Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Oyster Gardening
2013
Summer 2013
This 2nd edition of the Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide was produced by the Virginia Coastal
Zone Management (CZM) Program in partnership with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission,
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Tidewater Oyster Gardeners Association, Oyster Reef Keepers,
Chesapeake Bay Foundation and Virginia Department of Health.
Funding to print this edition was provided by the Tidewater Oyster Gardeners Association,
Chesapeake Bay Foundation and the Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program through a
grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration under the federal Coastal Zone
Management Act.
The first edition of the guide was released in 2006 by the Virginia CZM Program, with support from
the Virginia Oyster Reef Heritage Foundation and the NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office, and based
largely on a document written in 1999 by Mark Luckenbach, Francis OBeirn and Jake Taylor of the
Virginia Institute of Marine Science: "An Introduction to Culturing Oysters in Virginia."
The guide is available on the Virginia CZM Program Web site at http://www.deq.virginia.gov/
Programs/CoastalZoneManagement/CZMIssuesInitiatives/Oysters/Gardening.aspx.
Cover photo by Laura McKay. Photo above courtesy of TOGA. Photo upper right courtesy of TOGA. Photos bottom right
top to bottom - oyster seed and oyster float, courtesy of TOGA; mud crab by K. Hill, Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce,
FL; oysters on the half shell, courtesy of CBF. Back cover photo by Tom Zolper/CBF.
ii
In This GuidE
Oyster Gardening Can Help Virginia's Coast
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Summer 2013
adductor muscle
sensory tenticles
ventricle
gills
intestine
auricle
mantle
shell
stomach
digestive gland
hinge
labial palp
esophogus
While the power of the adductor muscle varies with the size
and condition of the oyster, it takes a pull of over 20 lb to open
the shell of a 3 to 4-inch Eastern oyster in good condition.
Oysters usually mature in one year. There is no way of telling
male oysters from females by simply looking at them. While
oysters have separate sexes, they may change sex one or
more times during their life span. They are protandric, which
means that in the first year they spawn as males, but as they
grow larger and develop more energy reserves in the next two
to three years, they spawn as females.
An increase in water temperature triggers male oysters to
release sperm and females to release eggs into the water.
This begins a chain reaction of spawning which clouds the
water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster
produces 10 to 100 million eggs annually.
When water temperatures fall over the winter, oysters cease
to feed. The oysters stop filtering and seldom open their
shells. However, unlike hibernating bears and other animals
which live on stored fat, they show very little weight loss after
the winters sleep.
Summer 2013
Virginia Landings 1880 - 2012
(1000s of bushels)
Virginia Landings 2000 - 2012
(100s of bushels)
Graphs courtesy of Virginia Marine Resources Commission and Virginia CZM Program.
Summer 2013
Oyster diseases
MSX and Dermo are not caused by viruses or bacteria,
but rather by single-celled protozoans. Neither parasite is
harmful to humans. In the Chesapeake Bay, oysters become
infected with MSX from mid-May through October. Infections
develop rapidly in susceptible oysters and result in mortalities
from April through October. Oysters that survive their first
season may still harbor the parasite over the winter and
succumb to the disease the following spring or early summer.
Temperature and salinity regulate MSX. Both parasite and
oyster are inactive at temperatures <5C (41F). At 5-20C
(41-68F), the parasite proliferates more rapidly than the
oyster can control it. Above 20C (68F), resistant oysters
can overcome the parasite while susceptible oysters are
killed. A salinity below 10 parts per thousand (ppt) results
in expulsion of the parasite at temperatures above 20C. A
salinity of 15 ppt is required for infection; 20 ppt is required
for rapid and high mortality. Fortunately, wild oysters are
increasingly tolerant to MSX and this tolerance is heritable.
For several decades hatchery-based breeding programs
have made use of this heritability to selectively breed strains
of oysters that are highly tolerant to MSX. If you are growing
oysters in waters where the salinity regularly exceeds 10 ppt,
you should be sure to use one of these lines of oysters. See
VIMS' Aquaculture Genetics and Breeding Technology Center
(ABC) website, www.vims.edu/abc. for more information
about lines breeding. A variety of selectively bred lines may
be available from commercial seed sellers just ask!
Healthy oyster gut epithelium on the right side of the photo and a
region damaged by Dermo on the left side of the photo. Photo
by Ryan Carnegie, VIMS.
For more about these diseases, visit the VIMS MSX and
Dermo Fact Sheet at www.vims.edu/_docs/oysters/oysterdiseases-CB.pdf.
Dr. Stan Allen,
director of the
Aquaculture
Genetics and
Breeding
Technology
Center (ABC),
counts eggs
to ensure
equal genetic
contribution
of females to
the formation
of selectively
bred disease
resistant-fast
growing oyster
lines. Photo
courtesy of
VIMS ABC.
Summer 2013
Plankton
Salinity
The salinity of the water at your site will influence the
growth rate of your oysters and whether they may become
exposed to oyster-specific diseases. Salinity is measured in
grams of salt per liter of water, or parts per thousand (ppt or
). Oysters require a salinity of at least 8 ppt to grow and
oyster growth increases with increased salinity. Below 10
ppt salinity oyster growth rates are generally reduced; some
oysters show intermediate growth rates at salinities between
1020 ppt and highest growth rates at high salinities >20
ppt. You can test your water salinity using a simple device
known as a hydrometer. Hydrometers may be found easily at
pet stores that sell saltwater fish or online. The map on the
opposite page shows the general areas of salinity in Tidewater
Virginia. It is a good idea to keep records of the salinity at
different times of the year, under varying environmental
conditions (for example, after a rainfall), and at different tidal
cycles. Also keep in mind that as sea level rises, high salinity
waters will move up the Bay and tributaries.
Water depth
For two reasons your site must have a minimum water
depth of one foot, even at the lowest tide:1) oysters can only
filter water and grow when they are submerged - so they will
grow faster if they are always under water; 2) in the winter,
when tides and winds may cause oysters to be exposed,
they may freeze. Oysters can be frozen solid in the water
and survive, but they can die if exposed to sub-freezing air
temperatures.
Dissolved oxygen
Oysters need water with dissolved oxygen levels of at
least 3.2 milligrams per liter, but 5.5 mg/l or more is best for
survival and growth. Colder water can hold more oxygen
than warmer water. That is why anoxia events (low oxygen
Summer 2013
Taylor float
10
Cages
Bottom racks
or cages are
useful in places
where the bottom
is hard and wave
action is too great
for surface floats.
They may also
be preferred in
Photo by Preston Philyaw.
shallow
waters
where aesthetics are a consideration and you dont want the
oyster garden to be visible. These cages are commercially
available or may be constructed. They sit on feet that are a
few inches high and must have a lid to protect oysters from
predators. These cages full of adult oysters can be quite
heavy, and this should be kept in mind when purchasing or
building them. It is also critical that the oysters be kept up in
the water and out of the mud if they are to survive and grow.
Photos courtesy
of TOGA.
Mesh bags
A less expensive oyster garden, illustrated in the photo
above, consists of ADPI marine plastic mesh bags, each
containing about 150 oysters. The bags are kept afloat by
four, empty, one-liter soda bottles. Multiple bags are lined
up with a rope running through the middle of each bag and
attached at each end to a piling or stake. Running a rope
through the middle of the bags allows them to be flipped end
to end every week or so, to help keep them clean. Fouling
organisms tend to grow on the bottom side, so when the bags
are flipped, that side is exposed to sun and air which will kill
off most of the fouling organisms.
Gardeners in locations where the water may freeze in
winter may not want to use this method. Be aware that
sinking the bags by filling the bottles with water to keep them
below the ice will kill any oysters that end up buried in mud.
The mesh bags may also be placed on racks constructed
of steel reinforcing bar (rebar). This rack and bag method
involves securing bags with oysters onto racks that extend
1 2 feet above the bottom. Bags may be purchased from
commercial suppliers or made with 1/8, 3/16, and 5/8 mesh
size openings. The bags can be closed with four inch cable
ties, using a combination of stainless steel hog rings and
cable ties, or sliding a piece of slit PVC pipe over the end and
securing it with cable ties.
Gardeners have
devised ways
of lifting floats
up to the dock
for cleaning and
maintenance.
Small cranes,
boat lifts, even
jet-ski lifts may be
adapted for this
purpose. Photo
courtesy of TOGA.
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Summer 2013
12
Telephone numbers:
Home (____) ___________
Work (____) ___________
Other structures:
6.
7. If you answered NO to question 6 (A) above, will they be located in the waters immediately opposite your
shoreline? Describe how will the structures be secured.
Note: If new pilings are required to secure the structures, a standard permit may be required. Please call VMRC
for details at (757) 247-2252.
Virginia General Permit #3 Application Form
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Summer 2013
8. What is the Health Department's current classification of the growing waters at the project site?
Open for direct harvesting, Seasonally closed, Permanently closed, or Uncertain. (Circle one)
9. Please provide the following required drawings:
A. Vicinity Map - Use a map to depict the exact location of the project site. Please indicate the name of the map
used. USGS quadrangle maps, street maps, or county maps are preferred.
B. Plan View Drawing - This drawing must depict the proposed structures as if viewed from above. The drawing
must include, a north arrow, the waterway name, the location of mean high water and mean low water, the location of
any submerged aquatic vegetation at the site, the width of the waterway, the direction of ebb and flood of the tide, your
property lines and shoreline, the opposite shoreline if the waterway is less than 500 feet wide, the depth of water at the
project site, and the location of the existing navigation channel. A recent plat of the property, if available, provides a
good scaled template for the plan view drawing.
C. Cross Sectional Drawing - The cross sectional drawing must show the dimensions of the proposed structures as
viewed from the side. It should include the depth of the water and any structures which will be used secure the floats
or cages. If the application is for floats which will be secured to your existing pier, a cross sectional drawing will not be
required.
ALL APPLICANTS MUST SIGN
I hereby apply for all necessary permits for the activities described herein. I agree to allow the duly authorized
representatives of any regulatory or advisory agency to enter upon the premises of the project site at reasonable times to
inspect and photograph site conditions.
I hereby certify that the information submitted in this application is true and accurate to the best of my knowledge.
APPLICANT'S SIGNATURE
DATE
IF DIFFERENT FROM APPLICANT:
PROPERTY OWNER'S SIGNATURE
DATE
Please mail your completed "Oyster Gardening" permit application to:
Virginia Marine Resources Commission
Habitat Management Division
2600 Washington Avenue, 3rd Floor
Newport News, Virginia 23607-0756
Thank You!
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
14
15
Summer 2013
Set up
Most people find setting up and maintaining an oyster
garden quite easy and enjoyable. By setting up your oysters
in containment systems suspended above the bottom, both
the quantity and quality of the food available to the oyster is
improved and youve generally made life easier for them.
Maintain
Maintaining an oyster garden is a little like caring for
a vegetable garden, although many find it easier. But like
vegetable gardening, its a good idea to stay on top of things
and check on your oysters regularly.
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
16
To eat or to donate?
With luck and a Blue Thumb, you should have oysters
ready for harvest within about 12-18 months. Of course, like
any form of gardening, you should expect some mortality and
will probably not be able to grow all of the seed you purchased
to the peak, 2 - 3 inch size. Large oysters should be moved
to separate containment systems so that any remaining,
smaller oysters will have less competition for food.
Below are some considerations to guide you whether you
choose to eat your oysters, donate them to a sanctuary reef,
or simply release them to public waters. No matter what your
choice, you can be proud of your accomplishment in raising
your oysters and providing a small cleaning service to
Virginias coastal waters and housing service to other small
marine creatures needing places to feed, hide and nest.
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Fried oysters with caper sauce made with oysters from Jeff
and Marianne Donahue's oyster garden. Photo by Laura
McKay.
Summer 2013
George Miller working with oysters from his oyster garden on Nanci
Reeves' dock. The Millers work cooperatively with the Reeves on
their oyster gardens. Photo by Maryethel Miller.
- Ted Ellett
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
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Mark Mikuta displaying some of his oysters from his float (on the
right). Photo by Sherry Mikuta
- Mark Mikuta
We put all the shell back in the water and now after
all these years, were getting some spatfall on the shell
and some of the oysters out there are now 5 years old.
The river otters have been enjoying them too they
get the wild ones and then use our Taylor floats as their
dining table. We know because they dont clear the
dishes after they eat!
- The Donahue Family
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Summer 2013
Some of Julian
Coxs brood stock
naturals (wild
oysters) kept in
cages hanging
from his dock.
Photo by Brian
Lockwood.
One of the numerous
clumps of oysters
present on the oyster
reef along the shore
line of Lyons Creek.
The oyster reef
supports a diverse and
abundant population of
marine life. Photo by
Brian Lockwood.
Many large oysters, from 4 to 6 inches in length observed growing on the sloped
shoreline oyster reef along Lyons Creek indicate a healthy oyster population. This
oyster reef was likely populated with progeny from some of Julian Cox's brood
stock oysters grown through oyster gardening. Photo by Brian Lockwood.
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
20
"My
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Summer 2013
Clam Worm
This harmless
polychaete worm
(Nereis succinea)
is often seen
crawling on top of
cultured oysters.
It is 1 - 3 cm (1/2
- 1 inch) in length
and looks similar
to a centipede.
Grass Shrimp
Periwinkle Snails
This shrimp
(Paleomonetes pugio
and P. vulgaris) is the
most common organism
associated with oyster
floats and does not
pose a threat to oysters.
They are primarily
detritivores and feed on
decaying animal or plant
material.
This snail (Littorina
littorea) climbs up
and down salt marsh
grasses, where it
feeds on small fouling
organisms. Adding a
dozen or so periwinkles
to your oyster garden
will help keep it clean.
Hermit Crabs
Small, 1-2 cm
(about 1/2 - 1
inch), hermit
crabs (genus
Pagurus) are
no threat to
oysters and can
help keep your
garden clean of
fouling organisms that obstruct water flow. Larger hermit
crabs are capable of eating smaller oysters.
Mud Crab
Several species
of mud crabs
(Panopeous
and related
genera) are very
common to the
oyster garden.
This small
crab may feed
on your small
oysters but is also in search of other prey such as Hermit
crabs and Periwinkle snails.
Photo credits: Clam Worm & Pea Crab courtesy of Southeastern Regional Taxonomic Center/South Carolina Department of Natural Resources; Grass Shrimp courtesy of
NOAA; Hermit Crabs, Striped Blennie, Barnacles & Mussels by Tim George, Virginia Aquarium and Marine Science Center; Sea Squirt courtesy of Melissa Frey, Royal BC
Museum, Canada; Periwinkle Snail by Virginia Witmer; Mud Crab by K. Hill, Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce, FL; Blue Crab courtesy of Virginia Tidewater Oyster
Gardeners Association; Boring Sponge, Mud Blister Worm and Flatworm courtesy of Virginia Institute of Marine Science.
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Competitors...
Mussels
Barnacles
These hard-shelled
crustaceans that attach
in large numbers
can compete with
oysters for space and
food. Barnacles can
be eliminated by air
exposure if identified
early enough, but large individuals must be physically
removed with a scraper. Careful! Barnacles are very sharp.
Sea Squirts
Sea Squirts or Grapes (Molgula manhattensis) are commonly found in higher salinity
waters and may be controlled by scraping or aerial exposure for 1-2 hours.
Predators...
Boring Sponge
Blue Crab
(Callinectes sapidus)
a voracious oyster
predator, may settle in
your garden mid to late
summer, growing rapidly
to a size capable of
consuming your oysters.
Regularly inspect floats
and bags and remove
any crabs.
Flatworms
(Stylocus
ellipticus) prey
on small oysters
in late spring or
early summer.
No larger than 25
mm, this worm is
green, yellowish
brown, or
salmon colored.
Flatworms can
be devastating to a young oyster garden. The preferred
treatment for flatworm is a brine dip. See page 16 for details.
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Summer 2013
Oyster Restoration
Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program - www.deq.virginia.gov/Programs/CoastalZoneManagement/
CZMIssuesInitiatives/Oysters.aspx
Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) Molluscan Ecology - web.vims.edu/mollusc/index.htm
The Virginia Oyster Reef Restoration Map Atlas - web.vims.edu/mollusc/oyrestatlas/
VIMS Oyster Monitoring Program - www.vims.edu/molluscan_ecology/monitoring
NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office - chesapeakebay.noaa.gov/oysters/oyster-restoration
Chesapeake Bay Program - www.chesapeakebay.net/issues/issue/oysters
Teacher Resources
Virginia Institute of Marine Science Advisory Services - www.vims.edu/map/education
Oyster Anatomy Laboratory - www.mdsg.umd.edu/issues/chesapeake/oysters/education/anatlab/
Bivalve Anatomy - www.assateague.com/nt-bival.html
TOGA School Resource - www.oystergardener.org/#!education/c1l7
Virginia Aquaculture
Virginia Aquaculture Association - www.virginiaaquaculture.org
East Coast Shellfish Growers - www.ecsga.org
Eating Oysters
Virginia Marine Products Board - www.virginiaseafood.org/the_trade/foodservice/recipe.htm (Great Recipes!)
How to prepare and open oysters - a quick web search - "opening oysters" - yields videos and by-step instructions
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
24
Permits
Extension Support
Water Quality
Lynnhaven Now
Laurie Sorabella, (757) 962-5398, Laurie@LRNow.org
www.lynnhavenrivernow.org
Mailing Addresses
Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program
629 East Main Street
Richmond, Virginia 23219
Aquaculture Information
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Summer 2013
www.deq.virginia.gov/Programs/CoastalZoneManagement/
CZMIssuesInitiatives/Oysters/Gardening.aspx
Virginia Oyster Gardening Guide
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