Biz Law

The terms of a contract are statements which set out the duties and rights of each party. They are
either expressed or implied terms. Expressed terms are communicated (orally, through writing or
both) to parties. Implied terms are not communicated to parties and are either implied by the court
(case law. So obvious that they have to be implemented in order for the contract to be workable),
statute (may not be expressly indicated in the contract but involved anyway; unfair contract terms
act, sale of goods act) or by custom or trade usage.
When a term of a contract is breached, the innocent party may claim damages, with the amount
dependent on the evidence. However, the innocent party may not always be entitled to terminate
the contract as if he is not entitled to terminate the contract, the innocent party himself breaches
the contract and may be liable to pay damages.
A contract can only be terminated if there is a term in the contract which states that a breach in the
contract would allow the innocent party to terminate the contract, the term in breach was a
condition and not a warranty of the contract, the term in breach deprived the innocent party of the
benefit of the contract or if the party which breached the term renounces the contract, stating that
it will not carry out contractual obligations anymore.
An exemption clause is a term in a contract which limits or excludes liability for the party in breach.
(Exclusion of liability clause, limitation of liability clause) An exemption clause MUST be incorporated
into the contract by signature (even if it is not read or understood), notice (before or at the time of
the contract and where a reasonable person would expect to find it) or previous course of dealing.
The exemption clause must also be clear and unambiguous. It must not have been made ineffective
by statute or common law. A statute which makes an exemption clause ineffective is the Unfair
Contract Terms Act (UCTA). Under the UCTA, if an exemption clause seeks to exclude or limit liability
for negligence which leads to personal injury or death, it is ineffective. In the cases of consumer
contracts and standard form contracts (which are not negotiable such as insurance policies), the
exemption clauses are only effective if they are reasonable.
For consumer sales, the UCTA states that the seller is not allowed to exclude liability for providing
goods which do not correspond with their description, are not of satisfactory quality and are not fit
for the purpose made known to the seller. (Implied conditions)
Exemption clauses are deemed to be reasonable depending on the bargaining power of the parties,
whether the customer had an alternative means of meeting his/her requirements, whether the
customer could have entered a similar contract with another party without having to agree to a
similar exemption clause and whether the customer knew about the existence of the exemption
clause.
An exemption clause is also made ineffective when it is against common law. This is the case when a
contract breaker misrepresents the extent of the exemption clause to the other party.
** A contract for the sales of goods is made when the seller agrees to transfer ownership of a good
to a buyer for a money consideration called price. The Sales of Goods Act comes into effect for
contracts of sales of goods and no other forms of contracts such as standard form contracts, for
example. When barter trade is involved, it is not a contract of sales of goods as no money
consideration is involved. The transfer of ownership of land or property is NOT a contract of sales of
goods.

**SALE OF GOODS ACT

Implied condition that the seller has the right to sell the goods;
If the seller is not the rightful owner or an agent authorized by the owner of the goods to sell it, there is a breach
of the implied condition that the seller has the right to sell the goods and thus, the buyer is entitled to rescind the
contract and claim a refund of the purchase price. Rescinding the contract will cancel the contract and make it
void. The buyer can also get a refund even though he/she has had the benefit of the goods for a period of time
and the seller was unaware that he/she could not sell the goods as the object of the contract was to transfer
ownership of the goods to the buyer, which could not be done due to the seller having no rights to sell the goods
due to not being the owner or being authorized by the owner to sell them.
Implied warranty that goods are free from charge or encumbrance;
The seller must inform the buyer of any charges or encumbrance (security interest given to a third party over the
goods, eg. good is used as a guarantee for a loan) over the goods before the contract is made. As the implied term
is a warranty, the buyer cannot claim for a refund, but he/she is able to claim damages instead.
Implied warranty that the buyer is able to enjoy quiet possession of the goods;
An implied term in the sales of goods contract is that the buyer will be able to enjoy the good without lawful
interference from a third party or seller itself. As this is a warranty, the buyer cannot claim a refund, but instead
can claim for damages.
Implied condition that the goods sold are of satisfactory quality;
When the seller sells goods in the course of a business, there is an implied condition that the goods are of
satisfactory quality. If not, the buyer is entitled to reject the goods and claim for refunds. He/she is also able to
claim for any damages suffered. To decide if a good is of satisfactory quality, it should have fitness for all
common purposes, which is being able to perform all the functions it would normally perform, the appearance
and finish should be satisfactory, which means that having scratches and tarnishes on a new iPod means that it
may be considered of unsatisfactory quality, there should be freedom from minor defects as it will affect the
enjoyment and use of the good and may cause harm in the future, though it is fit for the purpose it is supposed to
do, must be safe and durable, and so must not pose a danger to the user and also, be in good condition for a
reasonable amount of time.
However, the buyer cannot reject the goods when the defect is specifically made known to the buyer before the
contract is made and when the buyer examines the goods before buying and the examination reveals the defect
that a reasonable person would have noticed.
Implied condition that goods will correspond with description
Goods sold must be according to how the seller described it. If not, the buyer has the right to reject the goods and
claim a refund and any damages for any loss sustained. A sale by description occurs when the buyer purchases
the goods based on the basis of the description given by the seller. Even if the buyer has inspected the goods, it
can still be a sale by description if the buyer relies on the sellers description in making the contract.
Implied condition as to fitness for purpose
The implied condition as to fitness for purpose is applicable when the seller sells goods in the course of a business
and is informed by the buyer of the purpose and the buyer relies on the sellers skill or knowledge in choosing the
goods where it is reasonable to do so.
If goods are not fit for purpose, the buyer is able to reject the goods and claim a refund as well as any damages
for losses suffered. However, if the buyer did not rely on the sellers skill or judgement in selecting the goods or
where it is unreasonable to rely on the sellers skill or judgement in choosing the goods, the implied condition as
to fitness for purpose does not apply.
Once a buyer has accepted the goods, however, he/she is unable to reject the goods. The only remedy would be
to claim damages. The buyer has accepted the goods when he/she expressly indicates that he/she accepts them,
does an act inconsistent with the sellers ownership of the goods such as selling and delivering the goods to a subbuyer or the buyer has kept the goods for a more than reasonable amount of time without informing the seller
that he/she has rejected them.

MISREPRESENTATION (leads to a voidable contract)

Misrepresentation is one of the defects a contract could have that could render it void or voidable.
The other defects in the formation of a contract would could render it unenforceable are duress,
undue influence, mistakes and illegal contracts. These defects cause a party in the contract to be
unable to sue even though all elements of a contract are present as the contract is treated as invalid
from the beginning if it is void. If the contract is voidable, the contract is treated as valid until the
innocent party chooses to rescind the contract.
A misrepresentation is a false statement made by a party during negotiations which induces the
other party into agreeing to the contract. Misrepresentation renders the contract voidable and can
be rescinded (for all three forms of misrepresentation) when the truth is found out. The innocent
party can claim for damages for negligent misrepresentation and fraudulent misrepresentation, and
only in some innocent misrepresentation cases when it is deemed to be fair.
To sue for misrepresentation, the innocent party must prove that the other party made a false
statement of fact, the statement made was material in agreeing to the contract and that the
innocent party had relied on the statements made by the other party in deciding to make the
contract. If the innocent party does not rely on the statements made by the other party but rather on
the expert it appoints on its own, the innocent party would not have the right to sue for
misrepresentation.
The types of misrepresentation that can occur are innocent misrepresentation, negligent
misrepresentation and fraudulent misrepresentation.
Innocent misrepresentation occurs when a statement is made honestly with reasonable grounds for
believing in its truth. For example, if the other party relies on an experts survey for its statement
which turns out to be false, the other party has given an innocent misrepresentation as it had
grounds to believe in the truth of the surveys statement. The contract would be rescinded under the
Misrepresentations Act; however, the Court may orders damages to be paid instead of rescission if it
is deemed to be fair, also under the Misrepresentations Act.
Negligent misrepresentation occurs when a statement is made honestly but without reasonable
grounds for believing in its truth. For example, if the other party makes a statement without having
any reasonable grounds to believe in the truth such as a surveyors report, there is negligent
misrepresentation. The contract would be rescinded and/or damages can be claimed under the
Misrepresentations Act.
Fraudulent misrepresentation occurs when a statement is made in full knowledge of the falsity of the
statement. For example, if the other party knows for a fact that the statement is false but makes it
anyway, causing the innocent party to rely on it and enter the contract, a fraudulent
misrepresentation is made. The contract would be rescinded and/or damages can be claimed.
However, fraudulent misrepresentation is prosecutable and not under the Misrepresentations Act.
The innocent party loses its right to rescind the contract if there is a lapse of time since the contract
was formed and no steps to rescind the contract were taken within a reasonable amount of time.
However, it can claim for damages.
If the innocent party is aware of the misrepresentation and chooses to agree to the contract through
words or by conduct anyway, the right to rescind the contract is lost as the innocent party had
affirmed the contract in full knowledge of the misrepresentation.
If the goods have changed substantially or perished, restitution will be impossible as the goods
cannot be returned to the seller and for contracts to be rescinded, the goods must be returned back
to the seller. Thus, the right to rescind the contract is lost, however, damages can still be claimed.
Also, if the rights of third parties are affected, such as the goods being resold to the third party, the
innocent party may lose the right to rescind the contract as it affects the third partys rights.

CONTRACTS MADE BY MINORS

The age for minors is now below 18 years of age except for certain contracts such as the sale of
property and land. The general rule at common law for minors if they enter a contract is that they
cannot be enforced against the minor, however, the minor can enforce the contract against the other
party. This protects minors from being taken advantage of by those more experienced.
Although contracts made by minors are not enforceable, there are three exceptions to this rule.
They are the contracts for necessaries which may include basic necessities such as food and articles
necessary to the minor according to his/her position in life and educational and employment
contracts for the minors benefit. Educational and employment contracts which have harsh and
oppressive terms are not enforceable.
**DURESS (leads to a voidable contract)
**Duress occurs when a party is forced to agree to a contract under a threat without any free
consent to the terms of the contract. Contracts made under duress are voidable, and thus the
contract is valid till the innocent party decides to rescind it. The three types of duress are duress to
the person, duress to the goods and economic duress.
Duress to the person occurs when the party threatens the innocent party with bodily harm or loss of
life to either him/herself or to an immediate family member.
Duress to goods occurs when the party threatens to damage the innocent partys goods rather than
life.
**Economic duress occurs when one party uses illegitimate commercial pressure to get another
party to agree to certain contractual terms. The innocent party can rescind the contract if it can
prove that there was a threat to carry out a civil wrong such as a breach of contract (threatening not
to deliver goods on the date originally agreed which are urgently needed unless paid extra) AND if
there was no other practical alternative but to comply.
UNDUE INFLUENCE (leads to a voidable contract)
Undue influence occurs when one party is affected by an improper conduct of the other party such
as pressure, coercion or influence and as a result, did not enter the contract on his/her own free will.
There is actual and presumed undue influence. The innocent party has to prove that he/she was
influenced by the other party and did not enter the contract on his/her own free will if there is actual
undue influence. Under presumed undue influence however, it falls on the wrongdoer to prove that
he/she did not influence the innocent party in entering the contract against his/her own free will by
showing that the innocent party had sought independent advice before entering the contract. An
undue influence is assumed when the parties involved in the contract are in a relationship of trust
and confidence and the transaction is one that cannot be explained on the basis of the relationship
alone.
Undue influence may also affect the rights of the third parties. The third party may be put on inquiry
in order to show that they had taken steps to prevent any undue influence over the innocent party
and that the contract was entered by the innocent partys own free will such as by ensuring that the
innocent party is advised by a lawyer on the nature of the transaction, the risks involved and whether
the contract is being entered on the innocent partys own free will.
If the contract is deemed to have been under undue influence, the contract is deemed to be voidable
and the innocent party has the right to rescind the contract.

**MISTAKES (leads to contract being voided)

A mistake does not make a contract void as there is a need for commercial certainty. However, at
common law, a fundamental mistake will render the contract to be void. These fundamental
mistakes are common mistakes, mutual mistakes and unilateral mistakes.
**Common mistakes are when both parties contract on the same mistaken assumption that the
fundamental fact exists. If this fundamental fact had not existed, the contract would not have been
made. The common mistake can relate to the existence of the subject matter of the contract or the
possibility of performing the contract. If the subject matter of the contract does not exist, the
contract is void due to common mistake. If the possibility of performing the contract is impossible,
the contract would be rendered void for common mistake as both parties were mistaken as to the
possibility of performing the contract.
Eg. A common mistake had been made by both parties in regards to the existence of the subject
matter of the contract and thus the contract is rendered void as the subject matter (explain..).
Mutual mistakes are when a contract is made with both parties having a cross-purpose. There is no
meeting of the minds due to a misunderstanding. The contract will be rendered void as the parties
are both at a cross-purpose and there was no meeting of the minds therefore, there was a mutual
mistake.
Unilateral mistakes occur when only one party makes a mistake while the other party is aware of it.
The mistake could relate to the important term of the contract, the identity of the person contracted
with or the signed document. For unilateral mistakes relating to the important term of the contract,
when one party is aware of the mistake that the other made, the contract is void for unilateral
mistake.
MISTAKE AS TO SIGNED DOCUMENT
Normally, a person would be bound by the written word in the contract when he/she has signed it
even if he/she did not read it or understand it. However, a person can render a contract void if they
were induced to sign the contract by trickery or fraud, made a fundamental mistake regarding the
nature of the document and was not careless in signing the document. A fundamental mistake can
be made when the person who signed the document is illiterate and was led to believe that the
contract was for another purpose.
**ILLEGAL CONTRACTS (lead to the contract being voided)
Contracts may be illegal at common law or by statute. Contracts illegal by common law are those
where the objective is to commit a crime, civil wrong or fraud, where the contract is to defraud the
tax authorities and where the contract aims to obstruct the administration of justice. Contracts illegal
by statute are gaming or wagering contracts for an unauthorized gambling activity under the Civil
Law Act or loans between a loanshark and a party under the Moneylenders Act.
When a contract is illegal, the contract is deemed to be void and unenforceable. Any amount of
money or property transferred under the illegal contract cannot be recovered as the courts would be
assisting in a criminal act if they allow the parties involved in the illegal contract to recover them.
Constraints in the restraint of trade
A contract in the restraint of trade is an agreement where a person restricts another from carrying
on his/her trade business or profession. Restraints of trade can be found in employment contracts,
contracts for the sale of a business and solus trading agreements. Restraint of trade is generally void
and unenforceable as it is against public policy.
For the restraints of trade in employment contracts to be valid, the employer must have a legitimate
interest to protect such as trade secrets or highly confidential information, customer connections
and to maintain a stable and trained workforce which it has invested in training for. This investment
prevents employees from being poached by other competitors. The restraint of trade must also be
reasonable with its terms such as area of restriction and duration of the restraint. The position of the

employee and scope of the restraint also affects whether the restraint of trade is valid as if a clerk
were to be under a restraint of trade where he/she cannot work for another competitor in the
industry, it has no effect on the trade secrets, highly confidential information and customer
connections as he/she has not worked in top management or contributed to the product and
therefore is not aware of all of this. The scope of the restraint should only cover the activities which
pose a threat to the company.
For the restraints of trade in contracts for the sales of businesses, they usually are for the seller of
the business to not set up a similar and competing business for a period of time in the same area as
the buyer. The courts normally allow the restraints of trade for contracts for the sales of businesses
as the purchase price also includes a sum of goodwill. This goodwill is the reputation of the business
and its old customers. As the buyer has paid money for this goodwill, it is reasonable to expect the
seller to not compete with the buyer in a similar and competing business for a period of time in the
same area. The restraint of trade is only upheld if the buyer is able to show that the area and period
of the restraint of trade is reasonable.
A solus trading agreement is when a person agrees to exclusively sell a product of a particular
manufacturer in return for benefits from the manufacturer such as discounted rates in order to earn
a higher profit when the goods are sold. The area and period of restraint of trade must be reasonable
in order to the restraint of trade to be valid.
**Discharge by Frustration
Frustration occurs when an unforeseeable event occurs that is beyond the parties control and
causes the contract to become impossible or illegal to perform or causes the performance of the
contract to be drastically changed from how it was originally envisioned. When frustration occurs,
the contract is discharged.
The contract becomes impossible to perform when the subject matter of the contract is destroyed,
the government acquires the subject matter of the contract or if there is a change in the law, causing
the previously legal contract to become illegal (if the contract was illegal in the first place, it is void,
however if it becomes illegal after a change in the law, it has been discharged by frustration). The
contracts performance becomes drastically changed if there is a serious illness or incapacity of a
party to a contract for the provision of personal services.
Frustration does not occur if the contract becomes more difficult or expensive to perform or if the
frustration is self-induced. Frustration is self-induced if the frustrating event occurs due to the
conduct of one of the parties. Therefore, when the contract is more difficult or expensive to perform
or if the frustration is self-induced, there will be no discharge of the contract due to frustration at
common law.
When a contract is frustrated, the contract is discharged due to frustration at common law. All
parties under the contract are released from future obligations. However, any obligations due before
the frustrating event need to be performed or else there will be a breach of contract.
The Frustrated Contracts Act says that when a contract is frustrated and the money is paid before the
frustrating event, the party is generally allowed to recover the money he/she has paid. Any money
payable under the contract at the time of the frustration does not need to be paid. Any expenses
incurred in performing the contract before the event of frustration can be recovered or retained.
Lastly, if a party has received a benefit from the contract before frustration, the court will order
him/her to pay a reasonable sum for the benefit obtained.
**Force majeure clauses are terms in a contract which state what happens if a certain event occurs
after the contract is made. It is important to have in contracts as it allows contracts to be discharged
in situations where it would not be considered frustration at common law. Contracts can be
suspended for a period of time when certain events occur due to force majeure clauses as well.

**REMEDIES
Remedies are either equitable remedies or common law remedies. Equitable remedies are
discretionary while common law remedies are by right. Equitable remedies are specific performance,
injunctions (both prohibitory and mandatory) and recission. Common law remedies are damages
(pecuniary, non-pecuniary losses and liquidated damages) and quantum merit, which is when the
party is paid according to the amount of work done.
Damages are monetary compensation. If an innocent party has suffered no losses, the damages
awarded will be nominal. Damages are for pecuniary losses (monetary losses such as loss of profit),
non-pecuniary losses (for not a direct monetary loss. However, the court will only award damages for
non-pecuniary losses if the benefit of the contract was to provide enjoyment or pleasure such as
holiday tours) and liquidated damages.
**The amount of damages payable is assessed according to mitigation and remoteness of damage. If
the loss is too remote and not closely related enough to the breach, the damages would not be
awarded. Natural and ordinary losses are awarded, however, unusual or special losses (such as the
loss of an important client due to undelivered merchandise) is not awarded unless the special
circumstance was made known to the seller and the seller had agreed to supply the goods or service
for that purpose. Mitigation is when there is a breach of contract, the buyer must take reasonable
steps to minimise his/her loss. If no reasonable steps are taken to minimise the loss, the damages will
not be awarded.
**Liquidated damages clause is a term in the contract which fixes the amount payable in the event of
a breach. It is a genuine pre-estimate of loss. When there is a breach, the innocent party can claim
damages as according to the liquidated damages clause and there is no need to provide evidence as
it is stated in the contract.
**However, if this liquidated damage clause is actually a penalty clause, the court will not award the
penalty to be recovered. A penalty clause is one which requires payment of a sum of money greater
than a genuine pre-estimate of loss and its purpose is to punish the party in breach. If a single lump
sum is required to be paid no matter how serious the breach is, it is likely to be a penalty clause.
Equitable remedies are recession, specific performance and injunction. Specific performance requires
the party to deliver the goods or services as agreed in the contract and is granted when payment of
damages will not suffice and the plaintiff would prefer to have the contract carried out. It is usually
granted for the sale of rare goods such as art pieces and for the sale of land or houses. Specific
performance is not granted in cases of employment and for cases which will require the constant
supervision of the court. Employment cases are not granted specific performance as it is against
public policy to force someone to work. If a specific performance is granted, the party must obey it or
else face a contempt of court charge.
Injunctions are either mandatory or prohibitory. Injunctions are court orders that are granted when a
party has agreed to not carry out a specific action in the contract but does it anyway. A prohibitory
injunction stops the contract breaker before he/she performs the act while a mandatory injunction
prevents the contract breaker from continuing with the act after he/she has started doing it.

**An agent is a person who acts on behalf of a principal. He/she is empowered to make legally
binding contracts between his/her principal and third parties. The authority given to the agent varies.
The agent can be given actual authority (which is either implied or express), apparent authority or
agency created by ratification.
Expressed actual authority is when the principal has given authority to the agent in writing or orally
to carry out the act.
Implied actual authority is when the authority comes along with the position of job given to the
agent and his/her duties that come along with the position. However, if there is no written or oral
communication of the principal of the agents authority. Agency by estoppel occurs when the agent
acts as if he/she has authority and the principal does nothing to stop it even when they are aware.
This gives third parties the impression that the agent has authority and so, deals with him/her. If
anything happens, the principal is liable as it had given third parties the impression that the agent
was authorized to carry out his/her actions due to having never been stopped when doing them
though the principal was aware. Agency created by estoppel also occurs when there is a
representation by the principal that the agent has actual authority as even when the agent leaves the
company, and the principal fails to inform any third parties concerned, the third party is still under
the impression that the agent has actual authority as they are not informed about the termination or
that the agent has left the company and thus continues to deal with him/her.
Agency by ratification occurs when the agent does an act that is not authorized. However, if the
principal ratifies the unauthorized act either expressed (writing or orally agreeing) or implied (using
the goods), the principal is bound with the contract between the third party and itself. The principal
is also free to reject the unauthorized act and thus is not liable when doing so. Effective ratification is
when the agent discloses the fact to the third party that he/she is acting on behalf of the principal as
if the third party is unaware of the existence of the principal, the contract cannot be ratified. The
third party is not liable to the principal.
The principal must also be in existence during the period that the agent made the unauthorized
contract and ratification must be done within a reasonable period of time or within the time fixed for
performance or else the contract cannot be ratified. The unauthorized act is authorized when it is
ratified by the principal.
An agent is required to follow the principals instructions, act with skill and care, not accept bribes (if
bribes are accepted, the principal can sue the agent for the bribe or the loss that results from the
transaction but not both), avoid a conflict of interest and is required to account for the goods or
money received on the principals behalf.

The law of intellectual property protects the creations of the human mind in the forms of
trademarks, patents and copyrights.
A trademark is a sign used by a person in the course of trade to distinguish its goods and services
from its competitors. It is under the Trade Marks Act. Trademarks have to be registered with the
Intellectual Property Office of Singapore (IPOS) in order to get protection. These trademarks are
protected for 10 years, after which they can be renewed for another 10 years. The protection is
territorial in nature and thus, to get the trademark protected outside of Singapore, the applicant
needs to go to the countries concerned directly or through the World Intellectual Property Office.
**To qualify for registering a trademark, the applicant must use or have a genuine intention of using
the trademark in the course of trade relating to the category of goods or services he/she is applying
the trademark for. Trademarks that cannot be registered are marks which do not have a distinctive
character, descriptive marks, if there are marks exactly the same, if the marks to be registered could
cause confusion, if the marks are deceptive and if they are against public policy or morality.
When trademarks are infringed, the remedies are AID. They are account of profits, injunction and
damages.
Some businesses do not register their trademark, and so cannot sue for trademark infringement.
However, they can sue for passing off. The tort of passing off comes into effect as it prevents a trader
from misrepresenting its goods as someone elses. However, it is more difficult to succeed in a claim
of passing off compared to trademark infringement as there is a need to prove that there is goodwill
or reputation attached to the business that was passed off, there was a misrepresentation by the
party which passed off the goods that the goods are similar to the plaintiffs through the usage of the
logo, trademarks or get ups which are similar AND if the plaintiff is likely to suffer loss or damage
through this passing off.
The remedies for passing off are AID.
Patents protect inventions and protection has to be applied for at IPOS. The patent rights are
territorial and so the applicant must file for patent protection in the countries concerned or with
WIPO. The protection of patents is 20 years and is not renewable. It comes under the Patents Act.
**To register a patent, it must be new and not known to the public in the world. The invention must
involve an inventive step so any improvements over an existing product must not be obvious to a
person skilled in that field. The invention must also be capable of industrial use.
The patent belongs to the inventor unless he/she invented the patent in the course of employment,
in which case the patent would be under the employer. When a patent is infringed, which is when
the invention is used, sold or manufactured without the consent of the patent owner, the remedies
are AID.
A copyright is an exclusive right to reproduce, publish, perform and communicate various types of
work such as novels and music. The law of copyright protects the expression of ideas and it has to be
in a tangible form. There is no need to register for protection as it is automatic when the idea is in
tangible form. Examples of works which are protected by copyright are literary works, music and
films. The period of protection for literary works is 70 years additional to the life of the author. The
period of protection for music is 70 years additional to the life of the author. The period of protection
for films, however, is 70 years after release.
Copyright is infringed when a party does something which only the copyright owner has the right to
do without the copyright owners permission such as reproducing the work or performing it.
Copyright infringement also occurs when a substantial amount of the work is copied. The remedies
for copyright infringement are AID.
The owner of an intellectual property has the rights to charge license fees if there are other parties
who wish to use it.