0}
(r, ) 7 ( x, y) = (r cos , r sin ).
Ta tnh c
( x,y)
(r, )
(r, )
31
thc, c th nh rng
dxdy = r drd.
V d (Tch phn trn hnh trn). Gi B02 (O, R) l hnh trn ng tm O bn knh
R. p dng cng thc i bin ta dng php vi ng phi t hnh ch nht
m (0, R) (0, 2 ) sang min D l B02 (O, R) b i ng trn bin v tia Ox. Gi
s f kh tch trn B02 (O, R). Tp b b i c din tch khng, do n khng nh
hng n tch phn, theo 1.3.6, nn:
ZZ
B02 (O,R)
f ( x, y) dxdy =
ZZ
D
f ( x, y) dxdy =
ZZ
(0,R)(0,2 )
ZZ
[0,R][0,2 ]
| B (O, R)| =
ZZ
B02 (O,R)
1 dxdy =
Z R Z 2
0
1 r d dr = R2 .
R3 \ {( x, y, z) R3 | y = 0, x 0}
32
1. Tch phn bi
= const
M
= const
| B3 (O, R)| =
ZZZ
B3 (O,R)
1 dV =
Z R Z Z 2
0
1 2 sin d d d =
4 3
R .
3
Bi tp.
1.5.3.
z = 1/ 2.
33
(a) Tnh din tch min c bao bi ng cong hnh tri tim (cardioid) r =
1 + cos .
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
RR
R (x
34
1. Tch phn bi
1
0.8
0.6
-3
-2
0.4
-1
0.2
0
1
0 -1
5 3
35
sin
cos
cos
sin
Hy chng t mt php quay quanh gc ta mang mt hnh c din tch thnh mt hnh
c cng din tch.
1.5.13 (Th tch qu cu). Ta cu trong Rn , n 2, c cho bi:
x1 =r cos 1 ,
x2 =r sin 1 cos 2 ,
0 < 2 <
..
.
xi =r sin 1 sin 2 sin i1 cos i ,
0 < i <
..
.
xn1 =r sin 1 sin 2 sin n2 cos n1 ,
0 < n1 < 2
(n1)/2
2(2 )
Rn , nu n l
13n
| Bn ( R)| =
n/2
(2 )
Rn ,
nu n chn.
24n
1.5.14. Sau y l mt cch khc tnh th tch qu cu (xem chng hn [ng97], [Lan97,
tr. 598]).
(a) Dng cng thc i bin, chng t | Bn ( R)| = | Bn (1)| Rn .
(b) Chng t
| Bn (1)| =
(c) Suy ra | Bn (1)| =
Z
ZZ
x12 + x22 1
x32 ++ xn2 1 x12 x22
dx1 dx2 .
2 n2
(1)|.
n |B
| Bn (1)| =
Z 1
1
| B n 1
q
R /2
0
1 xn2
| dxn .
36
1. Tch phn bi
C th chng minh rng ([Rat94, tr. 13]) bt k mt php di hnh no cng c dng
( x ) = A x + b trong A l mt ma trn n n trc giao (orthogonal), v b Rn . Mt
ma trn n n l trc giao nu cc vect ct ca n to thnh mt c s trc chun ca Rn .
Ni cch khc ma trn A l trc giao nu A T A = I trong A T l ma trn chuyn v ca A.
Dng cng thc i bin, hy chng t th tch ca mt hnh khng thay i qua mt
php di hnh.
37
m1 p1 + m2 p2
.
m1 + m2
i vi h gm n cht im, bng qui np ta tm c v tr ca tm khi lng l
in=1 mi pi
,
in=1 mi
vi tng khi lng l m = in=1 mi .
Xt trng hp khi lng lin tc, gi s ta c mt khi vt cht chim phn
khng gian E trong R3 . Ti mi im p = ( x, y, z) R3 gi ( p) l mt khi
lng ca khi ti p, l gii hn ca khi lng trung bnh quanh p, c th hiu
l khi lng ti im p. Khi lng ca khi chnh l tch phn ca mt khi
lng:
m=
Z
E
R
R
p
p
RE
= E .
m
E
C th hn, nu p = ( x, y, z) th tm khi lng nm
1
m( E
x,
R
E
y,
R
E
z).
1
x dxdy = 0,
m D
ZZ
Z Z
1
R
4
y dxdy =
(r sin )r d dr =
R.
m D
m 0 0
3
ZZ
f ( x ).
x C
xD
x f ( x ).
38
1. Tch phn bi
Z
C
f.
R
D
f = 1.
Z
D
xf.
Z 2
0
0.1e0.1t dt 18%.
P (Y X + 5 )
ZZ
Z 10 Z x+5
Tnh
39
f ( x, y) dxdy
f ( x, y) dy dx 65%.
V B0 ( R) I ( R) B0 ( R 2) nn
ZZ
B0 ( R)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA
ZZ
I ( R)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA
ZZ
B 0 ( R 2)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA.
V
ZZ
B0 ( R)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA =
ZZ
rer dA = (1 e R ),
[0,R][0,2 ]
ZZ
I ( R)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA = .
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA =
Z
Z
2
e x dx
Z
2
ey dy =
e x dx
2
nn
lim
ZZ
I ( R)
e( x
2 + y2 )
dA = lim
Z
e x dx
2
Z
e x dx
2
e x dx =
40
1. Tch phn bi
( x )2
1
e 22
2
R
tha mn tnh cht cn c ca hm phn b xc sut: f ( x ) dx=1.
f (x) =
Z
0
tz1 et dt,
z R, z > 0.
| Bn ( R)| =
2
Rn .
+ 1)
( n2
1.6.6 (Cng thc Pappus). Hy tm li cng thc ca Pappus6: Th tch ca khi trn xoay
nhn c bng cch xoay mt min phng quanh mt trc bn ngoi bng din tch ca
min nhn vi chiu di ca ng i ca tm khi lng ca min.
C th hn, gi D l min bao bi hai th ca hai hm f v g trn on [ a, b], vi
0 g( x ) f ( x ) trn [ a, b]. Gi ( x0 , y0 ) l tm khi lng ca D. Khi th tch ca khi
trn xoay nhn c bng cch xoay min D quanh trc x bng 2y0 | D |.
ng dng, hy tm li cng thc th tch ca khi xuyn.
Chng 2
Tch phn ng
Trong chng trc chng ta kho st th tch ca min trong khng gian
n-chiu v tch phn trn nhng min . Tuy nhin nhng cu hi chng hn nh
v chu vi ca ng trn, din tch ca mt cu, hay ni chung l o ca tp
con "k-chiu" trong khng gian n-chiu vi k < n v tch phn trn th chng ta
cha xt.
Chng tch phn ng v chng tch phn mt s tr li nhng cu hi
ny cho trng hp ng (k = 1) v mt (k = 2).
42
2. Tch phn ng
r 0 (ti1 )ti
r ( ti )
r ( t i 1 )
|r 0 (t)| dt.
thi gian.
V d. Gi s mt vt di chuyn trn mt ng vi tc hng v, trong khong
Rb
thi gian t a ti b. Khi qung ng vt i c c chiu di l a v dt =
v(b a), ng nh ta ch i.
43
R dt = 2R.
2R dt = 2R.
i =1
Vy ta nh ngha:
nh ngha. Cho f l mt hm xc nh trn vt ca ng r : [ a, b] Rn . Tch
R
phn ca f trn r c k hiu l r f ds v c nh ngha l:
Z
r
V d. Nu f 1 th
R
r
f ds =
1 ds =
Rb
a
Z b
a
|r 0 (t)| dt l chiu di ca ng i r.
f ds =
m Z
i =1 r i
f ds.
44
2. Tch phn ng
Z b
F dr =
Z b
F dr =
P( x, y) dx =
Z
r
Q( x, y) dy =
Z b
a
Z b
a
F dr =
Z
r
P( x, y) dx + Q( x, y) dy.
dx = x 0 (t) dt,
dy = y0 (t) dt.
45
f ds =
Z b
a
f (r (u))|r 0 (u)| du =
Z d
Z d
Z d
f (r (t))|(r )0 (t)| dt
Z
r
f ds.
Trong khi
Z
r
F dr =
Z b
a
F (r (u)) r (u) du =
Z d
c
Z d
c
Z d
c
Z
r
F dr.
V d. C hai loi tch phn ng khng thay i di mt php tnh tin ca
bin thi gian t 7 t + c vi c R.
V d. Vi ng i r (t), t [ a, b] th ng r ( a + b t), t [ a, b], khi u
r (b) v kt thc r ( a), c gi l ng ngc ca ng r, k hiu l r. Ta ni
ng r tri chiu vi ng r. nh l 2.1.1 ni nu o ngc nh hng ca
46
2. Tch phn ng
ng th tch phn ng loi mt khng thay i trong khi tch phn ng loi hai
b i du.
ng i r : [ a, b] Rn c gi l chnh qui (regular) nu r trn trn [ a, b]
v vn tc r 0 (t) lun khc khng.
Ghi ch. Trong quyn sch ca Stewart [Ste08, tr. 1034] thut ng ng trn
chnh l thut ng ng chnh qui y.
2.1.2. B . Gi s : [ a, b] Rn v : [c, d] Rn l hai ng i n chnh qui
vi cng vt.
(a) Nu v khng ng th 1 : ( a, b) (c, d) l mt vi ng phi.
(b) Nu v ng 1, t (t1 ) = ( a) v (s1 ) = (c), th 1 : ( a, b) \
1
b
47
f ds =
f ds =
Z b
a
f ((t))0 (t) dt =
Z b
a
f (t) dt.
r 0 (t)
,
|r 0 (t)|
F dr
Z b
a
Z b
a
F (r (t)) r (t) dt =
Z b
a
r 0 (t)
F (r (t)) 0
|r 0 (t)| dt
|r (t)|
Z
C
F T ds.
48
2. Tch phn ng
xi
(V )
C
V
d
(V )
( x1 , x2 , . . . , x n ) 7
xi (V )
xi
7 t.
49
Bi tp.
R
C
hay dng?
2.1.7. Mt si dy vi hai u c nh di tc ng ca
trng trng s c hnh dng mt
ng xch (catenary) vi phng trnh y = a cosh
cho bi cosh x =
(e x
x
a
+ e x )/2.
50
2. Tch phn ng
Z t
a
|r 0 (u)| du.
ds
dt ( t )
2.1.10. Lin quan ti phn chng minh ca 2.1.2: Chng minh rng nu : [ a, b] [c, d] l
mt song nh lin tc th ( a) = c v (b) = d, hoc ( a) = d v (b) = c. Suy ra nu v
l hai ng i lin tc, n, khng ng, c cng vt, th chng c cng tp im u
v im cui, tc l {( a), (b)} = { (c), (d)}.
2
51
f dr = f ( B) f ( A).
R
r
f dr khng ph thuc vo s la
f 0 = f ( B ) f ( A ).
f dr =
Z b
a
f (r (t)) r 0 (t) dt =
Z b
d
a
dt
52
2. Tch phn ng
= P v yf = Q. Vi gi
thit v tnh trn nh trn th cc o hm ring ca P v Q tn ti v lin tc trn
CHNG MINH. Gi s f l hm th ca F. Khi
D, hn na
P
y
bng nhau, do
2 f
Q
yx v x
Q
P
y = x .
2 f
xy .
2 f
xy
2 f
yx
f
x
tn ti v lin tc nn chng
~F ( x, y) = ( P( x, y), Q( x, y)) =
!
y
x
,
.
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
Q
P
=
trn trn min xc nh l mt phng b i im (0, 0). Mt khc,
y
x
tnh ton trc tip cho thy nu C l ng trn bn knh n v tm ti (0, 0)
R
~F d~r = 2 khc 0. Vy ~F khng phi l mt
ngc chiu kim ng h th
Ta c
mMG
~r.
|~r |3
x
f
y
y ( x, y, z ) = mMG ( x2 +y2 +z2 )3/2
f ( x, y, z) = mMG
z
.
z
( x2 +y2 +z2 )3/2
T phng trnh th nht, ly tch phn theo x ta c
f ( x, y, z) =
mMG
x
mMG
dx = 2
+ C (y, z).
( x2 + y2 + z2 )3/2
( x + y2 + z2 )1/2
mMG
.
|~r |
53
F dr = f ( x1 ) f ( x0 ) = (U ( x1 ) U ( x0 )).
F dr =
Z t
1
t0
F (r (t)) r 0 (t) dt =
Z t
1
t0
F dr
Z t
1
1
m (|r 0 (t)|2 )0 dt
2
1
1
m|r 0 (t1 )|2 m|r 0 (t0 )|2 = K (t1 ) K (t0 ).
2
2
t0
54
2. Tch phn ng
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
0.8
0.4
-0.4
-0.8
-0.8
-0.4
0.4
0.8
(1, 0, 0).
2.2.12. Chng t hai hm th bt k ca cng mt trng xc nh trn mt min m lin
thng sai khc nhau mt hng s. iu ny c cng ng khng nu b gi thit min lin
thng?
2.3. nh l Green
55
2.3. nh l Green
Trong phn ny ta ch lm vic trn trn mt phng Euclid hai chiu R2 .
nh l Green cho min n gin. Gi s D l mt min n gin c bin trn
tng khc trn R2 . C th, nh l mt min n gin theo chiu thng ng, D c
dng D = {( x, y) | a x b, f ( x ) y g( x )} trong f ( x ) v g( x ) l hm trn,
trong khi theo chiu nm ngang th D = {( x, y) | c y d, h(y) x k(y)}
trong h(y) v k(y) l hm trn.
y
y = g( x )
x = k(y)
x = h(y)
y = f (x)
a
dA.
y
D
D x
CHNG MINH. Ta c:
Z
P dx =
D
P dx +
Z b
a
P dx
P dx
3
P( x, f ( x )) dx
Z b
a
P dx
4
P( x, g( x )) dx.
dA =
y
D
Z b Z g( x )
P
Z b
a
f (x)
dy
dx
[ P( x, f ( x )) P( x, g( x ))] dx.
56
2. Tch phn ng
Vy
Z
P dx =
ZZ
P
dA.
y
Q dy =
ZZ
Q
dA.
x
Cng li ta c kt qu.
C1
C7
D2
D1
C5
C4
C3
C6
Q P
x
y
dA
ZZ
C2
Z
C1
F dr +
Z
C5
dA +
ZZ
Q P
x
y
dA
Z
Z
Z
Z
F dr +
F dr +
F dr +
F dr +
C1
C7
C5
C6
Z
Z
Z
Z
+
F dr +
F dr +
F dr +
F dr .
D1
Q P
x
y
D2
C3
Z
C2
F dr +
F dr +
Z
C6
C7
C4
Z
C3
F dr +
Z
C4
F dr +
F dr
F dr.
D
Mt kh khn khi mun pht biu cng thc Green cho nhng min tng qut
hn l vic nh ngha mt cch chnh xc nhng khi nim xut hin trong cng
thc, nh th no l nh hng dng ca bin, khi no th bin ca mt min
l mt ng, khi no th mt ng bao mt min, . . . Mt pht biu v chng
2.3. nh l Green
57
minh s cp ca cng thc Green cho min tng qut hn c trong quyn sch ca
Kellogg [Kel29, tr. 119] xut bn nm 1929. cng thc c chng minh cho
mt min khng n gin bng cch xp x min bng nhng min l hi ca
hu hn min n gin, sau qua gii hn. Ngy nay cng thc Green thng
c xt nh l mt trng hp ring ca cng thc Stokes tng qut cho khng
gian nhiu chiu m ta s nghin cu phn sau.
Mt iu kin trng vect l bo ton. Mt tp D R2 c gi l
mt min hnh sao (star-shaped region) nu c mt im p0 D sao cho vi mi
im p D th on thng ni p0 v p c cha trong D.
V d. Mt phng l mt min hnh sao. Mt tp con li ca mt phng l mt
min hnh sao. Mt phng tr i mt im khng l min hnh sao.
2.3.1. nh l (B Poincar). Gi s F = ( P, Q) l mt trng vect trn trn min
m hnh sao D R2 . Nu
P
y
Q
x
Rp
F dr ch tch phn ca F
p0
trn on thng p0 + t( p p0 ), 0 t 1, ni im p0 vi im p. t
Z p
f ( p) =
p0
F dr.
p + h~i
p0
f
y
"Z
p+h~i
p0
F dr
Z p
p0
#
F dr .
Ch do D m nn nu h nh th im p + h~i s nm trong D. Nu ba
im p0 , p v p + h~i khng cng nm trn mt ng thng th chng to thnh
mt tam gic. Tam gic ny l mt min n gin do ta c th p dng nh l
Q
Green cho min ny, dng gi thit P
y = x , ta c tch phn ng trn bin
ca tam gic bng 0, tc l
Z p+h~i
p0
F dr
Z p
p0
F dr =
Z p+h~i
p
F dr.
58
2. Tch phn ng
Do
F dr =
f
1
( p) = lim
x
h 0 h
Z x+h
x
Z x+h
x
P(t, y) dt.
P(t, y) dt = P( x, y).
= Q
x nhng li khng bo ton th B
Poincar cho bit min xc nh ca trng khng phi l mt min hnh sao. Nh
vy mt gi thit gii tch a n mt kt lun hnh hc.
Kt lun ca B Poincar vn ng nu thay min hnh sao bi min tng
qut hn gi l min n lin (simply connected), i khi l min ch gm mt
mnh khng c l thng. trnh by chnh xc iu ny cn vt ra ngoi phm
vi mn hc ny nn ta dng li.
Ta thy chng minh ca b Poincar vn ng nu lun tn ti ng i t
Rp
im p0 ti im p, khng nht thit phi l ng thng, v tch phn p F dr
0
ch ph thuc vo im u p0 v im cui p. T ta c mt tiu chun na:
Nu c mt trng ( P, Q) m
P
y
|D| =
y dx =
D
x dy =
D
1
2
x dy y dx.
D
2.3.8. Cho ng cong trong mt phng ( x, y) vit bng phng trnh dng ta cc
r = 4 + 3 cos(11 ), vi 0 2 (xem Hnh 1.5.6). Dng cng thc Green, hy tnh din
tch ca min c bao bi ng cong ny.
2.3.9. * Chng minh vt ca mt ng i trn trn mt phng c din tch khng. nh
l ng cong Jordan trong Tp ni rng mt ng lin tc, n, ng trong mt phng
2.3. nh l Green
59
P
y
Q
x
ti mi im).
a
O
b
c
e
Gi s
R
a
~F d~r = 1 v
R
b
( x, y). Xt trng
~F ( x, y) = ( P( x, y), Q( x, y)) =
!
y
x
.
,
x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
y
y
x
dx + 2
dy.
x 2 + y2
x + y2
Chng 3
Tch phn mt
3.1. Tch phn mt
Mt. Ging nh ng, i vi chng ta mt mt (surface) l mt nh x r t mt
tp con D ca R2 vo R3 . Tp nh r ( D ) c gi l vt ca mt.
p
V d. Na trn ca mt cu l vt ca mt ( x, y, z = 1 x2 y2 ) vi x2 + y2 1
(ta Euclid). cng l vt ca mt (sin cos , sin sin , cos ) vi 0
2 v 0 (ta cu).
Mt r : D R3 c gi l trn (smooth) nu r l nh x trn.
V d. Cho hm thc f trn trn mt tp m cha D th mt r ( x, y) = ( x, y, f ( x, y))
vi ( x, y) D l trn, vi vt l th z = f ( x, y).
Din tch mt. Cho mt r : D R3 . Vi mt php chia ca D ta c mt php chia
ca mt thnh nhng mnh nh. Mt hnh ch nht con vi kch thc u v
s c mang thnh mt mnh trn mt c xp x tuyn tnh bng hnh bnh
hnh xc nh bi cc vect ru (u, v)u v rv (u, v)v. Din tch ca hnh bnh hnh
ny c cho bi ln ca tch c hng ca hai vect ny, tc l |ru (u, v)
rv (u, v)|uv.
z
v
D
S
r (u, v)
r
v
(u, v)
u
u
T ta a ra nh ngha:
nh ngha. Din tch ca mt r : D R3 l
ZZ
D
|ru rv | dA.
62
3. Tch phn mt
f dS =
V d. Nu f 1 th
RR
r
ZZ
D
g dS =
ZZ
D
g( x, y, f ( x, y))
1 + f x2 + f y2 dA.
Ghi ch. Trong cc ti liu khc tch phn mt loi 1 cn c k hiu bng
R
S f d.
R
S
f d,
ru (u, v) rv (u, v)
.
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)|
ru (u, v) rv (u, v)
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)|uv = [ F (r (u, v)) ru (u, v) rv (u, v)]uv.
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)|
Ch rng s thc trn cng l th tch c hng ca khi bnh hnh sinh bi ba
vect F (r (u, v)), ru (u, v)u, rv (u, v)v.
63
T y ta a ra nh ngha:
nh ngha. Cho mt r : D R3 vi vt S = r ( D ). Cho F l mt trng vect
trn S, tc F : S R3 . Tch phn mt loi hai ca ca F trn r l
ZZ
r
F d~S =
ZZ
D
Ghi ch. Trong tnh ton ta c th dng cng thc a (b c) = det( a, b, c).
Ghi ch. Ta tnh c ngay
ru (u, v) rv (u, v)) =
P( x, y, z) dydz =
ZZ
r
ZZ
r
Q( x, y, z) dzdx =
R( x, y, z) dxdy =
ZZ
r
ZZ
r
ZZ
r
P~i d~S =
ZZ
Q~j d~S =
ZZ
R~k d~S =
ZZ
(y, z)
dA,
(u, v)
(z, x )
dA,
(u, v)
( x, y)
dA.
(u, v)
Vi cc k hiu ny th
ZZ
r
F d~S =
ZZ
r
F d~S
ZZ
D
ZZ
D
F ( x, y, f ( x, y)) ( f x , f y , 1) dA
[ P( x, y, f ( x, y)) f x ( x, y) + Q( x, y, f ( x, y)) f y ( x, y)
R( x, y, f ( x, y))] dA.
Mt nh l tp im. nh hng. Tng t nh xy ra vi ng, trong
nhiu ng dng ta mun xem mt nh l mt tp im ch khng phi l mt
nh x. By gi ta xy dng quan im ny.
Cho D v D 0 l hai tp con m ca R2 v gi s c mt vi ng phi t D
ln D 0 . Mt vi ng phi nh vy cn c gi l mt php i bin. Nhng php
i bin nh vy chng ta nghin cu trong phn cng thc i bin ca tch
phn bi. Nu det d( p) lun dng trn D th c gi l mt vi ng phi
bo ton nh hng (orientation-preserving diffeomorphism). Nu det d( p) lun
m th c gi l mt vi ng phi o ngc nh hng (orientation-reversing
diffeomorphism).
64
3. Tch phn mt
f dS =
ZZ
r
f dS.
(b) Tch phn mt loi hai khng i qua php i bin bo ton nh hng:
ZZ
r
F d~S =
ZZ
r
F d~S.
(c) Tch phn mt loi hai i du qua php i bin o ngc nh hng:
ZZ
r
F d~S =
ZZ
r
F d~S.
+
,
s
u s
v s
r u
r v
(r )
=
+
.
t
u t
v t
Nhn hai vect ny, v n gin ha, ta c
r r
u v u v
(r ) (r )
s
t
s
t
s t
t s
r r
(u, v)
=
.
s
t
(s, t)
Vit cch khc:
(3.1.1)
r 01 r : D D 0 l mt vi ng phi.
Ta gi tp r (D ) = r 0 (D 0 ) l bin ca mt cong S = r ( D ) = r 0 ( D 0 ), k hiu l
S.
Ta ni r v r 0 c cng nh hng nu r 01 r bo ton nh hng v tri nh
hng nu r 01 r o ngc nh hng. Tp hp cc tham s ha n chnh qui
ca S c chia thnh cc lp tng ng, mi lp c gi l mt nh hng
ca mt cong S.
V d. Xt na mt cu trn x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, z 0. Tp im ny c th c
p
tham s ha nh l mt mt th: ( x, y, z = 1 x2 y2 ), x2 + y2 1. Mt
65
( x,y)
(, )
Mt r : D R3 c gi l
n (simple) nu r l n nh,
chnh qui (regular) nu hai vect ru (u, v) v rv (u, v) xc nh v lun khng
cng phng trn D; ni cch khc vect ru (u, v) rv (u, v) lun khc 0
trn D. Mt cch trc quan, mt l chnh qui nu php tuyn c th c
xc nh.
V d. Cho hm thc f trn trn mt tp m cha D. Xt mt r ( x, y) = ( x, y, f ( x, y))
vi ( x, y) D. Vt ca r l mt th z = f ( x, y). Ta c r x = (1, 0, f x ) v
ry = (0, 1, f y ), do r x ry = ( f x , f y , 1) 6= 0. Vy r l mt mt n, chnh
qui.
Kt qu chnh ca phn ny l mt h qu ca 3.1.2, 3.1.1, v 1.3.5:
3.1.3. nh l (Tch phn trn mt cong). Trn nhng mt n, chnh qui vi cng
vt, xc nh trn tp con ng b chn c din tch ca R2 th:
(a) Tch phn mt loi mt l nh nhau.
(b) Tch phn mt loi hai l nh nhau nu hai mt cng nh hng v i nhau
nu hai mt tri nh hng.
Nh vy ta c th ni ti tch phn mt loi mt trn mt tp im (mt mt
cong) nu tp im l vt ca mt mt n chnh qui xc nh trn mt tp
ng c din tch. tnh tch phn ta c th ly mt tham s ha n chnh qui
xc nh trn mt tp ng bt k. i vi tch phn mt loi hai ta cn ly tham
s ha c cng nh hng vi mt cong. Vi ngha ta c th dng k hiu
RR
RR
~
S f dS v
S F d S.
* Chng minh 3.1.2. Tng t kt qu cho ng 2.1.3 ta c:
B . Nu D R2 ng v b chn, r : D R3 l mt mt n lin tc vi vt
S = r ( D ) th r l mt ng phi ln S.
CHNG MINH. Ta chng minh r 1 l lin tc. Gi s U l mt tp m trn D.
V D \ U l tp con ng b chn ca R2 nn n compc. Do nh ca n r ( D \ U )
l tp compc, do ng trong S. Do S \ r ( D \ U ) = r (U ) m trong S. Nh
vy vi mi U m trong D th (r 1 )1 (U ) = r (U ) l m trong S. Vy r 1 l nh x
lin tc.
66
3. Tch phn mt
vi mt tp m ca R2 th phi l mt tp m. Do (r 01 r )( D ) l mt tp m
ca R2 . Nh vy r 01 r mang im trong ca D thnh im trong ca D 0 . Tng
t r 01 : S \ S D 0 l trn, nn r 01 r l trn.
( x, y)
(u0 , v0 ) 6= 0. Theo nh l hm ngc, c mt ln cn
(u, v)
r
v
y
V
x
u
p
Trn r (V ) th nh x r 1 l hp ca nh x chiu r (V ) 1 (V ) v nh x :
( x, y, z) 7 ( x, y) 7 (u, v).
V r (V ) l mt tp m trn S \ S nn c tp m U ca R3 sao cho r (V ) = U (S \
S). nh x chiu p l trn trn U, do r 1 c th c m rng thnh hm trn
p trn U. Vy r 1 l trn ti im r (u0 , v0 ).
ru (u, v) rv (u, v)
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)|
67
F n dS =
ZZ
D
ZZ
D
ZZ
S
F (r (u, v))
ru (u, v) rv (u, v)
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)| dA
|ru (u, v) rv (u, v)|
Vy
ZZ
S
F d~S =
ZZ
S
F n dS.
iu ny khng nh li rng tch phn mt loi hai l tng thnh phn php tuyn
ca trng trn mt.
Bi tp.
3.1.4. Tnh din tch phn mt nn z2 = x2 + y2 , 3 z 5.
3.1.5. Trn b mt Qu t, ta kinh tuyn v v tuyn c lin h cht ch vi ta cu.
t h trc ta Oxyz vi O tm Qu t, trc Oz i qua Cc Bc, v phn t ng
trn t tia Oz sang tia Ox i qua Greenwich, nc Anh. Gi s mt im c ta l v
Bc v kinh ng, khi ta cu ca im l = (90 ) v = (tuy
nhin nh l trong ta cu gc cn c o bng radian).
Thnh ph H Ch Minh nm trong vng t 10 100 ti 10 380 v Bc v 106 220 ti
106 540 kinh ng (10 = 1/60 ). Tnh din tch ca vng ny. Bn knh ca Qu t l
6378 km.
3.1.6 (Din tch mt trn xoay). Gi s f ( x ) dng, trn trn [ a, b]. Hy tnh din tch ca
mt trn xoay nhn c bng cch xoay th y = f ( x ) quanh trc x. ng dng, tnh din
tch mt ellipsoid
x2
a2
y2
b2
= 1.
x
3
x
3
= r cos ,
!2
+
y
4
y
4
!2
, z 5.
mt.
(b) Tnh xp x din tch ca mt ny.
3.1.8. Cho S l mt z = xy vi 0 x 2 v 0 y 3. Tnh tch phn mt
ZZ
S
ra s thp phn.
xyz dS
68
3. Tch phn mt
3.2. nh l Stokes
Ton t curl.
nh ngha. Cho F = ( P, Q, R) l trng theo ba bin ( x, y, z) trn R3 th
!
R Q P R Q P
curl F =
.
y
z z
x x
y
Di dng k hiu hnh thc, vi
!
, ,
,
x y z
th curl F = F.
Trng curl F cn c gi l trng xoay ca trng F. Ton t curl cn c
k hiu l rot (rotation xoay).
Tng t nh trng hp 2 chiu, bng tnh ton trc tip ta c:
Mnh (curl = 0). Nu f l hm thc c cc o hm ring cp hai lin tc trn
mt tp m th curl f = 0 trn .
H qu (iu kin cn trng ba chiu l bo ton). Nu F l trng trn bo
ton trn mt tp m th curl F = 0 trn . Ni cch khc trn phi c iu kin cn:
Ry
Pz
Qx
=
=
=
Qz
Rx
Py .
u
x
3.2. nh l Stokes
69
F dr =
S
ZZ
S
curl F d~S.
CHNG MINH. Chng minh di y tuy cha nhng biu thc di dng
nhng ch gm nhng tnh ton trc tip v vic p dng cng thc Green.
Vit F = ( P, Q, R) v ( x, y, z) = r (u, v). Gi s (u(t), v(t)), a t b l
mt tham s ha theo nh hng dng ca D. Khi S c tham s ha
R
r (u(t), v(t)). Tnh S F dr ta c (trong vi biu thc di y bin c lc
b cho gn hn):
Z
F dr
Z b
F (r (u(t), v(t))
Z b
Z b
d
r (u(t), v(t)) dt
dt
[ P( x, y, z)( xu u0 + xv v0 ) + Q( x, y, z)(yu u0 + yv v0 ) +
+ R( x, y, z)(zu u0 + zv v0 )] dt
Z b
By gi p dng cng thc Green cho biu thc trn, ta c tch phn trn
bng
ZZ
D
[( Ry Qz )(yu zv zu yv ) + ( Pz R x )(zu xv xu zv )+
+ ( Q x Py )( xu yv xv yu )] dudv
ZZ
D
ZZ
S
curl F d~S.
V d. Gi s hai mt th S1 v S2 c cng min xc nh l min phng D v
RR
RR
nh hng ln trn th S curl F d~S = S curl F d~S. Mt h qu l nu S l
2
1
RR
curl F d~S = 0.
mt cu th
S
70
3. Tch phn mt
F dr =
ZZ
D
( Q x Py ) dA =
ZZ
D
(curl F ) k dA.
2
x2
2
y2
2
z2
tc ng vo
(~v ~r ) d~r = 2
S
ZZ
S
~v ~n dS,
3.3. nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky
71
3.3. nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky
Ton t div.
nh ngha. Cho F = ( P, Q, R) l trng theo ba bin ( x, y, z) trn R3 th
div F =
P Q R
+
+
.
x
y
z
F n dS =
ZZ
F d~S =
ZZZ
div F dV.
CHNG MINH. Vit F = P~i + Q~j + R~k. Vit E nh l khi n theo chiu Oz
nh l tp hp nhng im ( x, y, z) vi f ( x, y) z g( x, y) trong f , g l hm
lin tc xc nh trn min phng D. Ta s chng t
ZZ
S
R~k d~S =
ZZZ
E
R dV.
z
Tng t ta chng minh hai biu thc tng ng cho hai chiu cn li, cng li v
c ng thc phi c chng minh.
Bin S gm cc mt sau: mt trn l {( x, y, z = f ( x, y) | ( x, y) D }, mt di
l {( x, y, z = g( x, y)) | ( x, y) D }, v mt hng l {( x, y, z) | ( x, y) D, f ( x, y)
z g( x, y)}.
Trc ht tch phn ca R~k bng khng trn mt hng. L do nh sau. Mt
hng cha ng ( x0 , y0 , z) vi ( x0 , y0 ) D c nh v f ( x0 , y0 ) z g( x0 , y0 ).
ng ny c vect tip xc l ~k. Nh vy ~k l mt vect tip tuyn ca mt hng,
do ~k vung gc vi vect php tuyn ca mt hng.
Tng tch phn ca R~k trn mt trn v mt di bng:
ZZ
D
R( x, y, g( x, y))~k ( gx , gy , 1) dA+
ZZ
D
R( x, y, f ( x, y))~k ( f x , f y , 1) dA
ZZ
D
Theo nh l Fubini
72
3. Tch phn mt
ZZZ
E
Rz dV
Z Z Z g( x,y)
f ( x,y)
ZZ
Rz dz
dA
( R( x, y, g( x, y) R( x, y, f ( x, y))) dA.
|C 0 (t)|
Z b
1
(y0 (t), x 0 (t))i|C 0 (t)| dt
|C 0 (t)|
!
Z
ZZ
P Q
=
Q dx + P dy =
+
dA.
x
y
C
D
F n ds =
Vy
Z
F n ds =
D
Tch phn
R
C
ZZ
D
div F dA.
Z
B0 ( p,r )
f = f ( p ).
3.3. nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky
73
f
(
p
)
| B0 ( p, r )| B0 ( p,r)
Z
1
[
f
(
q
)
f
(
p
)]
| B0 ( p, r )| B0 ( p,r)
1
| f (q) f ( p)|
| B0 ( p, r )| B0 ( p,r)
Z
1
e = e.
| B0 ( p, r )| B0 ( p,r)
Z
p dng b trn cho div ta c
1
1
div F dA = lim 0
F n dS.
0
|
B
(
p, r )| B0 ( p,r)
r 0 | B0 ( p, r )|
r
0
B ( p,r )
RR
Tch phn
B0 ( p,r ) F n dS l thng lng ca trng F ra khi mt cu
div F ( p) = lim
ZZZ
ZZ
curl F ( p) n = lim
ZZ
B0 ( p,r )
1
0
r 0 | B ( p, r )|
curl F n dA = lim
Z
B0 ( p,r )
F dr.
RR
S curl F
trng F trn mt S.
Bi tp.
3.3.2. Tip tc bi tp 2.2.6 v 2.2.7, xem F nh l trng phng trong khng gian ba chiu.
c on divF ti im gc ta l m, dng hay bng khng? Hy miu t curlF ti
im gc ta .
74
3. Tch phn mt
3.3.3. V trng vect (sin (2x + 3y) , cos (2x 3y)) trong mt ln cn ca P = (2, 3). Tnh
div F ( x, y) v curl F ( x, y) ti P (xem thnh phn th 3 ca trng l 0). Trng ny c bo
ton trong ln cn ny khng? Kt qu c ph hp vi hnh v khng?
3.3.4. Tn ti hay khng mt trng F tha mn curl F ( x, y, z) = (eyz , sin( xz2 ), z5 )?
3.3.5. Trng F ( x, y, z) = (y, x, y) c bo ton trn R3 hay khng?
3.3.6. Cho ~F ( x, y, z) = ( x, y, z). Cho S l mt t din bao bi cc mt phng x = 0, y = 0,
RR
~F d~S bng hai cch:Di
z = 0, x + 2y + z = 2. Tnh tch phn
S
f dA =
Z
C
D~n f ds.
3.3. nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky
75
(a)
ZZ
( f g) n dS =
E
ZZZ
E
( f g + f g) dV.
(b)
ZZ
( f g g f ) n dS =
E
ZZZ
E
( f g g f ) dV.
0 u, v 2.
0 u, v 2.
76
3. Tch phn mt
q
~r.
4e0 |~r |3
E d~S =
ZZZ
D
div E dV = 0.
Suy ra
RR
ZZ
S
E d~S =
E d~S =
E d~S
ZZ
RR
B(O,R)
ZZ
B(O,R)
B(O,R)
E d~S =
ZZZ
D0
div E dV = 0.
E d~S
=
=
~r
q
dS =
|B(O, R)|
|~r |
4e0 R2
B(O,R)
q
q
4R2 = .
e0
4e0 R2
ZZ
3 1016 .
77
q
B(O, R)
D0
Q
1
~
div E = e0 , vi l hm mt
S E d S = e0
D dV = e0 , vi
in tch
D l khi c bao bi mt S v Q
ZZZ
B0 ( p,r )
dV =
ZZ
B0 ( p,r )
E d~S =
ZZZ
B0 ( p,r )
div E dV.
v tnh trn ca mt v ca cc hm trong cng thc, y mt khc bit gia ngnh Ton v ngnh Vt
l.
78
3. Tch phn mt
B d~r = 0 I,
E d~r =
S
d
dt
ZZ
S
B d~S.
Nm 1864, James Clerk Maxwell pht trin nh lut Ampre v thng nht
in trng vi t trng:
Cc phng trnh Maxwell
Dng vi phn
(1) (Coulomb) div E =
e0
Q
e0 ,
vi S l
mt mt ng
(2) curl E = B
t
(Faraday)
R
RR
d
~
E d~r = dt
S
S B dS
RR
B d~S = 0, vi S l mt mt
(3) div B = 0
J
e0
ng
R
1
RR
+ dtd S E d~S,
vi J l mt dng in
vi I l cng dng in qua
mt S
Ging nh s tng ng ca nh lut Coulomb v nh lut Gauss, cc
dng vi phn v dng tch phn ca cc phng trnh Maxwell l tng ng
vi nhau, thng qua nh l Stokes v nh l Gauss-Ostrogradski.
Bng th nghim, Maxwell pht hin rng e010 = c2 , chnh l bnh phng ca
vn tc ca nh sng trong chn khng.
Cc phng trnh Maxwell cng vi cc nh lut ca Newton tng kt ton
b Vt l c in. Chng bao lu l thuyt ca Maxwell c ng dng trong
thc t vi vic pht minh ra sng in t ca Heinrich Hertz nm 1887.
(4) (Ampre)
1
e0 0
curl B =
E
t ,
e0 0
B d~S =
I
e0
= B
t = 0. Ta c cho v J.
T phng trnh (2), v curl E = 0 trn R3 nn E = vi l mt hm thc
c xc nh sai khc mt hng s (y l B Poincar 2.3.1 cho khng gian 3
chiu).
E
t
79
J
.
e0
A =
J
.
e0 c 2
Trong trng hp tng qut khi in trng v t trng thay i theo thi
gian bng cch tng t ta s c nhng phng trnh sng trong c s xut
hin ca o hm theo thi gian ([Fey64, Chng 18]).
Nhng phng trnh nh vy l i tng nghin cu ca ngnh Phng
trnh o hm ring, mt ngnh ln ca Ton hc.
Bi tp.
3.4.1. Dng nh l Stokes v nh l Gauss-Ostrogradski, chng t cc dng vi phn v
dng tch phn ca cc phng trnh Maxwell l tng ng vi nhau.
80
3. Tch phn mt
div F dx =
F v dS.
f dr = f ( B) f ( A).
P dx + Q dy =
ZZ
D
F dr =
ZZ
(curl F ) n dS =
F n ds =
D
ZZ
F n dS =
E
Q P
x
y
ZZ
ZZ
D
dA.
curl F d~S.
div F dA.
F d~S =
E
ZZ
ZZZ
E
divF dV.
w=
M
Z
M
81
dw.
nh l Stokes cho mt k-chiu trong khng gian Rn . Cng thc Stokes tng
qut s ng trong trng hp sau y. V mt hnh hc, M l mt mt k-chiu,
theo ngha mi im trn M c mt ln cn vi ng phi vi mt tp m ca Rk
hoc mt tp m ca mt na ca Rk , nhng im khng thuc loi u to thnh
bin M. y l khi nim a tp trn (smooth manifold) k-chiu.
i tng hm w th phc tp hn. l mt dng vi phn (differential form)
bc (k 1). Khi dw l o hm ca dng w v l mt dng bc k.
Th no l tch phn ca mt dng vi phn trn mt mt? V mi im trn
mt c mt ln cn vi ng phi vi vi mt tp con ca Rk nn thng qua php
vi ng phi ta mang tch phn trn mt v tch phn trn Rk bng mt cng thc
lin quan ti cng thc i bin ca tch phn.
Tt nhin nhng miu t trn cha ngi c c th hiu c c th.
y ngi vit khng c tham vng m ch mun gii thiu vi nim, hy
vng ngi c s tm hiu thm sau ny.
Vi nt v dng vi phn. Nhng k hiu dx, dy, dA, dV, dxdy, ds, dS, dr, d~S, . . .
m ta thy xut hin trong mn hc cho ti nay cha c gii thch ngha r
rng. Chng l phn t ca tp hp no? Quan h gia chng ra sao?
Dng vi phn bc 1
Xt khng gian Rn . Gi s x = ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Rn . Lm dng k hiu ta ch
xi l hm cho ra ta th i ca x, tc l hm ( x1, x2 , . . . , xn ) 7 xi . Khi ta nh
ngha dng vi phn dxi chnh l o hm ca hm xi . Tc l dxi = dxi !
Vy dxi l mt hm trn Rn . Ti mi im x Rn , gi tr dxi ( x ) l mt nh x
tuyn tnh t Rn vo R, c i din bi vect (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0) trong s
1 nm ta th i.
Tng qut hn, nu f : Rn R l mt hm trn th o hm d f ca f l mt
n
dng vi phn trn Rn . Ti mi
im x th d f ( x ) l mtnh x tuyn tnh t R vo
R, c i din bi vect
d f (x) =
f
f
f
x1 ( x ), x2 ( x ), . . . , xn ( x )
. T ta c ng thc:
f
f
f
( x )dx1 ( x ) +
( x )dx2 ( x ) + +
( x )dxn ( x )
x1
x2
xn
f
f
f
dx +
dx2 + +
dxn .
x1 1 x2
xn
82
3. Tch phn mt
83
y chng ta cha bn ti dng vi phn trn cc ng, mt, hay tng qut
hn nhng tp con "k-chiu" trong Rn . V vy ta cha c c hi gii thch cc dng
ds, dS, ...
Tch phn ca dng vi phn
Theo nh ngha trn mt dng vi phn bc n trn Rn l mt tng ca hu
hn nhng dng f dx1 dx2 dxn . Rt n gin, ta nh ngha tch phn ca dng
f dx1 dx2 dxn trn tp con D ca Rn chnh l tch phn bi ca hm f trn D.
nh ngha trn c dng cho nhng tp con D "n-chiu" trong Rn . Nu tp
con D ny c s chiu k < n (v d nh ng, mt trong Rn ) th cn c mt nh
ngha khc dnh ring cho s chiu k. Nh ta thy qua tch phn ng v tch
phn mt, mt nh ngha nh vy s dng ti vic "ko lui" mt dng trn D v
mt dng k-chiu trn Rk , ri ly tch phn. Chi tit kh phc tp, nn ta dng li
y.
o hm ca dng vi phn
Ngi ta nh ngha c mt php o hm trn cc dng. Php tnh ny c
tnh tuyn tnh, nn n c xc nh bi cng thc:
d( f dxi1 dxi2 dxik )
dxdy.
dw =
x
y
x
y
x
y
V d. Trn R3 xt dng w = Pdx + Qdy + Rdz. Ta c
P
P
Q
Q
Q
P
dw =
dx +
dy +
dz dx +
dx +
dy +
dz dy +
x
y
z
x
y
z
R
R
R
+
dx +
dy +
dz dz
x
y
z
R Q
P R
Q P
=
dydz +
dzdx +
dxdy.
y
z
z
x
x
y
Ch cc thnh phn ca dw chnh l cc thnh phn ca curl( P, Q, R).
V d. Trn R3 xt dng w = Pdydz + Qdzdx + Rdxdy. Ta c
P
P
P
Q
Q
Q
dw =
dx +
dy +
dz dydz +
dx +
dy +
dz dzdx +
x
y
z
x
y
z
R
R
R
+
dx +
dy +
dz dxdy
x
y
z
P Q R
=
+
+
dxdydz.
x
y
z
Thnh phn ca dng dw chnh l div( P, Q, R).
84
3. Tch phn mt
dng bc khng f
trng ( P, Q, R)
trng bo ton
dng bc mt m l o hm ca mt dng
bc khng
trng curl( P, Q, R)
hm div( P, Q, R)
Q
dng bc hai R
y z dydz +
Q
P
R
P
dzdx
+
z
x
x
y dxdy
Q
R
dng bc ba P
x + y + z dxdydz
V d. Tnh d(d f ) ta c:
f
f
f
d(d f ) = d
dx +
dy +
dz
x
y
z
2
2
2
2 f
f
2 f
f
2 f
f
dydz +
dzdx +
dxdy.
=
yz zy
zx xz
xy yx
Vy nu f trn cp hai th d(d f ) = 0. y khng g khc hn chnh l h thc
curl(( f )) = 0.
Q
V d. Nu ta ly w = Pdx + Qdy + Rdz th nh trn tnh dw = R
y z dydz +
Q
P
R
P
dzdx
+
z
x
x
y dxdy, tng ng vi trng curl( P, Q, R ), v
d(dw) =
2 R
2 Q
2 P
2 R
2 Q
2 P
xy xz yz yx zx zy
dxdydz.
w=
M
Z
M
dw.
85
f
dx =
xi
f vi dS.
f
g dx =
xi
f gvi dS
g
dx.
xi
(a)
Z
f dx =
f
dS.
v
(b)
Z
f g dx =
g
dS
v
f g dx.
(c)
Z
( f g g f ) dx =
f
g
g
v
v
dS.
Gi cho mt s bi tp
1.2.15: Gi s x [0, 1] l mt s v t v { pn /qn }nZ+ l mt dy cc s hu t hi
t v x. Nu dy {qn }nZ+ khng tin ra v cng th s c mt s thc M v mt
dy con {qnk }kZ+ sao cho qnk < M vi mi k Z+ . Dy { pnk /qnk }kZ+ ch gm
hu hn gi tr.
1.2.16: Tp hp cc s hu t l m c.
87
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Frank Morgan, Geometric measure theory: A beginners guide, Academic Press, 2000. 85
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89
Ch mc
mt, 61
nh l Divergence, 71
nh l Gauss-Ostrogradsky, 71
n, 65
nh l hm ngc, 26
bin, 64
o khng, 10
chnh qui, 65
ng nng, 53
trn, 61
vt, 61
nh hng, 46
ma trn Jacobi, 25
ng i, 41
min, 14
ng, 41
n, 41
php ng phi, 48
cng nh hng, 46
php i bin, 25
chnh qui, 46
php chia, 2
lin tc, 41
khong con, 2
tri nh hng, 46
mn hn, 2
trn, 42
vt, 41
tch phn, 4
ng cong, 47
tch phn ng
c lp vi ng i, 51
a tp trn, 81
loi hai, 44
loi mt, 43
B Poincar, 57, 58
tng di, 3
tng Riemann, 2
dng vi phn, 81
tng trn, 3
th nng, 53
hu khp, 10
thng lng, 72
hnh hp, 1
th tch, 15
con, 2
th tch khng, 8
th tch, 1
trn, 25, 41
hnh sao, 57
trng
hm c trng, 14
bo ton, 51
hm Gamma, 40
hm th, 51
hng, 46
vi ng phi, 25
kh tch, 4
o ngc nh hng, 63
kh vi tng khc, 43
91