Fractal Physics Theory

Fundamental J. Modern Physics, Vol.
2, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 23-72

Published online at http://www.frdint.com/
FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND THE

STRONG FORCE
LEONARD J. MALINOWSKI
BASF Dispersions and Resins
Monaca, Pennsylvania
USA
Abstract
This fourth article, in a series of five, intends to demonstrate the value of
applying Fractal Physics Theory to further understanding of nucleon
structure and nucleon interactions. An ideal neutron is assumed, as a
limiting case, to be composed of 100% subquantum scale Hydrogen
atoms. With this assumption and identifying the pre-solar system mass
with the mass of a cosmic scale neutron, it appears possible to derive the
masses of all the nucleons. The strong nuclear force is discussed by
introducing subquantum scale fusion, lilliputian scale electromagnetic
forces, and lilliputian scale gravity.
1. Introduction
The first three articles of the Fractal Physics Theory series provide essential
background information [1, 2, 3]. The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy
released when individual protons and neutrons are brought together to form a
nucleus. This article proposes the strong nuclear force is a combination of internucleon interactions and intra-nucleon interactions (Figure 1). The inter-nucleon
interactions involve lilliputian scale (ls) gravitational attraction, the reducing effects
of the intervening neutrons ls-dielectric on proton-proton Coulomb repulsion and a
variety of ls-electromagnetic attractions induced by a proton on adjacent neutrons,
two of which are examined. First, if subquantum scale (sqs) conduction metals exist
Keywords and phrases : fractals, lilliputian gravity, nucleons, strong force.
Received April 4, 2011
2011 Fundamental Research and Development International
24
in the neutron, then a net ls-Coulombic attraction will occur between a neutron and a
proton. The electric field of the proton will attract any sqs-conduction electrons
present while repelling their associated sqs-conduction lattice ions. Second, the
electric field of the proton will induce sqs-electric dipoles in any non polar sqs-atoms
comprising the neutron creating a short range attractive force.
The intra-nucleon interactions involve sqs-fusion of the nucleons composite sqsatoms, which results in increasing the sqs-nuclear bonds of the sqs-atomic nuclei
composing the nucleons. Idealized ls-chemical compositions of representative nuclei
are calculated considering the inter-nucleon energies and basic fusion equations with
atomic masses from initial idealized ls-chemical compositions of neutrons and
protons.
Figure 1. Diagram of fractal strong nuclear force.

This article begins with idealized neutron beta decay and idealized ls-chemical
compositions of the neutron, proton, and electron, followed by a brief discussion on
the proposed origin of the muon. Next, the increased strength of gravity at the
lilliputian scale is presented. Finally the lilliputian scale Coulombic interactions are
examined with ls-chemical compositions resulting from sqs-fusion for a few
representative nuclei.
2. Fractal Proton, Neutron and Electron Chemical Compositions
2.1. Cosmic scale neutron beta decay
Most stars appear to be composed primarily of hydrogen. In order to examine
nuclear lilliputian scale chemical compositions, an idealized cosmic scale free
neutron is initially assumed to be composed of 100% Hydrogen. Consider the free
neutron beta decay:
n p + + e + anti e
FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND
25
The mass difference m between reactant and products must equal the energy
liberated by the reaction (Table 1). The mass lost in cosmic scale (cs) neutron beta
decay will be modeled by the mass lost from fusion reactions using the isotopes in
Table 2. Let the cosmic scale neutron be composed of 100% solid phase Hydrogen
atoms of atomic weight 1.007940754 amu. Allow thermonuclear fusion to initiate,
perhaps by continued cosmic ray bombardment of the dark stars surface [2]. Let the
cosmic scale electron be composed of the stable thermonuclear fusion end product
Iron of mass 55.84514562 amu.
Table 1. Summary of idealized compositions of fractal neutrons, protons, and
electrons [1]
Table 2. Elements assumed composing idealized cs-neutrons, cs-protons, and cselectrons [4]
A
H
He
Fe
Mass (amu)
Abundance (%)
Mass (amu)
1.007825032
99.9885
1.007709132
2.014101778
0.0115
0.000231622
3.016029319
0.000134
0.000004041
4.002603254
99.999866
4.002597891
54
53.9396105
5.845
3.15277023
56
55.9349375
91.754
51.32254255
57
56.935394
2.119
1.20646100
58
57.9332756
0.282
0.16337184
Composition (amu)
1.007940754
4.002601932
55.84514562
2.2. Cosmic scale electron

The mass of a cs-electron and the mass of iron are used to calculate the number
of iron atoms composing the cs-electron:
Moles of Iron: (1.083591301 1030 g ) 55.84514562
= 1.940350032 10 28 moles,
26
Atoms of Iron: (1.940350032 10 28 moles ) ( 6.0221415 10 23 )

= 1.168506245 1052 atoms.
The decaying cosmic scale neutron must fuse Hydrogen to form the cs-electrons
Iron: (1.168506245 1052 ) (56) = 6.543634972 1053 Hydrogen atoms fused.
2.3. Cosmic scale proton
Mass of Hydrogen used to form the Iron of the cs-electron:
( 6.543634972 1053 atoms of H ) (1.007940754 )

( 6.0221415 1023 ) (1000)
= 1.095224409 10 27 kg of H consumed by the cs-neutron in forging the cselectron.
Remaining cs-neutron mass after accounting for the cs-electron:
1.992381602 1030 kg 1.095224409 10 27 kg = 1.991286378 1030 kg.

Additional mass that must be radiated by fusion reactions to obtain the cs-proton
mass:
1.991286378 1030 kg 1.989639050 1030 kg = 1.647328000 10 27 kg.

Let the 1.647328 10 27 kg be consumed by the following proton - proton chain:
3H 2 H 2 + 4 He 2
1. p + H + e D + ( e + e + ) + e ,
2. p + H + e D + ( e + e + ) + e ,
3. D + H 3He 2 ,
4. D + H 3He 2 ,
5. 3 He 2 + 3He 2 4 He 2 + H 2 .
The proton - proton chain results in combining four hydrogen atoms into a
helium atom and releasing an amount of energy equivalent to the mass difference:
Initial Hydrogen :
Final Helium :
27
(4) (1.007940754 amu ) = 4.031763016 amu,

4.002601932 amu = 0.029161084 amu,
Mass difference, m :
4.842311318 10 29 kg
= 4.352052374 10 12 J = 27.163376148 MeV.

The # of Helium atoms needed to be fused from Hydrogen to consume the
remaining mass difference between the decaying cs-neutron and the final cs-proton
(1.647328000 10 27 kg ):
1.647328000 1027 kg 4.842311318 1029 kg
= 3.401945666 1055 Helium atoms required.
The cs-proton contains 3.401945666 10 55 Helium atoms with the rest of its
mass attributed to Hydrogen (Table 3).
Mass of Helium in the cs-proton:
( 3.401945666 1055 ) ( 4.002601932 ) ( 0.001) ( 6.0221415 1023 )

= 2.261095043 10 29 kg.
Table 3. Chemical composition of idealized cosmic scale proton
Element
Hydrogen
# of Atoms
Helium
3.401945666 1055
1.053655626 10
Mass (kg)
57
30
% Mass
88.635652
2.261095043 10 29
11.364348
1.98963905 1030
100.000000
1.763529545 10
3. Cosmic Scale Proton Central Pressure and Temperature Estimate

3.1. The pressure and temperature at the Suns center
Pc = 19G ( Sun ,s Mass )2 ( Sun ,s radius )4 ,

G = 6.6742 1011 Nm 2 kg 2 ,
M s = 1.99 1030 kg,
(1)
28
Rs = 6.96 108 m,
Pc = 2.14 1016 Pa .
Pc = nc kTc ,
(2)
mc = mean particle mass at the Suns center is averaged over ions and
electrons,
nc = central density ( mc ) = 150g cm3 1.5 1024 g = 1.0 1032 m 3 ,

k = 1.3806505 10 23 J K ,
Tc = central temperature = 15 106 K.
3.2. The pressure and temperature at a cosmic scale protons center
Let the cosmic scale beta decay of a cs-neutron end with mostly Helium formed
in the core of the cs-proton.
Central pressure,
Pc = 19G (1.98963905 1030 kg )2 ( 3.788566 108 m )4 = 2.4366995 1017 Pa .

Let the central Helium atoms have their two electrons per atom exist in their lsplasma phase. The translational kinetic energies of the two electrons have been
divided amongst the electrons composite sqs-Iron atoms in random directions. Thus,
an ideal sqs-iron plasma gas is formed, contracted in size until the pressure of the
delocalized electrons equal the ambient central pressure.
PV = nRT = 24.587387 eV + 54.417760 eV = 1.265801923 10 17 J,
(3)
Volume = 5.194739535 10 35 m3 ,
radius = 2.314684 10 12 m.
Compare this Helium radius to the Helium shell radius of ~ 1 10 12 m in the
Radon atom.
Helium atomic mass = ( 4.002601932 amu ) (1.66053886 1027 kg amu )
= 6.646476049 1027 kg.
29
The Helium atomic density at the core of the cs-proton
= 1.279462811 108 kg m3 .
Pc = nc kTc ,
mc = 6.646476049 10 27 kg 3 = 2.215492016 1027 kg,
nc = (1.279462811 108 kg m 3 ) mc = 5.775072993 1034 m 3 ,
k = 1.3806505 10 23 J K ,
Tc = 305600 K.
The cosmic scale protons central temperature is 305600 K. The temperature
decreases until 2.725 K
at the cs-protons surface. Cs-protons must be in
thermodynamic equilibrium with the microwave background radiation.
4. Proposed Origin of the Muon

Cosmic scale beta decay of a cs-neutron ends with mostly Helium formed in the
core of the cs-proton, based on the atomic densities in Table 4.
Table 4. Densities of Hydrogen and Helium atoms [4]

Element
Radius (meters)
Mass (amu)
Density ( kg m 3 )
Hydrogen of H 2
3.7072 10 11
1.007940754
7842.6
Helium
2.7339 10 11
4.002601932
77650
When cosmic rays ( ~ 90% protons) strike Earths upper atmosphere (mainly
Nitrogen and Oxygen nuclei) many pions are released that quickly decay into muons.
The muons mass is 1.88353140 1028 kg [4], which is 11.261% of the protons
mass. The 1.90082550 1028 kg of sqs-Helium roughly calculated to exist in a
proton is extremely close, 100.9%, to the muons mass. It is proposed that the
collision of a high energy proton and a Nitrogen or Oxygen nucleus are releasing
coated sqs-Helium cores from protons, the pions. Consider the high energy head on
collision of two protons (Figure 2). Tremendous ls-compression shock waves start at
the proton-proton contact point and travel inwards and rebound off the ls-Helium
30
cores. The net effect must be rapid sqs-fusion from sqs- H 2 to higher sqs-masses.
The freed sqs-Helium core plus this extra sqs-fusion mass coating constitutes the
charged pion mass. The charged pion then sheds its sqs-fusion mass layer and the
sqs-Helium fuses to sqs-Iron, the muon. Helium 4 has zero spin and pions have zero
spin.
Figure 2. Protons colliding create pions.

Let all the available Helium in the core of an idealized cs-proton fuse to Iron:
( 3.401945666 1055 He atoms ) 14 = 2.42996119 1054 Iron atoms.

Mass of fused Iron:
( 2.42996119 1054 Iron atoms ) ( 55.84514562 ) ( 0.001) 6.0221415 10 23

= 2.253377 10 29 kg.
Cosmic scale muon mass = (1.88353140 10 28 kg ) (1.189533197 1057 )
= 2.240523 10 29 kg.
This mass of fused Iron equals 100.6% of the cs-muons mass.
5. Fractal Gravity
5.1. Lilliputian scale gravity
Modern Physics and Fractal Physics Theory (FPT) diverge significantly on this
point. FPT calculates the gravitational forces between quantum scale objects as
measured in the human scale to be vastly stronger than gravitational forces between
these same quantum scale objects calculated by Modern Physics.
FPT proposes that the gravitational constant G, in not scale invariant. To
accurately depict gravitational forces between nucleons a larger gravitational constant
is required [1]. The gravitational force, the Coulombic force and the magnetic force
31
have equivalent scaling fractals () .
Fgravity = FCoulomb = FMagnetic = Mass Length

= (1.189533 1057 ) ( 3.788566 10 23 ) = 3.139797 1033
or more succinctly, Fg = FC = FM = M L = 3.140 1033.
(4)
Consider the equation, F = ma = Gm1m2 r 2 .
(5)
Rewritten, from the Principle of Scalativity [1], F = M a = G M 2 L2 ,
(6)
where a = L t 2 = L L2 = L1.
Then by substitution M a = M L1 = G M 2 L2 .
Solving for G = L M = Fg 1 = 3.184919 10 34.
(7)
Therefore the product of the gravitational force scaling fractal and the gravitational
constant scaling fractal are scale invariant, Fg G = 1.
(8)
Consider the equation, F = ma = kC q1 q2 r 2 .
(9)
Rewritten, from the Principle of Scalativity, F = M a = kC Q 2 L2 ,
(10)
where a = L1 and Q = L1 2 M 1 2 .
Then by substitution
M a = M L1 = kC Q 2 L2
= kC ( L1 2 M 1 2 ) 2 L2 = kC L M L2 .
Solving for
k C = 1.
Therefore the Coulomb constant is scale invariant.
5.2. Bohr Hydrogen atom [4]

Proton mass, m p : 1.67262171 1027 kg,
Proton charge: 1.60217653 1019 C,
(11)
32
Electron mass, me : 9.1093826 1031 kg,
Electron charge: 1.60217653 1019 C,
Bohr radius: 5.2946541 10 11 m, calculated with the reduced mass of the
system,
kC : 8987551788 Nm 2 C 2 ,
[G ]1, 0 : 6.6742 10 11 m 3 ( s 2 kg ) ,
[G ]1, 0 : 2.0956 1023 m3 ( s 2 kg ), where G = [G ]1, 0 [G ]1, 0 .
FPT agrees with the Modern Physics calculation of the Coulombic force:
FC = kC q 2 r 2 = 8.23 10 8 N attraction between the proton and electron.

Modern Physics calculation of the gravitational force:
Fg = [G ]1, 0 m p me r 2 = 3.63 1047 N attraction between the proton and electron.

FPT calculation of the gravitational force:
Fg = [G ]1, 0 m p me r 2 = 1.14 1013 N attraction between the proton and electron.

The force of gravity does matter on the quantum scale, but for the Hydrogen
atom it is still almost a million times weaker than Coulombs force. For heavier
atoms such as Xenon, ls-gravity may be part of Van der Waals forces.
5.3. Dineutron
Cosmic scale neutron radius:
Volume
Radius
= (1.992381602 1030 kg ) ( 7842.6 kg m 3 ) = 2.540461 10 26 m 3 ,

= 3.9289 108 m.
Neutron radius, rn
= ( 3.9289 108 m ) ( Length ) = 1.037 10 15 m,
Neutron mass, mn
= 1.67492728 10 27 kg,
[G ]1, 0
= 2.0956 10 23 m 3 s 2 kg.
33
Two neutrons side by side as in a nucleus will experience a gravitational potential

energy:
U g = [G ]1, 0 ( mn )2 ( 2rn ) = 2.835 10 16 J = 1769 eV .
(12)
This binding energy should allow thermal neutrons to alter each others trajectories.
However, due to the conservation of angular momentum, even thermal neutrons that
may start to orbit will accelerate as the distance between them shortens. Soon their
velocities will exceed their escape velocities.
Escape velocity from the neutron,
Vescape = ( [G ]1, 0 mn rn )1 2 = [ ( 2.0956 10 23 m 3 ( s 2 kg )

* (1.6749 10 27 kg ) (1.037 10 15 m ) ]1 2 = 582 km s .
Two neutrons each with v = 2.2km s , orbiting each other at a radius r have an
initial angular momentum:
L i = 2(1.6749 10 27 kg ) ( 2200 m s )r = ( 7.36956 1024 kgm s )r.
(13)
Their final angular momentum L f = 2mn ( 582000 m s ) (1.037 1015 m )
= 2.0217 1036 kgm 2 s .

From L i = L f , the initial farthest radius of orbit leading to a ls-gravitational bound
dineutron r = 2.74 10 13 m.
6. Proton-neutron Attraction, Charge-conduction Electrons

6.1. Cosmic scale neutron conduction electrons
If a cs-neutron is composed of metal atoms, some valence electrons are free to
wander about the rigid lattice structure formed by the positively charged ion cores. A
cs-protons positive charge will attract the cs-neutrons conduction electrons to the
cs-neutrons surface adjacent the cs-proton. A typical conductor contributes one
conduction electron per atom, so for a dense metal, there are ~ 1 10 23 conduction
electrons per cm 3 . Half a cs-neutrons surface area will be directed towards an
adjacent cs-proton. To simplify the following calculations, the cs-neutrons radius
34
will be considered the same as the cs-protons radius of 3.788566 108 m.
Cosmic scale neutron radius :
3.788566 108 m,
1
Cosmic scale neutron' s surface area :
2
9.018402 1017 m 2 ,
The radius of a 1cm3 spherical volume is :
0.62035 cm,
A radius 0.62035 cm makes a circular area :
1.209 cm 2 .
From geometry, the maximum # of conduction e-s available on half a cs-neutrons

surface:
( 9.018402 1017 m 2 1.209 104 m 2 ) (1 1023 e s cm3 )

= 7.459 10 44 electrons potentially available.
Assume the cs-protons charge pulls an equal but opposite amount of conduction
electron charge (from the 7 10 44 electrons available) to half the adjacent csneutrons surface, that is, 2.122881278 10 40 electrons [1]. With these electrons
spread evenly over half the cs-neutrons surface area, the electron surface # density
is:
e # = ( 2.122881278 10 40 e s ) ( 9.018402 1017 m 2 )
= 2.353944 1022 e s m 2 .
(14)
Is such a high electron surface density realistic? Yes. Consider that the 1s 2 orbital in
Radon ( Z = 86) contains 2 electrons and has an average diameter ~ 0.02 [5].
Surface area of radons 1s 2 orbital shell: 1.2566 10 23 m 2 .
e # = ( 2 electrons 1.2566 10 23 m 2 ) = 1.6 10 23 electrons m 2 .

6.2. Coulomb binding energy between a cs-proton and a cs-neutrons
conduction electrons
The cs-protons charge is 3.401230560 10 21 C. Assume the cs-neutrons
surface conduction electrons are spread out evenly over half the cs-neutrons surface
with e # = 2.353944 10 22 e s m 2 . The electric field E of the cs-proton varies
35
over the cs-neutrons surface so an approximation is made by calculating the E at the

center of five slab areas. In Figure 3 below, the five blue circles drawn beyond the csprotons surface represent five electric equipotential surfaces all centered on the
origin of the axes, with radii as listed. These five blue circles slice the cs-neutron into
five slabs, but only part of the fifth slab is required to account for 1 2 the csneutrons surface. Define Slab 1 as the area contained within the intersection of the
cs-protons equipotential equation with r = 5R 4 and the cs-neutrons surface
equation. Define Slab 2 as the area contained within three equations; the cs-protons
equipotential equations with r = 5R 4 , and r = 6R 4 , and the cs-neutrons surface
equation. Continue to define Slabs 3 and 4, as areas bounded by the appropriate three
equations, adjacent to and right of the preceding slab. Finally, define Slab 5 as the
area contained within the cs-protons equipotential equation with r = 8R 4 , the
vertical line through the cs-neutrons center, and the cs-neutrons surface equation.
The areas of the first 4 slabs of the cs-neutron in Figure 3 are calculated below
by integrating the curves through the appropriate limits. For example, Slab 1 is
divided into two parts. Part I integrates the cs-neutrons surface equation (positive Yaxis) from x1 = R to x2 = intersection of cs-neutrons surface equation and csprotons potential equation with r = 5R 4 . This area is multiplied by 2 (from
symmetry) to obtain the total area of Slab 1, Part I. Part two integrates the cs-protons
potential equation with r = 5R 4 (positive Y-axis) from x2 to x3 = 5R 4 . This
area is multiplied by 2 (from symmetry) to obtain the total area of Slab 1, Part II. The
straight forward but tedious calculations are reproduced as End Notes to this article.
Tables 5.a and 5.b calculate the Coulombic binding energy between a csneutrons conduction electrons and a cs-proton. A significant Coulomb binding
energy ( 1.7 10 44 J ) is expected to occur between a cosmic scale proton and a csneutron that are adjacent in a cs-nucleon if the cs-neutron is composed entirely of
conducting metals. This binding energy in the cosmic scale as measured in the human
scale is 1.7229 10 44 J. Using the energy scaling fractal E = 1.189533 1057 , a
fractally self-similar binding energy of 0.904 MeV is expected to occur between a
proton and a neutron that are adjacent in a nucleon if the neutron is composed
entirely of subquantum scale conducting metals.
36
Table 5.a. Cosmic scale neutron slab values (areas calculated as End Notes to this
article)
(1)
# of conduction e s = (surface area) ( e # = 2.353944 10 22 e s m 2 )
(2)
Qn Charge (C) = ( # of conduction e s Slab )( 1.60217653 10 19 C )
(3)
Slab #5 = 0.5R 2 ( Slabs 1 through 4) R 2 = 0.167729886 R 2
Table 5.b. Cosmic scale neutron conduction electrons and cs-proton coulomb
binding energy, U C
Slab
Radius (1)
R(m)
Qn Charge (C )( 2)
Binding Energy ( J )(3)
9 RP 8
4.2621368 108
3.7364590 10 20
2.6798489 10 43
11RP 8
5.2092783 108
7.0347353 10 20
4.1280760 10 43
13RP 8
6.1564198 108
9.1205964 10 20
4.5286889 10 43
15 RP 8
7.1035613 108
1.0488676 10 21
4.5135891 10 43
17 RP 8
8.0507028 108
3.6318396 10 20
1.3790193 10 43
3.4012306 10 21
1.7229222 10 44
(1)
R p = 3.788566 108 m; the electric field E of the proton is calculated at the
midpoint of the surface area slab

(2)
Qn Charge (C) from Table 5.a, column 6
(3)
U C = kC Q p Qn R; kC = 8987551788 Nm 2 C 2 ; Q p = 3.401230560 10 21 C
37
Figure 3. Cs-proton-neutron within a larger cs-nucleon, in 2-dimensions.

7. Proton-neutron Attraction, Charge-induced Electric Dipoles [6]
For the Deuteron, sqs-conduction metals are not expected to be present in
significant quantities. However, an applied electric field, such as that from a nuclear
proton, will distort the electronic structures of any sqs-non metals present in the
nuclear neutron. Fractal Physics Theory proposes that the protons electron field
induces sqs-electric dipole moments in the non polar sqs-atoms of adjacent neutrons
and tries to align these sqs-dipoles in the electric fields direction. Two charges
separated by a distance r as in Figure 4, constitute an electric dipole with magnitude
= qr , directed from the negative charge to the positive charge. Dipole moments
are measured in debye units, where 1 debye, D = 3.336 10 30 Cm.
Figure 4. Electric dipole or dipole moment, = qr.

Polar solvents have two notable energetic effects when dissolving ionic solids:
1. One end of a dipole may be electrostatically attracted to an ion of opposite
charge.
2. Polar solvent molecules reduce the strength of the Coulombic interactions
between the ions in solution.
The potential energy in vacuum between two ions: U = q1q2 ( 4 0 r ) .
(15)
In a solvent of relative permittivity r (also called the dielectric constant, a unit less
and temperature dependent quantity) the potential energy between two ions:
38
U = q1q2 ( 4 r ) , where r = 0 .
(16)
For example water has a relative permittivity r = 78 at 25C, thus the long range
interionic Coulombic interaction energy is reduced by 78 from its magnitude in
vacuum.
The strong nuclear force is very short range, operating only over a few Fermi,
but it appears to have the same strength between two adjacent neutrons, two adjacent
protons or a neutron and a proton. The neutron carries no net charge, yet has a
magnetic dipole moment = 1.91 N , suggesting it has some sort of charged
substructure. Consider the successes of the liquid drop model of the nucleus. FPT
proposed that an ideal free neutron is composed of ~ 1.19 10 57 sqs-Hydrogen
atoms. A large compact frozen solid collection of Hydrogen is dielectric in the
presence of electric fields. The neutron permittivity, in many nuclei, is a major
component of the strong nuclear force. The neutrons of a nucleus in between protons
play the significant polar solvent role of reducing the Coulombic repulsive forces
between the protons.
The net effect of the protons electric field on the neutron results in the neutrons
polarization. The polarization P of the dielectric equals the average dipole moment
per unit volume.
P = ave Volume
( units : Cm m 3 = C m 2 ).
(17)
The polarization P also equals the surface charge density on opposite ends of a
polarized bulk medium.
P = = surface charge/(surface area on opposite ends of bulk medium).

Non polar molecules may acquire a dipole moment in an electric field as long as the
electric field is not too strong:
Induced = E* ,
(18)
where is the polarizability of the molecule, units = C 2 m N . E* is the electric

field at the location of a molecule inside a bulk medium. This molecule experiences
the applied E, and an additional E arising from the induced charges on the bulk
mediums opposing surfaces:
E* = E + P ( 3 0 ) .
(19)
39
When E is too strong, the induced moment depends also on E* 2 , where =

hyperpolarizability.
A term often used is the polarizability volume , = kC = ( 4 0 ) , units
= 1 3 = 10 24 cm 3 .
The potential energy U of an electric dipole 1 and a charge q 2 :
U = 1q2 ( 4r 2 ).
(20)
This potential energy decreases more rapidly ( 1 r 2 ) than the potential energy
between two charges ( 1 r ) .
The deuteron is used to illustrate (Figure 5) how the strong nuclear force may
arise involving the attraction between a proton and the induced sqs-electric dipoles of
a neutron (assuming no sqs-conduction electrons are present). A free neutrons
magnetic dipole moment is 1.913 N . A deuterons magnetic dipole moment is
+ 0.857 N . The neutron in the deuteron does not experience a homogeneous electric
field E from the proton, but rather a fanned out conic E because of the protons
spherical shape. An effect of this non homogeneous E results in an apparent increase
of the neutrons magnetic dipole moment to 1.936 N . The proton contributes its
same magnetic dipole moment of + 2.793 N to the deuterons magnetic dipole
moment.
Figure 5. Deuteron.
8. Cosmic Scale Deuteron ( d + )
8.1. Neutron and proton fusion
The following nuclear reaction is observed in the human scale:
n + p+ d+ +
40
1.67492728 10 27 kg
Neutron mass :
Proton mass :
1.67262171 10 27 kg
3.34754899 10 27 kg
Reactant mass :
Deuteron mass :
3.34358335 10 27 kg [4]
Reactant mass (deuteron mass)
= 3.96564 10 30 kg = 3.5641395 10 13 J
= B.E. of the deuteron and also the energy of the emitted gamma photon.
Gamma photon frequency
= ( 3.5641395 10 13 J ( 6.6260693 10 34 Js ) = 5.3789650 10 20 Hz.

Gamma photon wavelength
= ( 299792458 m s ) ( 5.3789650 10 20 Hz ) = 5.5734227 10 13 m.

It will take a time = ( 5.5734227 10 13 m ) ( 299792458 m s ) = 1.859 10 21
seconds for this photon to be emitted. An antineutrino is not observed so sqscontrolled thermonuclear fusion is not expected in this reaction.
A self-similar cosmic scale reaction observed from the human scale:
cs - n + cs - p + cs - d + + cs -
Cs - neutron mass :
1.99238160 1030 kg
Cs - proton mass :
1.98963905 1030 kg
Reactant mass :
3.98202065 1030 kg
Cs-deuteron mass:
( 3.34358335 10 27 kg ) ( Mass = 1.189533197 1057 ) = 3.97730339 1030 kg.

Reactant mass (cs-deuteron mass)
= 4.717260 10 27 kg = 4.239662 10 44 J
= B.E. of the cs-deuteron and also the energy of the emitted cs-gamma photon.
41
Cs-gamma photon frequency
= ( 4.239662 10 44 J ) ( [ h ]1, 0 = 2.986120904 10 47 Js ) = 1.4197891 10 3 Hz.

Cs-gamma photon wavelength
= ( 299792458 m s ) (1.4197891 10 3 Hz ) = 2.1115281 1011 m.

It will take a time = ( 2.1115281 1011 m ( 299792458 m s ) = 11.7 minutes for this
cs-photon to be emitted. A cs-antineutrino is not observed so controlled
thermonuclear fusion is not expected in this reaction. A stellar thermonuclear
explosion could take place in 11.7 minutes. The cosmic scale gamma photon energy
will be approximated to result from the release of gravitational and Coulombic
binding energies.
8.2. Cs-deuteron inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy

Let the cs-neutron in the cs-deuteron carry half the cs-deuterons mass and be
composed of 100% Hydrogen molecules. The mass of the cs-neutron in the csdeuteron is then = 1.9886517 1030 kg.
U g = ( 6.6742 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 ) (1.9886517 1030 kg )2 ( 2*3.788566 108 m )

= 3.4834679 10 41 J.
8.3. Cs-deuteron inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy
If an H 2 molecule has mass = 2.0158815 amu = 3.3474496 10 27 kg, then
the cs-neutron in the cs-deuteron is composed of 5.9407965 1056 H 2 molecules.
Let the radius of the cs-neutron and the cs-proton in the cs-deuteron both
= 3.788566 108 m, with each having a volume = 2.2777874 10 26 m 3 . The csneutron is assumed to have a constant H 2 # density = 2.6081436 1030 H 2 m 3 .
The protons electric field E is not constant through the neutrons interior. The
following slab integration technique approximates the E at various volumes of the
neutron. In Figure 6, the eight blue circles drawn beyond the cs-protons surface
represent 8 electric equipotential surfaces all centered on the origin of the axes, with
radii as listed. These 8 blue circles slice the cs-neutron into 8 slabs. Define Slab 1 as
the area contained within the intersection of the cs-protons equipotential equation
42
with r = 5 R 4 and the cs-neutrons surface equation. Define Slab 2 as the area
contained within three equations; the cs-protons equipotential equations with
r = 5 R 4 , and r = 6 R 4 , and the cs-neutrons surface equation. Continue to

define Slabs 3 through 7, sequentially, as areas bounded by the appropriate 3
equations, adjacent to and right of the preceding slab. Finally, define Slab 8 as the
area contained beyond the cs-protons equipotential equation with r = 11 R 4 and
within the cs-neutrons surface equation.
The areas of each of the 8 slabs of the cs-neutron in Figure 6 are calculated
below by integrating the curves through the appropriate limits. Slab 1 is divided into
two parts. Part I integrates the cs-neutrons surface equation (positive Y-axis) from
x1 = R to x2 = intersection of cs-neutrons surface equation and protons potential
equation with r = 5 R 4 . This area is multiplied by 2 (from symmetry) to obtain the
total area of Slab 1, Part I. Part two integrates the cs-protons potential equation with
r = 5 R 4 (positive Y-axis) from x2 to x3 = 5 R 4 . This area is multiplied by 2
(from symmetry) to obtain the total area of Slab 1, Part II. Calculations are
reproduced as End Notes to this article.
Figure 6. Deuteron in 2-dimensions.

Tables 6.a and 6.b calculate the Coulombic binding energy in a cs-deuteron occurring
between the cs-proton and the induced electric dipoles in the cs-neutron. The electric
field inside the cs-neutron E* is underestimated to equal the cs-protons electric
field E.
The Hydrogen molecule polarizability volume , = 0.819 10 30 m 3 [4].
H 2 = , kC = ( 0.819 10 30 m 3 ) ( 8.987551787 109 )

= 9.112604 10 41 C 2 m N .
43
The relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of liquid molecular hydrogen [4]:
r = 1.2792, at temperature = 13.52 K and pressure = 0.1 MPa,

r = 1.24827, at temperature = 15 K and pressure = 0.1 MPa,
r = 1.26198, at temperature = 20 K and pressure = 10 MPa,
at the extremely high pressures within a cs-neutron, the relative permittivity of H 2 is
hereby estimated as r = 1.4.
Table 6.a. Cosmic scale neutron slab values for cs-proton induced electric dipoles
( r = 1 .4 )
(1)
# of H 2 molecules/Slab
= (Slab volume)( H 2 # density = 2.6081436 1030 H 2 m 3 ) ,
Slab volume = (Table 6.a, column 3 cell) ( 2.2777874 10 26 m 3 ) 4.188790204 .

(2)
Radius for the electric field E of the proton is calculated at the midpoint of the
neutrons slab area, R = 3.788566 108 m.

(3)
Q p = cs-proton charge = 3.401230560 10 21 C;
= ( 0 = 8.854187817 10 12 C 2 Nm 2 ) ( r = 1.4 ).
44
Table 6.b. Cs-neutron slab energies for cs-proton induced electric dipoles
( r = 1 .4 )
1 molecule of H 2
1 molecule of H 2
of H 2
Slab
induced = E(Cm )(1)
U = i E ( J )
U = i E ( J )(2)
1.0953103 10 26
1.3165333 10 12
4.2960635 10 43
7.3322427 10 27
5.8997167 10 13
3.6245785 10 43
5.2497122 10 27
3.0243252 10 13
2.4089641 10 43
3.9431172 10 27
1.7062272 10 13
1.5629178 10 43
3.0699009 10 27
1.0342040 10 13
1.0068847 10 43
2.4576215 10 27
6.6280763 10 14
6.3530633 10 42
2.0117945 10 27
4.4414494 1014
3.7430069 10 42
1.6771292 10 27
3.0866725 10 14
1.5826645 10 42
1.4067282 10 44
(1)
E from Table 6.a, column 7 cell; = 9.112604 10 41 C 2 m N ,
(2)
of H 2 Energy = (Table 6.a, column 4 cell)(Table 6.b, column 3 cell).
8.4. Summary of cs-deuteron binding energies
Cs -deuteron inter - nucleon Coulombic B.E.
= 1.4067282 10 44 J
Cs -deuteron inter - nucleon gravitational B.E.
= 3.4834679 10 41 J
Total cs -deuteron inter - nucleon binding energy

Total cs -deuteron binding energy
Total cs -deuteron inter - nucleon B.E.
Cs -deuteron intra - nucleon fusion B.E.
= 1.410212 10 44 J
= 4.239662 10 44 J
= ( 1.410212 10 44 J )
= 2.829450 10 44 J
When four Hydrogen atoms fuse into a Helium atom 4.352052374 10 12 J is

released. To radiate the remaining energy 2.829450 10 44 J, 6.5014153 10 55
Helium atoms must be fused from 2.6005661 1056 Hydrogen atoms.
45
Table 7 lists the cs-deuteron idealized chemical composition.
Table 7. Chemical composition of idealized cosmic scale deuteron

Element
Hydrogen
(1.007940754)
Helium
(4.002601932)
# of atoms
1.983049354 10
9.9033610 10 55
Mass (kg)
57
3.319078872 10
30
% Mass
83.450
6.582245182 10 29
16.550
3.97730339 10 30
100.000
9. Cosmic Scale Deuteron - Deuteron Collision

Consider the reaction: d + + d + t + (1.01 MeV ) + p + ( 3.02 MeV ).
The deuteron-deuteron collisions illustrated in Figure 7 reproduce the two major
branches observed; formation of the triton 50% of the time and formation of the
helion 50% of the time.
Reaction mass difference:
2( cs -d + ) =
2( 3.97730339 1030 kg )
( cs - t ) =
5.95641633 1030 kg )
( cs -p + ) =
1.98963905 1030 kg )
Total m = 8.551 10 27 kg = 7.685 10 44 J;

the kinetic energy that the cs-triton and cs-proton share.
There are no cs-neutrinos or cs-gamma photons included in the cs-triton fusion
reaction, yet a lot of mass is converted into the kinetic energy of the cs-triton and csproton. It is reasonable to propose that the two colliding cs-deuterons trigger a
thermonuclear explosion which launches a cs-proton in one direction and recoils the
cs-triton in the other. The ejected explosion gaseous-plasma material remains bound
to the product cosmic scale nuclei, eventually cooling and settling on them.
46
Figure 7. d + + d + collisions (blue proton and brown neutron).

10. Cosmic Scale Triton (t+)
10.1. Cs-triton total binding energy
2(Cs - neutron)
2(1.99238160 1030 kg
Cs - proton
1.98963905 1030 kg
Reactant mass
5.97440225 1030 kg
Cs-triton mass: 5.95641633 1030 kg,
Reactant mass (cs- triton mass) = 1.798592 10 28 kg = 1.616493874 10 45 J

= B.E. of the cs-triton. Figure 8 depicts the proposed induced dielectrics of the
triton.
Figure 8. Triton, E field lines, S = 1 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 = 1 2 ; = 2.122 + 2.793
1.936 = 2.979; Red fill: negative dielectric; Blue fill: positive dielectric.
47
10.2. Cs-triton inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy

Approximate each nucleon mass in the triton by:
( t + mass 3 = 1.98547211 1030 kg.

Let the cs-protons radius = the cs-neutrons radius = r = 3.788566 108 m and the
distance between the two cs-neutron centers be 4r.
Gravity potential U = U n1- p + U n1 n 2 + U n 2 p ,
where U n1 p = U n 2 p ,
U g = 2Gm 2 (2r ) Gm 2 (4r )

= 6.944675 10 41 J + 1.736169 10 41 J = 8.680844 10 41 J.
(21)
10.3. Cs-triton inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy

The cs-proton would induce electric dipoles in both cs-neutrons providing a total
charge-dipole Coulomb energy in the cs-triton double that calculated for the csdeuteron in Table 6.b.
U C = 2( 1.4067282 10 44 J ) = 2.8134564 10 44 J.
10.4. Summary of cs-triton binding energies
Total cs-triton binding energy:
1.616493874 10 45 J
Total cs-triton inter-nucleon B.E.:
( 2.8221372 10 44 J )
Cs-triton intra-nucleon fusion B.E.:
1.3342802 10 45 J
When four Hydrogen atoms fuse into a Helium atom, 4.352052374 10 12 J is

Helium atoms must be fused from 1.2263457 10 57 Hydrogen atoms.
Table 8 lists the cs-triton idealized chemical composition.
Table 8. Chemical composition of idealized cosmic scale triton

Element
Hydrogen
amu
1.007940754
# of atoms
Mass (kg)
2.2062094 1057
3.6925874 1030
% Mass
61.993
Helium
4.002601932
3.4060589 1056
2.2638289 1030
38.007
5.95641633 10
30
100.000
48
11. Cosmic Scale Triton Beta Decay

Consider the reaction: t + 3 He 2 + + e + antineutrino.
Cosmic scale beta decay is viewed in the human scale as a star radiating while fusing
Hydrogen to Helium to Iron.
Cs - triton =
5.95641633 1030 kg
Cs - helion =
5.955293438 1030 kg
Cs -electron =
1.083591301 10 27 kg
Mass difference :
3.9300699 10 25 kg = 3.532170675 10 42 J
This cs-electron requires the fusion of 1.168506245 1052 Iron atoms from the cstritons Hydrogen.
Hydrogen
56*1.007940754 amu:
56.44468222 amu
Iron
1*55.84514562 amu:
55.84514562 amu
0.59953660 amu
= 8.94759153 5 10 11 J
Fusing a cs-electrons Iron from Hydrogen releases 1.045531659 10 42 J. This

leaves 3.532170675 10 42 J 1.045531659 10 42 J = 2.486639 10 42 J for product
kinetic energies and additional cs-antineutrino energy.
12. Cosmic scale helion ( 3 He 2 + )

12.1. Cs-helion total binding energy
2(Cs - proton)
2(1.98963905 1030 kg )
Cs - neutron
1.99238160 1030 kg
Reactant mass
5.97165970 1030 kg
Cs-helion mass: 5.955293438 1030 kg.

Reactant mass (cs-helion mass)
= 1.6366262 10 28 kg = 1.470926273 10 45 J = B.E. of the cs-helion.

12.2. Cs-helion inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy
Approximate each nucleon mass in the helion by:
( 3 He 2 + mass ) 3 = 1.985097813 1030 kg.
49
Let the cs-protons radius = the cs-neutrons radius r = 3.788566 108 m and the
distance between the two cs-proton centers be 4r.
Gravity potential U = U p1 n + U p1 p 2 + U n p 2 ,
where U p1 n = U n p 2 ,
U g = 2Gm 2 (2r ) Gm 2 (4r )

= 6.942057 10 41 J + 1.735514 10 41 J = 8.677571 10 41 J.
(22)
12.3. Cs-helion inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy

The cs-protons induce electric dipoles on both sides of the cs-neutron providing
a total charge-dipole Coulomb energy in the cs-helion double that calculated for the
cs-deuteron in Table 6.b.
U C = 2( 1.4067282 10 44 J ) = 2.8134564 10 44 J.
The cs-helion inter-nucleon cs-neutron dielectric effect on cs-proton-proton
Coulombic repulsion is estimated:
U C = Q p1Q p 2 ( 4 0 r* 4r ) = kC ( 3.4012306 10 21 C ) 2 (1.4* 4* 3.788566 108 m )

= 4.90061592 10 43 J.
(23)
12.4. Total cs-helion inter-nucleon binding energy

Cosmic scale helion inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy:
8.677571 1041 J
Cosmic scale helion inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy:
2.8134564 1044 J
Cosmic scale helion inter-nucleon Coulombic repulsion energy:
4.90061592 1043 J
2.3320724 1044 J
12.5. Summary of cs-helion binding energies

Total cs-helion binding energy:
1.470926273 10 45 J
Total cs-helion inter-nucleon B.E.:
( 2.3320724 10 44 J )
Cs-helion intra-nucleon fusion B.E.:
1.2377190 10 45 J

50
Helium atoms must be fused from 1.1375957 10 57 Hydrogen atoms.

Table 9 lists the cs-helion idealized chemical composition.
Table 9. Chemical composition of idealized cosmic scale helion

Element
amu
Hydrogen
1.007940754
# of atoms
Helium
4.002601932
Mass (kg)
2.1585531 10
% Mass
57
3.6128238 10
30
60.666
56
2.3424696 1030
39.334
5.955293438 1030
100.000
3.5243783 10
13. Cosmic Scale Alpha Particle ( 4 He 2 + )

13.1. Cs-alpha particle total binding energy
Arbitrarily, the assumption is made here that the cosmic scale alpha particle is
not composed of any conduction atoms.
Alpha particle mass: 6.6446565 10 27 kg [4]
2(Cs - proton)
2(1.98963905 1030 kg )
2(Cs - neutron)
2(1.99238160 1030 kg )
Reactant mass
7.96404130 1030 kg
Cs - 4 He 2 + mass : 7.904039489 1030 kg.

Reactant mass (cs- particle mass)
= 6.0001811 10 28 kg = 5.392693837 10 45 J = B.E. of the cs-alpha particle.

Figure 9 depicts the alpha particle configuration used to estimate its binding energy.
Figure 9. Alpha particle.

13.2. Cs-alpha particle inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy
Approximate each nucleon mass in the alpha particle by: 0.25(alpha mass)
= 1.976009872 1030 kg. Let the cs-protons radius = the cs-neutrons radius r =
51
3.788566 108 m. Based on Figure 9, the distance between the two cs-proton centers
is 3.5r.
Gravity potential U = U p1 n1 + U p1 n 2 + U p1 p 2 + U p 2 n1 + U p 2 n 2 + U n1 n 2 ,
where U p1 n1 = U p1 n 2 = U p 2 n1 = U p 2 n 2 = U n1 n 2 .
Therefore
U g = 5Gm 2 (2r ) + Gm 2 (3.5r ).
(24)
U g = 1.719659993 10 42 J + 1.965325707 10 41 J = 1.916192564 10 42 J.

13.3. Cs-alpha particle inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy
Based on Figure 9, each cs-proton would induce dipoles and attract half of each
cs-neutron towards it. A reasonable estimate sums the first 4 slabs from the csdeuteron calculation from Table 6.b, which totals 1.1892524 10 44 J, reproduced
in Table 10 below.
The total estimate U C = 4* ( 1.1892524 10 44 J ) = 4.7570096 10 44 J.
Table 10. First 4 slabs from Table 6.b cs-deuteron induced electric dipoles
( r = 1 .4 )
Slab
inducd = E(Cm )
U = 1E (Joules)
U = 1E (Joules)
1.0953103 10 26
1.3165333 10 12
4.2960635 10 43
7.3322427 10 27
5.8997167 10 13
3.6245785 10 43
5.2497122 10 27
3.0243252 10 13
2.4089641 10 43
3.9431172 10 27
1.7062272 10 13
1.5629178 10 43
1.1892524 10 44
The Cs - 4 He 2 + inter-nucleon cs-neutron dielectric effect on cs-proton-proton

Coulombic repulsion is estimated:
U C = Q p1Q p 2 ( 4 0 r*3.5r )
= ( k C ) ( 3.4012306 10 21 C )2 (1.4*3.5*3.788566 108 m )

= 5.600703909 10 43 J.
(25)
52
13.4. Total cs- 4 He 2 + inter-nucleon binding energy

Cosmic scale 4 He 2 + inter - nucleon gravitational binding energy :
Cosmic scale 4 He 2 + inter - nucleon Coulombic binding energy :
1.916192564 10 42 J
4.7570096 10 44 J
Cosmic scale 4 He 2 + inter - nucleon Coulombic repulsion energy :
5.600703909 10 43 J
4.216101135 10 44 J
13.5. Cs- 4 He 2 + intra-nucleon fusion binding energy

Total cs- 4 He 2 + binding energy:
5.392693837 10 45 J
Total cs- 4 He 2+ inter-nucleon binding energy:
( 4.216101135 10 44 J )
4.971083724 10 45 J

released.
Available Hydrogen to fuse:
2(cs -protons)
2.107311252 1057 Hydrogen atoms
2(cs- neutrons)

Hydrogen from the 4 cs-nucleons can forge 1.122021721 1057 Helium atoms
releasing 4.883097295 10 45 J.
Total required cs- 4 He 2+ intra - nucleon fusion B.E.:
Available from fusing all Hydrogen to Helium B.E. :
4.971083724 10 45 J
( 4.883097295 10 45 J )
8.7986429 10 43 J
At this point consider the cs-Helium 4 nucleus as composed of 100% Helium atoms.
2(cs- protons)
6.803891332 1055 Helium atoms
Fused Helium
1.122021721 1057 Helium atoms

1.190060634 1057 Helium atoms
Let 3 Helium atoms fuse to form one Carbon 12 atom.

Reactants:
3(4.002601932 amu)
=12.0078058 amu
Product:
=12.0000000 amu
Energy released:
=0.0078058 amu
= 1.1649516 1012 J
53
To radiate the remaining energy 8.7986429 10 43 J, 7.5527970 10 55 Carbon 12

atoms must fuse from 2.2658391 1056 Helium atoms. Table 11 lists the cs-alpha
particle idealized chemical composition.
Table 11. Chemical composition of idealized cs-alpha particle

Element
# of atoms
Mass (kg)
% Mass
Helium
9.6277093 1056
6.399033936 1030
80.959
7.5527970 1055
1.505005553 1030
19.041
7.904039489 1030
100.000
(4.002601932)
Carbon
(12.000000)
At the high pressures inside a cs-alpha particle, the 19% Carbon is in the
diamond crystal form.
14. Cosmic Scale Carbon 12 Nucleus ( 12 C 6 + )

14.1. Cs-Carbon 12 nucleus total binding energy
Carbon diamond Type I has a dielectric constant r = 5.87 at 300 K [4].
Arbitrarily, the assumption is made here that the cosmic scale Carbon 12 nucleus is
composed primarily of Carbon with 10% Magnesium. To obtain the Carbon 12
nuclear mass the masses of 6 electrons must be subtracted, while the mass equivalent
of the 6 ionization energies must be added (Table 12).
Carbon 12 atomic mass :
Six electron masses :
12*1.66053886 10 27 kg =
6* 9.1093826 10 31 kg =
1.992646632 10 26 kg
5.46562956 10 30 kg
1.83633 10 33 kg
Six I.E. mass equivalents :
1.992100253 10 26 kg
Carbon 12 nuclear mass :
Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + mass: 2.369669383 1031 kg
6(cs-proton)
6(1.98963905 1030 kg )
6(cs -neutron)
6(1.99238160 1030 kg )
Reactant mass :
2.38921239 1031 kg
Reactant mass ( Cs -12 C 6 + mass ) = 1.9543007 10 29 kg
54
= 1.7564379 10 46 J = B.E. of the Cs -12 C 6 + .

Table 12. Carbon atom ionization energies [4]
Electron #
Energy (eV)
11.2603
24.3833
47.8878
64.4939
392.087
489.9933
1030.1056 eV = 1.8363299 1033 kg
14.2. Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy

The total gravitational binding energy of a cosmic scale 12 C 6 + mass is:
U total g = G ( 2.369669383 1031 kg )2 R = 3.6007382 10 43 J,
(26)
G = 6.6742 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 ,
R = 1.2 fm(12)1 3 L = 1.0408381 109 m.
Only the gravitational binding energy of the 12 cs-nucleons, not the entire mass,
is desired. The average gravitational binding energy of 1 cs-nucleon of the cs-Carbon
12 nucleus:
U nucleon g = G ( 2.369669383 1031 kg 12 )2 3.788566 108 m
= 6.8696938 10 41 J.
U total g =
3.6007382 10 43 J
12(U nucleon g ) =
12( 6.8696938 1041 J )
2.7763749 10 43 J, cosmic
(27)
scale
12 6 +
inter-nucleon
gravitational binding energy
14.3. Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + inter-nucleon cs-neutron dielectric effect on csproton-proton Coulombic repulsion
Figures 10.a, 10.b, 10.c are used to calculate the inter-nucleon Coulombic
energies. The six cosmic scale protons in the cs-Carbon 12 nucleus will have the
following 15 interactions:
55
U p1 p 2 + U p1 p 3 + U p1 p 4 + U p1 p5 + U p1 p 6 + U p 2 p 3 + U p 2 p 4 + U p 2 p 5
+U p 2 p 6 + U p3 p 4 + U p3 p5 + U p3 p 6 + U p 4 p5 + U p 4 p 6 + U p 5 p 6 .
Figure 10.a. Carbon 12 nuclear structure, top-down view. Let the top layer be placed
directly above the bottom layer with protons 4-6 above the 3 outer neutrons of the
bottom layer.
Figure 10.b. Carbon 12 nuclear structure, side view.

From Figure 10.a symmetry these 15 interactions reduce to 4 calculations:
A. In these four interactions, the intervening space is the cs-neutron,
U p1 p 2 = U p1 p3 = U p 2 p 3 = U p 4 p 6
U C = 4*K C Q p 2 ( r x ) = 4* (1.335772653 10 43 J )
= 5.343090612 10 43 J,
(28)
x = 3.5* ( 3.788566 108 m ) , Q p = 3.401230560 10 21 C,
r = 5.87, K C = 8987551788 Nm 2 C 2 .
B. In these two interactions, half the space is vacuum and half the space is the csneutron, U p 4 p 5 = U p 5 p 6 .
56
U C = KC ( 0.5Q p )2 [ ( r = 1 ) (3.5)( 3.788566 108 m ) ]
= 1.960246368 1043 J
U C = KC ( 0.5Q p )2 [ ( r = 5.87 ) (3.5)( 3.788566 108 m ) ]
= 3.339431632 1042 J
= 2.294189531 1043 J
U C = 2*K C Q p 2 ( r x ) = 2* ( 2.294189531 10 43 J ) = 4.588379062 10 43 J. (29)

C. Refer to Figure 10.b, to determine x = (8)1 2 R, U p1 p 4 = U p1 p 6 =
U p 2 p 4 = U p 2 p5 = U p3 p5 = U p3 p 6 .
U C = 6*K C Q p 2 ( r x ) = 6*K C Q p 2 (1* 8*R ) = 5.821634699 10 44 J. (30)
D. Refer to Figure 10.c, to determine x = (20)1 2 R, U p1 p 5 = U p 2 p 6
= U p3 p 4 .
U C = 3*K C Q p 2 ( r x ) = 3*K C Q p 2 ( 5.87* 20*R ) = 3.136222377 10 43 J. (31)
Total Coulombic repulsion in cs-Carbon 12 nuclei A - D = 7.128403904 10 44 J.
Figure 10.c. Carbon 12 nuclear structure, side view.

14.4. Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy
From Figure 10.a, six protons have 18 direct contact surfaces with six neutrons
and 6 more distant contacts with six neutrons. Let the low density Magnesium metal
be at the cs-neutron surfaces to provide cs-neutron conduction electron bonding with
the cs-proton. The binding energy 1.7229222 10 44 J per bond is taken from
Table 5.b for 18 bonds. The same binding energy per bond for 6 bonds is reduced by
1 ( 8 1) by replacing R p in Table 5.b by r = R p ( 8 1 ) , the effect from the

gap between these 6 protons and 6 neutrons (Figure 10.c).
U C = (18)* ( 1.7229222 10 44 J )
= 3.1012600 10 45 J
U C = (6 )* ( 1.7229222 10 44 J ( 8 1 )
= 5.6537846 10 44 J
Total Coulombic binding energy in cs-Carbon 12

nuclei
= 3.6666385 10 45 J
57
14.5. Total cosmic scale 12 C 6 + inter-nucleon binding energy

Cosmic scale 12 C 5 + inter -nucleon gravitational binding energy : 2.7763749 10 43 J
Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + inter -nucleon Coulombic binding energy : 3.6666385 10 45 J
Cosmic scale 12 C 5 + inter -nucleon Coulombic repulsion energy :
7.1284039 10 44 J
2.9815619 10 45 J
14.6. Cosmic scale 12 C 6 + intra-nucleon fusion binding energy
Total cs -12 C 6 + binding energy :
1.7564379 10 46 J
Total cs -12 C 6 + inter - nucleon B.E.:
( 2.9815619 10 45 J )
Cs -12 C 6 + intra - nucleon fusion B.E.:
1.4582817 10 46 J
Let 24 Hydrogen atoms fuse to form one Magnesium 24 atom.
Reactants :
24(1.007940754 amu )
= 24.1905781 amu
Product :
Energy released :
A Magnesium mass of
= 23.9850417 amu
= 0.2055364 amu = 3.0674620 10 11 J
2.3696694 10 30 kg
contains
5.9497434 10 55
Magnesium 24 atoms, which requires the fusion of 1.4279384 10 57 Hydrogen

atoms, releasing 1.8250612 10 45 J.
Cs -12 C 6 + intra -nucleon fusion B.E.:

Fusing Hydrogen to Magnesium :
Remaining energy to account for :
1.4582817 10 46 J
( 1.8250612 10 45 J )
1.2757755 10 46 J
Let 12 Hydrogen atoms fuse to form one Carbon 12 atom.

Reactants : 12(1.007940754 amu )
= 12.0952890 amu
Product :
Energy released :
= 12.0000000 amu
= 0.0952890 amu = 1.4221101 10 11 J
To radiate the remaining energy 1.2757755 10 46 J, 8.9710037 10 56 Carbon
58
12 atoms must be fused. Table 13 lists the cs-Carbon 12 nucleus idealized chemical
composition.
Table 13. Chemical composition of idealized cosmic scale 12 C 6 +

Element
Hydrogen
amu
1.007940754
# of atoms
Mass (kg)
Helium
4.002601932
2.0411674 1056
1.3566570 1030
5.72
Carbon
12.0000000
8.9710037 1056
1.7876040 1031
75.44
Magnesium
23.9850417
55
30
10.00
1.2512975 10
57
5.9497434 10
2.0943276 10
2.3696694 10
30
2.3696694 1031
% Mass
8.84
100.00
This trend of fusing larger, more energetically stable nuclei to account for the
binding energies of more energetically stable cosmic scale nuclei is expected to
continue. As a final example, the cosmic scale nuclear binding energies of one of the
most stable nuclei, Iron 56, will be examined.
15. Cosmic scale Iron 56 nucleus ( 56 Fe 26 + )

15.1. Cs-Iron 56 nuclear binding energy
To obtain the Iron 56 nuclear mass the masses of 26 electrons must be
subtracted, while the mass equivalent of the 26 ionization energies must be added
(Table 14).
Iron 56 atomic mass :

26 electron masses :
55.9349375 amu =
26* 9.1093826 10 31 kg =
9.288213735 10 26 kg
2.3684395 10 29 kg
6.16882 10 32 kg
26 I.E. mass equivalents :
9.285851464 10 26 kg
Iron 56 nuclear mass :

Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26 + mass: 1.104582858 10 32 kg
26(cs-proton)
26(1.98963905 1030 kg )
30(cs-neutron)
30(1.99238160 1030 kg )
Reactant mass :
1.115020633 10 32 kg
Reactant mass (cs-56 Fe 26 + mass) = 1.0437775 1030 kg = 9.381004336 10 46 J = B.E.
of the cs- 56 Fe 26 + .
59
Table 14. Iron atom ionization energies [4]

e #
Energy (eV)
e #
Energy (eV)
e #
Energy (eV)
7.9024
10
262.1
19
1456
16.1877
11
290.2
20
1582
30.652
12
330.8
21
1689
54.8
13
361.0
22
1799
75.0
14
392.2
23
1950
99.1
15
457
24
2023
124.98
16
489.256
25
8828
151.06
17
1266
26
9277.69
233.6
18
1358
of 26 I.E. = 34604.528 eV = 6.16882 10 32 kg

15.2. Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26 + inter-nucleon gravitational binding energy
The total gravitational binding energy of a cosmic scale 56 Fe 26 + mass is:
U total
= G (1.104582858 1032 kg ) 2 R = 4.6817732 10 44 J,
= 6.6742 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 ,
= 1.2fm (56)1 3 L = 1.739343849 109 m.
(32)
Only the gravitational binding energy of the 56 cs-nucleons, not the entire mass,
is desired. The average gravitational binding energy of 1 cs-nucleon of the cs-Iron 56
nucleus:
U nucleon
= G(1.104582858 1032 kg 56 )2 3.788566 108 m
= 6.8540127 10 41 J.
4.6817732 10 44 J
U total g =
56(U nucleon
(33)
)=
56( 6.8540127 10 41 J )
4.2979485 10 44 J, cosmic scale
56
Fe 26 + inter-
nucleon gravitational binding energy.
15.3. Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26 + intra-nucleon fusion binding energy

The Iron 56 nucleus is one of the most energetically stable nuclei. Presume the
60
cosmic scale Iron 56 nucleus is composed entirely of Iron 56 atoms.

Let 56 Hydrogen atoms fuse to form one Iron 56 atom.
Reactants :
56(1.007 940 754 amu )
= 56.444 6822 amu
Product :
= 55.934 9375 amu

= 0.509 7447 amu = 7.607 521147 10 11 J
Energy released :
Available Hydrogen to fuse:
26( cs -proton )
= 26(1.053 655 626 10 57 Hydrogen atoms )
30( cs - neutron )
= 30(1.190 387 816 10 57 Hydrogen atoms )
Total Hydrogen available:
= 6.310 668 076 10 58 Hydrogen atoms
All available Hydrogen can forge 1.126 905 014 10 57 Iron 56 atoms, releasing
8.572 9537 10 46 J.
Let 14 Helium atoms fuse to form one Iron 56 atom.
Reactants :
14( 4.002 601 932 amu )
Product :
Energy released :
= 56.036 4270 amu

= 55.934 9375 amu
= 0.101 4895 amu = 1.514 647 465 10 11 J
Available Helium to fuse:
26(cs- protons) = 26( 3.401 945 666 10 55 ) = 8.845 058 732 10 56 Helium atoms.
All available Helium can forge 6.317 899 094 10 55 Iron 56 atoms, releasing
9.569 3898 10 44 J.
Total Cs- 56 Fe 26 + intra-nucleon fusion binding energy: 8.6686476 10 46 J.
15.4. Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26 + inter-nucleon Coulombic binding energy

Cosmic scale56 Fe 26+ binding energy :
9.381 004336 10 46 J
56 26+
Cosmic scale Fe
inter - nucleon gravitational binding energy : ( 4.2979485 10 44 J )
Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26+ intra - nucleon fusion binding energy :
Cosmic scale 56 Fe 26+ inter - nucleon Coulombic binding energy :
( 8.6686476 10 46 J )
6.6937725 10 45 J
If the conducting metals of the cs-Iron 56 nucleons are effective at shielding the csproton-proton repulsion, then there can be
6.693 7725 10 45 J 1.722 9222 10 44 J = 39

cs-proton-neutron Coulomb bonds in the cs-Iron 56 nucleus.
61
16. Conclusion
With two postulates, that the neutron is composed of 100% subquantum scale
Hydrogen atoms and that the mass of the pre-solar system is the mass of a cs-neutron,
Fractal Physics Theory appears able to calculate the fractal chemical compositions
and binding energies of all the nuclei without postulating the existence of a unique
Strong Nuclear Force. Most striking is the fact that the mass loss due to fusing all
available sqs-Hydrogen and sqs-Helium from 56 separate nucleons into sqs-Iron 56
must occur to obtain the mass of the Iron 56 nucleus. No further sqs-fusion is
possible. The Iron 56 nucleus is one of the most stable nuclei because it is composed
entirely of sqs-Iron 56 atoms. Tables 15 and 16 summarize ideal values discussed in
this article.
Table 15. Idealized subquantum scale chemical compositions
*Symbol [O] 3, 0 refers to an object located in the subquantum scale as observed

from the human scale.
Table 16. Fractal strong nuclear force

Particle
Lilliputian Scale
% Gravity
Lilliputian Scale
% Coulombic
Subquantum Scale
% Fusion
d+
0.08
33.18
66.74
0.05
17.41
82.54
He 2 +
0.06
15.80
84.14
2+
0.04
7.78
92.18
12 6 +
0.16
16.81
83.03
56
0.46
7.13
92.41
He
C
Fe
26 +
62
17. End Notes - Calculation of the Areas of the 5 Slabs of the cs-neutron in
Figure 3, and 8 Slabs in Figure 6
Slab 1, Part I
Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (5 R 4 )2 ,
centered on the origin (0, 0 ).
Equation of the neutrons surface: x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , centered on ( 2R, 0 ) ,
with r = R.
The two equations are solved simultaneously to determine their intersection
point: 25 R 2 16 = 4 Rx 3R 2 ,
x2 = 73R 64 . To simplify the integration the
neutrons surface equation is translated to center on the origin. Integration limits,
x1 = R and x2 are also translated by the same amount along the X-axis by
subtracting 2R. Translated neutron surface equation:
x2 + y2 = R2 ,
y =
( R 2 x 2 )1 2 .
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ). [7]
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = 55R 64 , a = R.
ydx @
x2
= 0.5( 55 R 64 )(( R 2 ( 55 R 64) 2 )1 2 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 55 64)

= 0.219718933R 2 + 0.517023074 R 2 = 0.736742007R 2 ,
ydx @
x1
= 0.5 R( R 2 ( R )2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 ( 1)

= 0 + 0.785398163R 2 = 0.785398163R 2 ,
ydx @
x2
x1
= 0.048656156R 2 .
Slab 1, Part I area = ( 0.048656156 R 2 ) ( 2) = 0.097312312 R 2 .
Slab 1, Part II
Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (5R 4)2 ,
63
centered on the origin (0, 0) .
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ). [7]
Integration limits, x2 = 73R 64 to x3 = 5R 4, a = 5R 4 .

x3
ydx @
ydx @
x2
= 0 + 0.5(5R 4 )2 sin 1 (1) = 1.227184630R 2 ,

= 0.5(73R 64) (( 5 R 4 )2 (73R 64 )2 )1 2 + 0.5(5 R 4 )2 sin 1 (73 64 1.25)
= 0.291626947R 2 + 0.897933066R 2 = 1.189560013R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.037624617R 2 .
Slab 1, Part II area = ( 0.037624617R 2 ) (2) = 0.075249234R 2 .

Slab 1, Part I + Part II: 0.172561546R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2, Part I
Equation of the neutrons surface: x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , centered on ( 2R, 0) ,
with r = R.
point: 36 R 2 16 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , x2 = 21R 16 . To simplify the integration the
x2 + y2 = R2 ,
( R 2 x 2 )1 2 .
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = 11R 16 , a = R.
y=
64
ydx @
x2
= 0.5( 11R 16) ( R 2 ( 11R 16 )2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 ( 11 16)

= 0.249625879R 2 + 0.379020382R 2 = 0.628646261R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x1
x2
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,
x1
= 0.156751902R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2, Part I area = ( 0.156751902R 2 ) ( 2) = 0.313503804R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2, Part II
centered on the origin (0, 0).
(a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 21R 16 to x3 = 1.5 R, a = 1.5 R.
ydx @
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0 + 0.5(1.5R )2 sin 1 (1) = 1.767145868R 2 ,

= 0.5(21R 16) ((1.5R )2 ( 21R 16)2 )1 2 + 0.5(1.5R )2 sin 1 (21 16 1.5)
= 0.476558497R 2 + 1.198615294R 2 = 1.675173791R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.091972077R 2 .
Slab 2, Part II area = ( 0.091972077 R 2 )(2 ) = 0.183944154R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2, Part I + Part II :

subtract Slab 1:
Slab 2 :
0.497 447 958R 2

0.172 561 546 R 2
0.324 886 412 R 2
Slabs 1 + 2 + 3, Part I
65

with r = R.
point: 49 R 2 16 = 4 Rx 3R 2 ,
x2 = 97 R 64 . To simplify the integration the
subtracting 2R.
Translated neutron surface equation: x 2 + y 2 = R 2 , y = ( R 2 x 2 )1 2 .
(a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = 31R 64 , a = R,
ydx @
x2
= 0.5( 31R 64 ) (( R 2 ( 31R 64 )2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 ( 31 64 )
= 0.211880272R 2 + 0.252824313R 2 = 0.464704585R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx@
x1
x2
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,

x1 = 0.320693578R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2 + 3, Part I area = ( 0.320693578R 2 ) (2 ) = 0.641387156R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2 + 3, Part II
(a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 97 R 64 to x3 = 7 R 4 , a = 7R 4 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0 + 0.5(7 R 4) 2 sin 1 (1) = 2.405281875R 2 ,

= 0.5(97 R 64 ) ((7 R 4 )2 (97 R 64 )2 )1 2 + 0.5(7 R 4 )2 sin 1 (97 64 1.75)
66
= 0.662980207R 2 + 1.603662212R 2 = 2.266642419R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.138639456R 2 .
Slabs 1 + 2 + 3, Part II area = ( 0.138639456R 2 ) ( 2) = 0.277278912R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 3, Part I + Part II :

subtract Slabs 1 + 2 :
Slab 3:
0.918666068 R 2
0.497447958 R 2
0.421 218110R 2
Slabs 1 through 4, Part I

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = ( 2 R )2 ,
Equation of the neutrons surface: x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , centered on (2 R, 0) ,
with r = R.
point: 4 R 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , x2 = 7 R 4 . To simplify the integration the neutrons
surface equation is translated to center on the origin. Integration limits, x1 = R and
x2 are also translated by the same amount along the X-axis by subtracting 2R.
Translated neutron surface equation: x 2 + y 2 = R 2 , y = ( R 2 x 2 )1 2 ,
(a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = R 4, a = R,
ydx @
x2
= 0.5( R 4 ) = ( R 2 ( R 4 )2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 ( 1 4 )
= 0.121030729R 2 + 0.126340127R 2 = 0.247370856R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x1
x2
= 0 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,
x1
= 0.538027307R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 4, Part I area = ( 0.538 027 307 R 2 ) (2) = 1.076 054 614 R 2 .
67
Slabs 1 through 4, Part II

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = ( 2 R )2 ,
(a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 7 R 4 to x3 = 2 R, a = 2R,
ydx @
x3
ydx @
x2
= 0 + 0.5(2 R )2 sin 1 (1) = R 2 ,

= 0.5(7 R 4) (( 2 R )2 (7 R 4)2 )1 2 + 0.5(2 R )2 sin 1 (7 4 2)
= 0.847215107R 2 + 2.130871633R 2 = 2.978086740R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.163505913R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 4, Part II area = ( 0.163 505 913R 2 ) (2) = 0.327 011 827 R 2 .

subtract Slabs 1 through 3:
Slab 4 :
1.403 066 441R 2

0.918 666 068R 2
0.484 400 373R 2

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (9 R 4)2 ,
Equation of the neutrons surface:
x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 ,
centered on
(2R, 0) , with r = R.
point: 81R 2 16 = 4 Rx 3R 2 ,
neutrons surface equation is translated to center on the origin. The integration limits,
( R 2 x 2 )1 2 .
x2 + y2 = R2 ,
y=
68
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = R 64, a = R,
ydx @
x2
= 0.5( R 64) ( R 2 ( R 64)2 )1 2 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 (1 64)

= 0.007811546R 2 + 0.007812817R 2 = 0.015624363R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x1
x2
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,
x1
= 0.801022526R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 5, Part I area = ( 0.801022526R 2 ) (2 ) = 1.602045052R 2 .

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (9 R 4)2 ,
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 129 R 64 to x3 = 9 R 4, a = 9 R 4 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0 + 0.5(9 R 4)2 sin 1 (1) = 3.976078202R 2 ,

= 0.5(129 R 64 )((9 R 4 )2 (129 R 64 ) 2 )1 2 + 0.5(9 R 4 )2 sin 1 (129 64 2.25)
= 1.007689469R 2 + 2.81045422R 2 = 3.818143689R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.157934513R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 5, Part II area = ( 0.157 934 513R 2 ) (2) = 0.315 869 026 R 2 .

subtract Slabs 1 through 4 :
Slab 5 :
1.917 914 078R 2

1.403 066 441R 2
0.514 847 637 R 2
69

with r = R.
point: 25R 2 4 = 4 Rx 3R 2 ,
subtracting 2R.
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = 5R 16, a = R ,
ydx @
x2
= 0.5(5R 16) ( R 2 (5R 16)2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 (5 16)

= 0.148424649R 2 + 0.158911852R 2 = 0.307336501R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x1
x2
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,

x1
= 1.092734664R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 6, Part I area = (1.092734664R 2 ) ( 2) = 2.185469328R 2 .

( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 37 R 16 to x3 = 5R 2 , a = 5R 2 ,
70
ydx @
x3
ydx @
= 0 + 0.5( 5R 2 ) 2 sin 1 (1) = 4.908738521R 2 ,

= 0.5(37 R 16 ) ((5 R 2 )2 (37 R 16 )2 )1 2 + 0.5(5 R 2 )2 sin 1 (37 R 16 2.5)
x2
= 1.098342410R 2 + 3.690736231R 2 = 4.789078641R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.119659880R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 6, Part II area = ( 0.119659880R 2 ) (2 ) = 0.239319760R 2 .

Slab 6 :
2.424 789 088R 2

1.917 914 078R 2
0.506 875 010 R 2

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (11R 4 )2 ,
Equation of the neutrons surface: x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , centered on ( 2R, 0)
with r = R.
point: 121R 2 16 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , x2 = 169 R 64 . To simplify the integration the
subtracting 2R.
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = 41R 64 , a = R,
ydx @
x2
= 0.5(41R 64 ) ( R 2 (41R 64 )2 )1 2 + 0.5 R 2 sin 1 (41 64)
= 0.245953201R 2 + 0.347655973R 2 = 0.593609174R 2 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x1
x2
71
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) = 0.785398163R 2 ,
x1
= 1.379007337 R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 7, Part I area = (1.379007337R 2 ) ( 2) = 2.758014674R 2 .

Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (11R 4 )2 ,
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Integration limits, x2 = 169R 64 to x3 = 11R 4, a = 11R 4 ,
ydx @
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0 + 0.5(11R 4)2 sin 1 (1) = 5.939573611R 2 ,

= 0.5(169 R 64) ((11R 4)2 (169 R 64)2 )1 2
+ 0.5(11R 4)2 sin 1 (169 64 2.75)
= 1.013 807 100 R 2 + 4.869 550 615R 2 = 5.883 357 715R 2 ,
ydx @
x3
x2
= 0.056215896R 2 .
Slabs 1 through 7, Part II area = ( 0.056215826R 2 ) ( 2) = 0.112431792R 2 .

Slab 7 :
2.870 446 466 R 2

2.424 789 088R 2
0.445 657 378R 2
Slabs 1 through 8
Equation of the protons electric equipotential surface: x 2 + y 2 = r 2 = (3R )2 ,
Equation of the neutrons surface: x 2 + y 2 = 4 Rx 3R 2 , centered on ( 2R, 0)
with r = R.
72
To simplify the integration the neutrons surface equation is translated to center
on the origin. Integration limits, x1 = R and x2 = 3R are also translated by the

same amount along the X-axis by subtracting 2R.
( a
x 2 )1 2 dx = 0.5 x( a 2 x 2 )1 2 + 0.5a 2 sin 1 ( x a ) ,
Translated limits, x1 = R to x2 = R, a = R,
ydx @
x2
x1
= 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 (1) [ 0 + 0.5R 2 sin 1 ( 1) ] = 0.25 + 0.25 = 0.5.

Slabs 1 through 8 = 0.5( 2) :
Subtract slabs 1 through 7 :
Slab 8 :
R2
2.870 446 466 R 2
0.271146 187 R 2
References
[1]
L. J. Malinowski, Fractal Physics Theory - Foundation, Fundamental J. Modern

Physics 1(2) (2011), 133-168.
[2]
L. J. Malinowski, Fractal Physics Theory - Cosmic Scale Nuclear Explosion

Cosmology, Fundamental J. Modern Physics 1(2) (2011), 169-195.
[3]
L. J. Malinowski, Fractal Physics Theory - Electrons, Photons, Wave-Particles, and

Atomic Capacitors, Fundamental J. Modern Physics 1(2) (2011), 197-221.
[4]
D. R. Lide, editor, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2006.
[5]
Linus Pauling, General Chemistry, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1970.
[6]
P. W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, 3rd ed., Copyright 1986 Oxford University Press.
[7]
John B. Fraleigh, Calculus with Analytic Geometry, Addison-Wesley Publishing

Company, Inc., Philippines, 1980.

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Fundamental J. Modern Physics, Vol.

2, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 23-72

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND THE

Figure 1. Diagram of fractal strong nuclear force.

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

2.2. Cosmic scale electron

Moles of Iron: (1.083591301 1030 g ) 55.84514562

Atoms of Iron: (1.940350032 10 28 moles ) ( 6.0221415 10 23 )

( 6.543634972 1053 atoms of H ) (1.007940754 )

1.992381602 1030 kg 1.095224409 10 27 kg = 1.991286378 1030 kg.

1.991286378 1030 kg 1.989639050 1030 kg = 1.647328000 10 27 kg.

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

(4) (1.007940754 amu ) = 4.031763016 amu,

= 4.352052374 10 12 J = 27.163376148 MeV.

( 3.401945666 1055 ) ( 4.002601932 ) ( 0.001) ( 6.0221415 1023 )

3. Cosmic Scale Proton Central Pressure and Temperature Estimate

Pc = 19G ( Sun ,s Mass )2 ( Sun ,s radius )4 ,

nc = central density ( mc ) = 150g cm3 1.5 1024 g = 1.0 1032 m 3 ,

Pc = 19G (1.98963905 1030 kg )2 ( 3.788566 108 m )4 = 2.4366995 1017 Pa .

PV = nRT = 24.587387 eV + 54.417760 eV = 1.265801923 10 17 J,

= 6.646476049 1027 kg.

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

The Helium atomic density at the core of the cs-proton

at the cs-protons surface. Cs-protons must be in

thermodynamic equilibrium with the microwave background radiation.

4. Proposed Origin of the Muon

Table 4. Densities of Hydrogen and Helium atoms [4]

Figure 2. Protons colliding create pions.

( 3.401945666 1055 He atoms ) 14 = 2.42996119 1054 Iron atoms.

( 2.42996119 1054 Iron atoms ) ( 55.84514562 ) ( 0.001) 6.0221415 10 23

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

have equivalent scaling fractals () .

Fgravity = FCoulomb = FMagnetic = Mass Length

Consider the equation, F = ma = Gm1m2 r 2 .

Rewritten, from the Principle of Scalativity [1], F = M a = G M 2 L2 ,

Consider the equation, F = ma = kC q1 q2 r 2 .

Rewritten, from the Principle of Scalativity, F = M a = kC Q 2 L2 ,

Therefore the Coulomb constant is scale invariant.

5.2. Bohr Hydrogen atom [4]

FC = kC q 2 r 2 = 8.23 10 8 N attraction between the proton and electron.

Fg = [G ]1, 0 m p me r 2 = 3.63 1047 N attraction between the proton and electron.

Fg = [G ]1, 0 m p me r 2 = 1.14 1013 N attraction between the proton and electron.

= (1.992381602 1030 kg ) ( 7842.6 kg m 3 ) = 2.540461 10 26 m 3 ,

= ( 3.9289 108 m ) ( Length ) = 1.037 10 15 m,

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

Two neutrons side by side as in a nucleus will experience a gravitational potential

U g = [G ]1, 0 ( mn )2 ( 2rn ) = 2.835 10 16 J = 1769 eV .

Vescape = ( [G ]1, 0 mn rn )1 2 = [ ( 2.0956 10 23 m 3 ( s 2 kg )

L i = 2(1.6749 10 27 kg ) ( 2200 m s )r = ( 7.36956 1024 kgm s )r.

Their final angular momentum L f = 2mn ( 582000 m s ) (1.037 1015 m )

= 2.0217 1036 kgm 2 s .

6. Proton-neutron Attraction, Charge-conduction Electrons

will be considered the same as the cs-protons radius of 3.788566 108 m.

Cosmic scale neutron radius :

The radius of a 1cm3 spherical volume is :

A radius 0.62035 cm makes a circular area :

From geometry, the maximum # of conduction e-s available on half a cs-neutrons

( 9.018402 1017 m 2 1.209 104 m 2 ) (1 1023 e s cm3 )

e # = ( 2 electrons 1.2566 10 23 m 2 ) = 1.6 10 23 electrons m 2 .

FRACTAL PHYSICS THEORY - NUCLEONS AND

over the cs-neutrons surface so an approximation is made by calculating the E at the

# of conduction e s = (surface area) ( e # = 2.353944 10 22 e s m 2 )

Qn Charge (C) = ( # of conduction e s Slab )( 1.60217653 10 19 C )

Slab #5 = 0.5R 2 ( Slabs 1 through 4) R 2 = 0.167729886 R 2