BRIDGING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE:

ICT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

IN NIGERIA

Kristen Quan
AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
Senior Capstone / Global Innovation without Frontiers

Table of Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................... 2
Introduction ......................................................................................... 3
Why Nigeria? ........................................................................................ 4

Literature Review .................................................................................. 6

Organizational Assessment & Gap Analysis............................................. 9
Innovation Strategy ............................................................................. 12
Recommendations and Conclusion ...................................................... 14
Bibliography ....................................................................................... 16
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my fellow classmates and of course Professor Shalini Venturelli
for their invaluable support, constructive criticism, and insight through the course of
this semester.

Executive Summary
As the world becomes more connected by technology, countries that are unable to
deploy information and communication technologies face a disadvantage. The focus on
development has focused mainly on infrastructurebut infrastructure is useless without the
human capacity to use it. The next stop in ICT for development initiatives is to drive
economic growth by developing the people who can exploit it.
Nigeria has the potential to become a powerhouse in Africa and an industry
competitor in the world if it can properly leverage ICT. Nigeria has a positive orientation
towards education and a large youth population, but lacks the capacity to provide adequately
resourced public schools. With a lack of facilities, trained instructors, and appropriate
curriculum, higher education institutions will not be able to impart the skills necessary to
enter the job market. This would hurt the economy as a whole.
Public-private partnerships are used when the private sector can provide a public good
better than the public sector can. In this case, ICT firms are in a significantly better position
to provide ICT skills training in tertiary institutions. As many firms find they need to train
new hires, bringing practical, real-time training into higher education would cut out the
middle ground. The public-private partnership truly identifies the main stakeholders in the
ICT economy. Furthermore, it closes the gap between skills demanded and skills supplied in
a way that can create beneficial spillover effects. To maximize the benefits of all parties, this
paper makes the following key recommendations:

Incentivize the private sector to participate by creating a business friendly

environment and acknowledge the private sector as a major stakeholder

Coordinate curriculum in higher education institutions between small and medium

enterprises to maximize connection between community and business

Hire ICT professionals to lecture and teach courses to develop industry-relevant skills

Create working relationships between institutions and the private sector

Streamline the education-to-employment process

Monitor programs success through periodic assessments and benchmarks

Introduction
Information and communication technologies are universally recognized as an
essential pillar of economic development. For developing countries especially, ICT offers the
potential for countries to create jobs, reduce poverty, and become competitive in the global
market. However, many developing countries face significant barriers to a widespread
adoption of ICT including lack of infrastructure, political control, costs of services and
devices, and technological illiteracy.1 Combinations of these factors mean the benefits of
technology like the Internet are not easily realized and preclude an economically prosperous
ICT sector.
The term digital divide refers to the unequal access to information and
communication technologies, the effect of the level of access on development indicators, and
the potential to exacerbate existing social inequalities.2 The digital divide can occur in many
contexts; at a global level, infrastructural capacities advantages certain regions over others.
This is undoubtedly the case for the continent of Africa, where ICT indicators such as
broadband subscriptions and internet penetration is lower than the rest of the world. It can
also occur at a micro level, where a technologically literate person holds an advantage over a
technologically illiterate person.
ICT for development has become a specific priority for African countries. Presenting
Nigerias development goals for 2020, in 2010 Nigerian president Goodluck Jonathan said,

Paul Zwillenberg, Dominic Field and David Dean, The Connected World: Greasing the Wheels of the
Internet Economy, Boston Consulting Group (January 2014): 10. Report.
2
Stale Angen Rye, Exploring the gap of the digital divide: Conditions of connectivity and higher education
participation, GeoJournal 71, no. 2/3 (2008): 171.
1

The role of ICT in the sustainability of development cannot be over emphasis [sic] in the
need to breach the gap between Nigeria and other developed countries of the world.3
For India and China, the export of ICT goods and services has contributed to their
powerhouse status within the industry today. Clearly, the ICT sectorwhich encompasses
everything from software and hardware engineering to e-commerce and web development
has the ability to leverage to existing resources. This paper will focus on the lower middleincome country of Nigeria and develop strategies for closing the digital divide through
investment in ICT skills education and traininginvestment in the people who drive their
own development. As one of the largest and most influential international development
agencies, the World Bank is in an excellent position to coordinate education initiatives
between the private and public sectors to drive economic growth.

Why Nigeria?
Nigeria is a strategic choice because of its over 173 million person population of
which over half are under 24 years of age.4 A 2011 census report by the National Bureau of
Statistics estimated an unemployment rate of 23.9%, although many have alleged that the
NBS had reported the rate much lower than it actually is.5 Nigeria faces additional challenges
that hinder growth. The economy heavily relies on its oil reserves; 95% of its exports are
petroleum or petroleum products.6 This dependency on oil revenues has failed to create a
diverse economy and Nigeria relies on imports for its needs.

Joshua Uma, Nigeria: FG Launches Vision 2020 ICT Blueprint, AllAfrica.com.

http://allafrica.com/stories/201005190692.html. Web.
4
CIA World Factbook 2014.
5
Isi Esene, Northern states top Nigerias jobless list according to figures released by NBS, YNaija.
http://ynaija.com/northern-states-top-nigerias-jobless-list-according-to-figures-released-by-nbs/. Web.
6
CIA World Factbook 2014.
3

Information and communication technologies offer the opportunity to diversify the

economy through job creation. Table 1 shows that Nigeria fares poorly compared to the rest
of the countries in their income bracket in terms of its ITC exports.7 These numbers do not
reflect the potential for growth; the World Banks Little Data Book on Information and
Communication Technology
Nigeria
(2012)

Lower Middle
Income Countries
(2012)

ICT Goods Exports

(% of total goods
exports)

4.6

ICT Goods Imports

(% of total goods
imports)

5.5

7.2

ICT Service Exports

(% of total service
exports)

4.4

47.1

2014 also notes that Nigeria has

a higher than average internet
rate and 75.5% of revenue goes
into telecommunications
investment compared to the
20.5% of its bracket.8
Nigerias potential lies

Table 1

in several factors. First, its large population means that there are large economies of scale for
ICT service providers. This is already reflected in Nigerias relatively high connectivity.
Nigeria has five major submarine cables and its own internet exchange point (IXP), which is
essential for improving the speed and lowering the cost of Internet services.9 Secondly, the
fairly high number of universities, colleges, technology institutes as well as the government
oversight of higher education is crucial. Although the government is routinely criticized for
their mismanagement of universities, the student body do want to pursue education for better

Although there is a large spectrum within the lower middle income bracket, two outliers that drive the ICT
services exports average higher are India (65.9%), Papa New Guinea (49.3%), the Philippines (67.3%).
8
Ibid.
9
Robert Schumann and Michael Kende, Lifting barriers to Internet development in Africa: suggestions for
improving connectivity, Analysys Mason (May 2013): 6. Report.

career opportunities. The significance of an existing orientation towards learning and

environment for education can not be understated in terms of human capital development.10
Lastly, Nigerias influential status in the region provides an opportunity for benefits to
spill over to other countries in the region and improve the ICT environment in sub-Saharan
Africa as a whole. There are undoubtedly skilled, trained Nigerian ICT professionals but the
absence of a healthy industry means that better opportunities present elsewhere, resulting in
brain drain.

Literature Review
Many different government and nongovernment organizations tackle issues of
technology access and usage in Nigeria. For the purposes of this paper, I will focus on the
efforts that have gone into developing employable technological skills in Nigeria through
these organizations.
Nigerias Federal Ministry of Education features an Information and Communication
Technology department responsible for deploying ICT in education as well as a Science and
Technology Education department that coordinates various technical and vocational
education and training (TVET) programs. The 10 Year Federal Education Plan was published
in 2007 and noted the strengths and weaknesses of its existing tertiary institutions. It
acknowledged the need for greater access to tertiary institutions, proposing the creation of
Innovation Enterprise Institutions and Vocational Institutions in partnership with the private
sector to reflect industry practice and technological innovation, enrolling over 300,000
students a year over the next 2 years.11 Since 2007, the National Board for Technical

10

Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress, Oxford University Press
(1990).
11
10 Year Strategic Plan, Federal Ministry of Education (March 5, 2007): 21.

Education (NBTE) has certified 110 tertiary technical institutions and 159 technical colleges
in order to alleviate the capacity problems of the universities and accommodate the influx of
secondary school graduates.12
These tertiary institutions begin to address a problem within Nigerias university
system that Dr. Mani Ahmed complains is elitist, theoretical and lacks the necessary
teachers, equipment and materials necessary.13 He states, The critical challenges facing
Nigerias STM system include non-commercialization of successful research results, nondemand driven STM activities, low value addition to industrial goods and services, lack of
linkages between the Research Institutes and Private Sector.14 His analysis of the state of
ICT within tertiary educations confirms the overarching theme that the outputs of universities
do not align with the needs of employers.
In recent decades, efforts to engage the private sector as stakeholders in Nigerias
employment have increased. In order to increase usage of internet services, the government
partnered with Microsoft, Intel and local computer manufacturers Zinox, Omatek, Brian, and
Beta Computers to confront the accessibility problem of unaffordable devices. The 2006
initiative, called a Computer for all Nigerians (CANi), was a Government Assisted PC
Purchase Program (GAPP) that facilitated cheaper devices and financial options for
Nigerians. In addition to creating greater computer literacy among the population, these
initiatives would hopefully drive the domestic software development industry.15

National Board for Technological Education, Vocational Enterprise Institutions (VEIs) and Innovation
Enterprise Institutions (IEIs), National Board for Technological Education.
http://www.nbte.gov.ng/iei&vei.html (accessed November 3, 2014).
13
Mani Ahmed, Restructuring Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for Skills Development and
Acquisition in Nigeria, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (JHSS) 4, no. 2 (Nov-Dec 2012): 36.
14
Ibid 32.
15
Bridging the Digital Divide in Nigeria, Intel. White Paper. 4.
12

In a different approach, Cisco has worked with the National Informaton Technology
Development Agency (NITDA) to develop the human capacity for ICT through creating
Cisco Networking Academies, which offers training in networks and a Cisco certification
upon completion. Dare Ogunlade, the executive in charge of Nigeria and surrounding
countries, stated that the program features 10,000 students enrolled across Nigeria, 160
instructors and 130 academies with 44 percent of the student as females.16 Ogunlade also
expressed the need to expand education programs to regions outside Lagos, especially in the
economically disadvantaged northern region. Cisco has partnered with NGOs such as the
Clinton Global Initiative to build 15 Community Knowledge Centers which offer the
Networking Academy programs in underserved rural areas.17 These programs are not free
from criticismcertified graduates of the program still complain about the lack of
employment opportunities due to lack of demand for the networking expertise as well as the
job industry in general18but are a step in the right direction in creating symbiotically
beneficial relationships between employers and the labor market.
The private sector has created programs that the government does not have the
resources to provide, but the government is still a main actor due to the university system in
Nigeria. A study on graduate employment recommended that government intensify efforts at
advertising jobs vacancies, create employment awareness, job matching, training of teachers
and lecturers in vocational sections, conducting seminars, workshops, and conferences.19
The World Bank further states, Governments have a critical role to play in ensuring that the

Adeyemi Adepetun, Nigeria: Cisco's Partnership With Govt is to Deepen ICT Penetration, The Guardian
(November 19, 2014). http://allafrica.com/stories/201411190424.html. Web.
17
Osei Tutu Agyeman, ICT for Education in Nigeria, Survey of ICT Education in Africa. InfoDev (June
2007): 9.
18
Cisco Jobs in Nigeria, Nairaland. http://www.nairaland.com/910470/cisco-jobs-nigeria. Web.
19
Adesina Odufowokan, Information and communication technology (ICT) and graduate unemployment in
Nigeria: the 21st century challenges, International Journal of Creativity and Technical Development 2, no. 1-3
(Dec 2010): 81.
16

education curricula at the secondary, tertiary, and vocational levels properly reflect the needs
of the emerging digital economy.20 Therefore the use of public-private partnerships, a
collaboration between the government and private sector, would utilize the expertise of
multiple stakeholders and create a broad base for the ICT industry in Nigeria.

Organizational Assessment & Gap Analysis

The World Banks 2012-2015 ICT strategy for Africa cites the needs to develop the
local IT-based services industry, and initiate programs in countries to align local ICT skills
development to industry requirements and explore how ICT skills development can be
integrated in forthcoming projects on African regional centers of excellence in higher
education.21 The organization also acknowledges the exponential benefits of a strong
domestic workforce, stating, The strong presence of skilled software professionals and
entrepreneurs has significantly helped [India and Kenya] lead in producing relevant and highquality development-focused application services.22
In the ICT sector, the World Bank has coordinated major regional communications
infrastructure programs (RCIPs) with the goal of increasing access to mobile and broadband
connections and reducing the costs. One of the largest programs was the EASSy submarine
fiber optic system that ran along the eastern coast from South Africa to Sudan. The program,
which started in 2007, exemplified the World Banks abilities in coordinating funding
between the International Finance Corporation (IFC), development partners such as the
African Development Bank, and significant regional private investors.23 In its 2013 results

20

Information and Communications for Development 2012: Maximizing Mobile, World Bank Group (2012): 41.
ICT for Greater Development Impact: World Bank Group Strategy for Information and Communication
Technology 2012-2015, World Bank Group (June 15, 2012).
22
Maximizing Mobile, 41.
23
Connecting Eastern and Southern Africa: Installing a Regional Broadband Network for Efficient Internet and
Telecommunications, World Bank (March 29, 2013).
21

report on ICT, it estimated that since 2007 it had been successful in raising $30 billion in
private investment for mobile infrastructure alone.24 These infrastructure projects have seen
visible results through increased rates of internet penetration and lower costs of service.
However, the nature of ICT infrastructure means that returns on investment depend on the
number of users the mobile and broadband networks can reach. It would therefore to be
advantageous to devise strategies that enable more people to use the ICT infrastructure.

Infrastructure

Industry
ICT
Economy

Individual
Figure 1

The World Banks activity in this area has been limited. Skills development has been
relatively limited to components of larger programs as seen in the Nigeria Youth
Unemployment and Social Support Operation or targeting specific age groups as seen in the
Lagos Eko Secondary School Project. The Assessment for Core Competency for
Employability in Services Sector, or ACCESS, program most directly addresses the issues of
ICT skills and human capital development. Implemented in 2011, ACCESS is a 10-week
training program with the collaboration of private sector actors including Aon Hewitt, an

http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/03/29/connecting-eastern-and-southern-africa-installing-a-regionalbroadband-network-for-efficient-internet-and-telecommunications. Web.
24
Information and Communication Technologies: Results Profile. World Bank (April 13, 2013).
http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/13/ict-results-profile. Web.

10

Indian talent development firm and the Outsourcing Development Initiative of Nigeria
(ODIN).25 The program commenced with a national job fair held in Lagos and attended by
Nigerian and international businesses. Another component of the ACCESS program is the
ACCESS Nigeria Job Information Management System (ANJIMS), an employment portal
that connects employers and ACCESS graduates.
Although the program was based on ICT skills gap assessments, many applicants still
felt dissatisfied through the program. Some criticized the training process, noting that the
instruction was noticeably better through the Aon Hewitt instructors. Others expressed
dissatisfaction with the curriculum itself, stating that they were taught time management,
spoken English and microsoft office [sic].26 Still, some defended the business process
outsourcing (BPO) curriculum, saying those components are essential to BPO and still
valuable in the industry. Complaints were additionally aimed at the job fair, which was open
to both ACCESS and non-ACCESS participants. The consensus was that it was a waste of
time: For them to only throw us among people who had masters degree and years of
experience at an open job fair. I can go on and on one participant said.27
The feedback from the program offers many insights into what was successful and
what was not. One of the points of contention was the fact that the ACCESS program was a
complement to university education. It was held in five major universities, but students from
other universities were responsible for transportation to the programs as well as to the job fair
in the capital city. Thus, it required extra effort in addition to regular studies. Although the

The Access Nigeria Project: Role of ODIN, Outsourcing Development Initiative of Nigeria (November 29,
2011). http://www.odin.org.ng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56:the-access-nigeria-projectrole-of-odin&catid=31:publications&Itemid=46. Web.
26
World Bank Access Nigeria Program: Worth the Effort? Nairaland.
http://www.nairaland.com/1047942/world-bank-access-nigeria-program. Web.
27
Ibid. Note: These statements were made on an online Nigerian forum, NOT an official publication. Statements
are candid but in no way representative of all viewpoints.
25

11

private sector was represented by major companies from the IT, BPO, media and
broadcasting, and banking sectors, these companies require practical experience in addition to
the skills learned through the ACCESS program, indicating that the pre-program assessments
were not specific enough to create immediate results. Furthermore, the program may have
increased employability but did nothing to encourage innovation and entrepreneurship, or in
other words, job creation.

Innovation Strategy
The public-private partnership model aligns with the World Banks dedication to
fostering private sector engagement and investment in the public sector. It has used this
cooperation for infrastructure ventures and ought to apply this approach to the education
sector in tertiary education institutions to maximize the participation of stakeholders.
Adewolo Thomas describes this as people and organization (private business, individuals,
non-governmental agencies) [combining] to engage in mutually beneficial, innovative
relationship to address common aims.28
The private sector must engage meaningfully in tertiary education institutions;
contributions need to be more than simply providing facilities, resources, and other material
donations. The university should work directly with ICT industry professionals to develop
and teach curriculum relevant to ICT industry demands. This would include industry-specific
skills and practical training. Ideally, this would foster an environment where practitioners
become educators and share their real-time knowledge of the industry. As ICT firms are

O.A. Thomas and A.S. Thomas, Public Private Partnership and Management of Higher Education in
Nigeria, Lagos State Public Service Staff Development Centre (2012): 4.
28

12

tasked with constantly adapting to the new environment, up-to-date knowledge is key to
instilling the future labor force with employable skills.
The governments role would be to provide the financial incentive for ICT
professionals to incorporate education into their career. Alternatively, the universities may
appeal to corporate social responsibility and raise their stake in Nigerias technology
institutes and other higher education institutions. Additional ways to encourage private sector
involvement is through creating an enabling environment for business; in addition to policy
coordination between Nigerias ministries, there should also be frequent consultation from all
parties regarding technology transfer and intellectual property policy for research conducted
in universities.
ICT skills are not one-size-fits-all. As seen in Ciscos programs, networking skills are
different from software development skills which are different from web development skills.
To achieve cohesiveness for the job market, tertiary institutions should organize their courses
so that they fall under distinct ICT disciplines including computer engineering, software
engineering, computer science, information systems, and information technology.29 Students
in tertiary institutions will understandably differ along their predisposition to certain sectors
within the industry and would benefit from the exposure to the different professionals in the
industry. If ICT instructors cannot be procured, there should be at minimum a speaker
series or visiting lecturers integrated into the courses.
This innovation strategy relies heavily on incorporating micro, small, and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs) because of their potentially more meaningful participation in
public-private partnerships. As stakeholders in the program, there would be more direct

Christian A. Bolu, The Role of Higher Education Institutions in the Development of ICT Professionals for
Innovation in Nigeria, International Journal of Engineering Innovation and Research 3, no. 1 (2014): 3.
29

13

contact and communications between institutions and the instructors, not to mention between
instructors and students. Furthermore, students themselves will gain a better appreciation for
the businesses within their community and have a better understanding of how they operate
and perhaps ways to improve.
By observing small and medium enterprises at work instead of large, multinational
corporations, students will learn the skills of innovation and entrepreneurship rather than
simply working under a chain of command. There has been a tendency to emphasize
microwork and small service tasks; it needs to be balanced by championing innovation and
creativity. This is essential to fostering a home-grown ICT industry and vibrant Internet
ecosystem. As seen in the explosion of mobile technology and applications, technological
solutions are confronting real-world problems. The result is ICT having the ability to touch
and revolutionize issues in other sectors, such as agriculture, governance, and medicine. The
World Bank should attempt to create a broad but diverse base of partnerships with regional
SMEs and proximate universities supported by policies that encourage innovation.

Recommendations and Conclusion

The innovation strategy for public-private partnerships for tertiary institutions are
distilled into the following key recommendations:
Incentivize the private sector to participate

Create government subsidies or tax breaks to companies that participate in the venture

Promote programs ability to teach and recruit potential future employees

Consult stakeholders to create favorable technology transfer policies to develop

research centers within institutions

Co-investment in upgrading facilities, purchasing computers, acquiring software,

developing ICT parks and smart cities
14

Coordinate curriculum between SMEs and education system

ICT professionals either conduct classes over the entire term or guest lecture in upperlevel courses

Examine the job market as a whole; concentrate skills development to meet the
specific demands of employers

Constant communication between higher education institutions and private sector

from building curriculum to implementation in class is crucial

Foster a smoother education-to-employment route

Build relationship between student and employers through on-site tours, internship
programs (possibly through government funding), and job fairs directed towards
undergraduates

Create a job portal that can be accessed by all students of public tertiary education
institutions

Peer-to-peer career advising

Create benchmarking processes and standards

The private sector should set performance benchmarks but the public sector should
oversee the education standards
The above recommendations provide a base for the World Bank to target their ICT for

development initiatives through a practical, demands-driven approach. Human capacity to

leverage technology, not infrastructural capacity, is what truly shapes the digital divide. True
connectivity results from developing the people that utilize ICT, not ICT itself.

15

Bibliography
10 Year Strategic Plan, Federal Ministry of Education. March 5, 2007.
Bridging the Digital Divide in Nigeria, Intel. White Paper.
Cisco Jobs in Nigeria, Nairaland. http://www.nairaland.com/910470/cisco-jobs-nigeria.
Connecting Eastern and Southern Africa: Installing a Regional Broadband Network for
Efficient Internet and Telecommunications, World Bank. March 29, 2013.
http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/03/29/connecting-eastern-and-southernafrica-installing-a-regional-broadband-network-for-efficient-internet-andtelecommunications.
ICT for Greater Development Impact: World Bank Group Strategy for Information and
Communication Technology 2012-2015, World Bank Group. June 15, 2012.
Information and Communication Technologies: Results Profile. World Bank April 13,
2013. http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/13/ict-results-profile.
The Access Nigeria Project: Role of ODIN, Outsourcing Development Initiative of
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http://www.odin.org.ng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56:theaccess-nigeria-project-role-of-odin&catid=31:publications&Itemid=46.
World Bank Access Nigeria Program: Worth the Effort? Nairaland.
http://www.nairaland.com/1047942/world-bank-access-nigeria-program.
Ahmed, Mani. Restructuring Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for Skills
Development and Acquisition in Nigeria. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social
Science (JHSS) 4, no. 2. November/December 2012. 31-36.
Adepetun, Adeyemi. Nigeria: Cisco's Partnership With Govt is to Deepen ICT
Penetration. The Guardian. November 19, 2014.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201411190424.html.
Agyeman, Osei Tutu. ICT for Education in Nigeria. Survey of ICT Education in Africa.
InfoDev. June 2007.
Bolu, Christian A. The Role of Higher Education Institutions in the Development of ICT
Professionals for Innovation in Nigeria, International Journal of Engineering
Innovation and Research 3, no. 1. 2014.
CIA World Factbook 2014.
Esene, Isi. Northern states top Nigerias jobless list according to figures released by NBS.
YNaija. http://ynaija.com/northern-states-top-nigerias-jobless-list-according-tofigures-released-by-nbs.
Information and Communications for Development 2012: Maximizing Mobile, World Bank
Group. 2012.

16

Mokyr, Joel. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford
University Press. 1990.
National Board for Technological Education, Vocational Enterprise Institutions (VEIs) and
Innovation Enterprise Institutions (IEIs). National Board for Technological
Education. http://www.nbte.gov.ng/iei&vei.html.
Odufowokan, Adesina. Information and communication technology (ICT) and graduate
unemployment in Nigeria: the 21st century challenges. International Journal of
Creativity and Technical Development 2, no. 1-3. December 2010. 76-82.
Rye, Stale Angen. Exploring the gap of the digital divide: Conditions of connectivity and
higher education participation, GeoJournal 71, no. 2/3. 2008. 171-184.
Schumann, Robert and Michael Kende. Lifting barriers to Internet development in Africa:
suggestions for improving connectivity. Analysys Mason. May 2013.
Thomas, O.A. and A.S. Thomas, Public Private Partnership and Management of Higher
Education in Nigeria. Lagos State Public Service Staff Development Centre. 2012.
Uma, Joshua. Nigeria: FG Launches Vision 2020 ICT Blueprint, AllAfrica.com.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201005190692.html.
Zwillenberg, Paul, Dominic Field and David Dean. The Connected World: Greasing the
Wheels of the Internet Economy. Boston Consulting Group. January 2014.

17