1

Introduction

1.1

Power situation in Nepal and world: Historical Background and Development

1.1.1
Basic Definitions
Power is the rate of energy supply/consumption/demand. It is represented by P and Standard unit
of measurements in SI Unit is Watt.
Energy ( J ) Work done Force ( N ) Displacement (m )
=
=
= 1W = 1J / S = 1Nm / s
Time( S )
Time
Time ( S )
Energy can be in any form like Heat, Light, and Electricity
Power( watt) =

Energy in the form of Electricity is commonly termed as power and used widely all over the
world as it is easily transportable at high speed and convertible in to different form of energy
efficiently as per requirement. Electricity is taken as basic commodity as it is essential for running
communications and electronics equipments.
Energy is essential for anybody to perform work- day to day work (cooking, transportation,
heating, cooling, lighting etc); Commercial activities (shopping complex, theatres, and cinema
halls) and Industrial use (production of goods, commodities, processing and refining etc)
Common units of Energy and Power measurements used in hydropower Engineering
Energy
Power
Value
Name
Symbol
Value
Name
Symbol
101 j
Deca joule
Daj
101 w
Deca watt
dw
102 j
Hecta joule
Hj
102 w
Hecta watt
hw
3
3
10 j
Killo joule
Kj
10 w
Killo watt
kw
106j
Mega joule
MJ
106 w
Mega watt
Mw
9
9
10 j
Giga joule
GJ
10 w
Giga watt
Gw
12
12
10 j
Tera joule
TJ
10 w
Tera watt
Tw
1015j
Penta joule
PJ
1015 w
Penta watt
Pw
1018j
Exa joule
EJ
1018w
Exa watt
Ew
21
21
10 j
Zetta joule
ZJ
10 w
Zetta watt
Zw
1 HP = 735.5 W in Metric (MKS) system mostly used in Hydropower Engineering academic
courses but 1 HP = 746 W in FPS system not more used in academic exercise.
Hydropower engineering deals with the Electricity energy generated from the electro-mechanical
equipment (turbine-generator) and the unit of electricity energy measurement is KWh or Unit.
1 KWh or 1 Unit of electricity is the energy obtained from a heater (or other electrical appliances)
of 1 KW capacity in 1 hour.
1 KWh = 1KW 1hour = 1000W 1hr = 1000 J / s 3600 s = 36 10 5 J
Common Energy Conversion factors
Unit
1 MJ
1 KWh
1 Ton of oil Equivalent (TOE)
1 Standard m3 gas
1 Raw Oil Barel
1 Fuel wood (1 bhary = 2.4
m3)

MJ

KWh

Ton of oil
Equivalent (TOE)

Raw Oil
Barel

Fuel wood
(1 bhary)

1
3.6
42300

0.278
1
11750

0.0000236
0.000085
1

0.025
0.09
1190

0.000176
0.000635
7.49

7.8E-05
0.00028
3.31

40
5650

11.11
1569

0.00084
0.134

1
159

0.00629
1

0.00279
0.44

0.302

359

2.25

12800
3556
Source: 10 Yr 10000 MW Task force report 2009 (BS 2065)

Chapter 1

Standard
m3 gas

1.1.2 Sources of Energy and its consumption in world:

Sun is the main source of Energy in the form of solar radiation. Some of that
energy has been preserved as fossil energy, some is directly or indirectly usable;
for example, via wind, hydro- or wave power.
The term solar constant is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation
per unit area, measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, in a plane
perpendicular to the rays.
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just visible light.
It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1366 watts per square meter, though it
fluctuates by about 6.9% during a yearfrom 1412 W m2 in early January to1321
W m2 in early July, due to the Earth's varying distance from the sun by a few parts
per thousand from day to day.
For the whole Earth, with a area of 127,400,000 km2, the total energy rate is 174
petawatts (1.7401017 W), plus or minus 3.5%. This value is the total rate of solar
energy received by the planet; about half, 89 PW, reaches the Earth's surface.

Primary Sources of Energy

Fossil fuels oil, natural gas and coal
Non Fossil fuels- namely nuclear power and renewable sources
Renewable sources- hydro, solar, wind, Geo-thermal, Tidal
Consumption of Energy and Power Situation in World

In 2008, total worldwide energy consumption was 474 exajoules (4741018 J) with 80 to
90 percent derived from the combustion of fossil fuels This is equivalent to an average
power consumption rate of 15 terawatts (1.5041013 W)
Economic Crisis from 2006-2009 the energy consumption has not been increased but
slightly decreased

Rise of Energy consumption between 2005 and 2030 is approximately 41 percent.

This demand increase will take place in developing countries, where the present demand
of energy is low due to less or small economic activities which are expected to grow most
rapidly during its development process.

Chapter 1

Global economic output, as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), (Nepal = 65 KWh/capita in
2005 and targeted to reach 100 KWh/capita by 2012)

*OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Member Countries

(30)
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
United Kingdom, United States
The linkage between electricity demand and economic progress is evident when considering
electricity use (kilowatt-hours, kWh) on a per-capita basis relative to GDP per capita in countries
Chapter 1

around the world. China, South Korea and the United States are specifically highlighted in the
chart above, which displays OECD*countries in red and non-OECD nations in blue.
Source: The Outlook for Energy A View to 2030 http://exxonmobil.com/corporate/images/enlarged_eoworld.jpg

Modern energy supplies (Nuclear Energy) are still a precious commodity for millions of
people due to complex technology and higher risk posed to human and environmental
health due to leakage of radioactive radiation.

1.1.3 Energy /Power consumption or situation in Nepal

Yearly Energy Supply (Production) by type in MGJ

Type

51/52

Year

1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09

Traditional

258.11

263.48 267.02

272.77 278.60 284.61 290.86

302.08

308.61

315.27

322.10

328.09

334.78

341.62

348.87

Fuel wood

230.55

235.37 237.45

242.56 247.76 253.09 258.64

269.16

274.96

280.89

286.96

292.46

298.33

304.72

311.17

Agri. Residue 10.35

10.56

11.63

11.89

12.14

12.44

12.73

13.03

13.33

13.63

13.96

14.01

14.37

14.36

14.68

Animal dung

17.21

17.55

17.93

18.32

18.70

19.08

19.49

19.90

20.32

20.75

21.18

21.63

22.08

22.54

23.02

Commercial

24.79

27.69

29.48

35.10

34.85

44.90

43.34

43.85

43.27

44.86

43.20

46.60

43.96

44.26

48.90

Petroleum

19.13

21.56

23.64

28.97

28.16

30.20

31.29

32.31

32.12

31.60

30.06

29.26

30.14

27.91

33.01

LPG

0.64

0.89

1.07

1.15

1.24

1.49

1.97

2.40

2.76

3.26

3.82

3.99

4.61

4.77

5.70

Motor sprit
(Gasoline)

1.15

1.36

1.49

1.58

1.66

1.87

1.98

2.12

2.26

2.28

2.53

2.71

3.41

3.38

4.16

Air turbine
fuel

1.36

1.45

1.75

1.87

2.00

2.04

2.28

1.72

1.91

2.32

2.42

2.33

2.31

2.49

2.49

Kerosene

6.56

7.58

8.82

12.52

10.69

12.01

11.47

14.02

12.64

11.27

8.66

8.22

7.17

5.63

2.54

High speed
Disel

8.61

9.50

9.80

11.42

11.97

11.76

12.37

10.86

11.38

11.37

11.91

11.16

11.63

11.48

17.69

Light Disel oil 0.13

0.17

0.09

0.04

0.04

0.17

0.13

0.09

0.02

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

Fuel oil

0.43

0.34

0.34

0.04

0.17

0.43

0.59

0.58

0.55

0.42

-0.03

0.00

0.05

0.03

0.00

Others

0.26

0.26

0.30

0.34

0.38

0.43

0.48

0.52

0.59

0.66

0.75

0.84

0.95

0.12

0.41

Coal

2.85

3.07

2.56

2.60

2.90

10.48

7.45

6.48

5.72

7.29

6.46

10.36

6.16

8.24

7.75

Electricity

2.81

3.07

3.28

3.54

3.79

4.22

4.61

5.07

5.43

5.97

6.67

6.97

7.66

8.10

8.14

Renewable
(others)

0.32

0.45

0.58

0.71

0.84

1.01

1.22

1.39

1.58

1.71

1.91

2.10

2.32

2.50

2.73

Biogas

0.30

0.43

0.55

0.68

0.81

0.98

1.18

1.35

1.53

1.65

1.85

2.03

2.22

2.38

2.59

Micro-hydro

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.05

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.09

0.11

0.14

Solar

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.001

0.002

0.002

0.003

0.003

0.003

0.004

0.006

Total

283.23

291.62 297.07

347.33

353.45

361.84

367.21

376.79

381.05

388.38

400.51

Chapter 1

52/53

53/54

54/55

55/56

56/57

57/58

308.58 314.29 330.52 335.42

58/59

59/60

60/61

61/62

62/63

63/64

64/65

65/66

Source: WECS Energy synopsis Report

Electricity is clean energy as it does not produce any type of pollution on its use, convertible to any form
of energy easily. Transportation and handling management is easy.
Sectorial Energy Consumption in Nepal
Historical trend of Sectorial Energy Consumption in Nepal (MGJ)
Year

51/52

52/53

53/54

54/55

55/56

56/57

57/58

58/59

59/60

60/61

61/62

62/63

63/64

64/65

65/66

Sector

1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09

Residential

260.86 267.34 274.24 283.74 287.67 295.00 301.13 314.61 320.18 326.22 331.55 339.77 345.384 351.192 356.752

Industrial

11.08

11.76

6.43

6.90

7.54

15.72

12.99

12.52

11.97

13.72

12.74

12.99

12.7914 13.9887 13.3698

Commercial 2.56

2.85

3.20

2.94

3.20

3.71

4.13

4.94

4.09

5.33

5.33

5.71

4.6738 4.8857 5.1222

Transport

7.84

8.73

11.93

13.55

14.82

12.78

13.59

12.01

13.85

13.12

13.89

14.40

14.5095 15.0366 20.876

Agricultural 0.64

0.68

0.98

1.11

0.72

2.98

3.15

2.77

2.90

2.90

3.07

3.28

3.0106 2.5208 3.6464

Other

0.26

0.30

0.34

0.34

0.34

0.43

0.47

0.47

0.55

0.64

0.64

0.6803 0.7584 0.7399

0.26

Grand Total 283.23 291.62 297.07 308.58 314.29 330.52 335.42 347.33 353.45 361.84 367.21 376.79 381.05 388.382 400.506

Chapter 1

Most of the Energy is used for residential use, The industrial use is comaparatively low and will
be very high in development of economic activities under the process of making new
industrialized Nepal
The amount of Per capita
electricity consumption reflects
the living standard of people and
their economic conditions.
The per capita electricity
consumption in Nepal is only 69
KWh and aimed to reach up to
100 KWh by 2012 (II nd Interim
Plan 2010-2012)
The per capita electricity
consumption of Nepalese people
is about 37 times less than the
world average and 27 times less
than the average Asian people.
48% of the total population in
Nepal has access to the
Electricity. Only 8% of people
of rural areas enjoy it (MOF
2007, Energy Synopsis of Nepal
WECS-2010)

1.1.4 Side Effect of fossils fuels is emission of GHG resulting Global Warming
Side Effect of fossils fuels is emission of GHG gas (CO2, CH4 and N2O) causing the Global
warming and climate change. Climate change rise of temperature, disturbance in rainfall
(monsoon rain, high intensity, unpredictable rain, landslide, flood and draught affecting
Chapter 1

agriculture, ecosystem, biodiversity causing large numbers of endangered species of flora and
fauna)
GHG Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion in Nepal in 1994/95 (Gg)
Sectors

Diesel

Kerosene

Coal

Gasoline

LPG

Fuel Oil

Total

291

24

317

Industrial

73

233

320

Transport

360

19

75

456

Agricultural

135

135

Commercial

113

26

15

166

Energy
Conversion

71

71

572

429

263

75

39

87

1,465

Residential

Total

Sources: WECS 1996 in Nepal's Initial National Communication, 2004

Note: These exclude emissions from the burning of aviation fuel

GHG emission from Combustion of Fossils Fuel (1994/1995)

Agricultural
9.2%

Commercial
11.3%

Energy Conversion
4.8%
Residential
21.6%

Transport
31.1%

Industrial
21.8%

Sources: WECS 1996 in Nepal's Initial National Communication, 2004

Sectorial GHG Emission from Combustion of Fossils Fuel (1994/95)

Electricity Energy do not produce any emissions in its use so it is termed as clean energy and the
efficiency of the energy use also has been improved significantly due to invention of modern
electrical appliances.
1.1.5 Historical Background of Hydropower Development
The first hydropower development or installation in the world was in 1882 and it is in Wisconsin
of USA. The capacity of the first hydropower plant was only 200 kW. Similarly the first
hydropower development or installation in India was in 1987 in Darjeling. The capacity of the
Indian Hydropower project was of 130 kW. Pharping Hydel Powerhouse of 500 kW capacities is
the first powerhouse installed in Nepal in 1911.

Chapter 1

The Pharping hydropower station was developed with the technical and financial aid of British
Government at the cost of NRs 713373.07 within 17 months in 1911 (BS 1968 Jestha 9 completed
date) . The power house with the installed capacity of 500 kW was running successfully till 1981
but after then, the water used for the plant was diverted for drinking purpose and the plant was
shut down. Even now, this plant can be restarted if the supply of water is made possible (NEA,
2003a).
Nepals first hydropower plant was installed not so long time after the first hydropower plants
were installed in USA or in India
First Hydropower Plants

The Government of Nepal decided to open its doors to the private sector involving both local and
foreign investors to promote Public Private Partnership under the BOOT system in 1992 in order
to fulfill the growing electricity demand using Nepals abundant hydro potential.
Commissioning dates of hydropower Projects in Nepal
S.N.

Name of Power project

Hydro Electricity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Installed
Capacity
(MW)

Average
annual
Energy
(GWh)

Commission
and
operation
Year

Pharping
Sundarijal
Panauti
Pokhara Phewa
Trishuli
Sunkosi
Tinau
Gandak

0.5
0.6
2.4
1.0
21.0
10.0
1.0
15.0

3.3
4.8
7.0
8.5
114.5
70.0
10.2
48.0

1911
1936
1965
1967
1968
1973
1974
1979

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Kulekhani-1
Devighat
Seti
Kulekhani-II
Marshyangdi
Andhikhola
Jhimruk
Chatara
Puwa khola

60.0
14.1
1.5
32.0
69.0
5.1
12.3
3.2
6.2

201.0
114.0
1.8
95.0
462.0
38.0
81.0
3.8
48.0

1982
1983
1985
1986
1989
1991
1994
1996
1999

18
19
20
21

Khimti
Modi
Bhotekoshi
Kaligandaki

60.0
14.0
36.0
144.0

353.0
87.0
250.0
625.0

2000
2000
2000
2001

Chapter 1

Investor

Cost per
KW

Nepal/British
Nepal
Russia
India
India
China
BPC
India
WB and
others
India
China
Japan
German/WB
BPC
BPC
Nepal/WB
Nepal
HPC/IPPnorway
Nepal/Korea
IPP (USA)
Nepal/ADB

RS 1426.75

US$1296.30
US$1093.70
US$1300.00
US$1950.00
US$2781.69
US$1937.50
US$3333.33

US$2887.10
US$2250.00
US$1864.86
US$2666.67
US$2638.89

22
23
24
25
26
27

Indrawati
Chilime
Tatopani (Myagdi)
Sunkosi
Piluwa khola
Khudi

7.5
22.1
2.0
2.6
3.0
4.0

49.7
137.0
10.2
14.4
19.4
24.3

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2006

28

Middle Mrshyangdi
Small hydropwer-32 nos
(Government)
Small hydropwer-12 nos
(Ipp-Nepal)
Total Hydro electricity
Thermal
Hetauda- Disel

70.0

398.0

2009

8.1

37.0

different time

Nepal

7.64
635.84

40.0
3355.9

different time

Nepal-IPP

14.4

43.0

1963

39.0

165.0

1991

53.4
689.24

208.0
3563.9

29
30
B
1
2

Duhabi multifuel
Total Thermal
Electricity
Grand Total

IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
Nepal
Nepal
IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
Nepal/Germ
an

US$2666.67

NRs 312000

Nepal
NepalFinland

Source: NEA annual report 2009, and 10 Yr 10000MW Task force Report 2009 (BS 2065)
Project under Construction
S.N.

Name of Project

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Installed
Capacity
(MW)

Lower Indrawati Khola SHP

Mardi Khola SHP
Ridhi Khola
Upper Hadikhola
Lower pilluwa
Kulekhani III
Chamelia
Mai khola (Himal Dolakha Hydro)
Lower Modi (United hydro)
Siprin khola (synergy HPP)
Ankhu-1 Hpp (ankhu khola Jal bidhut
company)
Phawa khola HPP (Shivani Hpp Pvt
ltd)

Investor

Status

4.50
3.10
2.40
0.991
0.990
14
30
4.455
9.9
9.658

IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
Japan
Nepal/Korea
IPP-Nepal
IPP-Nepal
IPP Nepal

6.930

IPP Nepal

4.950

IPP Nepal

completed
completed
completed
testing

completed

Source: NEA annual report 2010/11

S.N.

Description

Production of Electricity
Non Reservoir Project

NEA power projects

Independent Power
Producers (IPP)
Sub Total
2 Reservoir Project
NEA power projects
Independent Power
Producers (IPP)
Chapter 1

Installed
Capacity
(MW)

Production
in Wet
season
(maximum
MW)

Production
in Dry
season
(minimum
MW)

385.66

350

141.9

158.315
543.975

150
500

58.1
200

92

92

Remarks

B
1

2
3

Sub Total
Thermal Power
NEA power projects
Total
Import of electricity
River Agreement

Tanakpur
Kosi
Import/Export
Commercial agreement
Sub Total
Grand Total
Supply/production

92

92

53.4
689.375

20
520

20
312

20
10
50
50
130

20
10
50
80

12.5
5
50
50
117.5

819.375

600

429.5

640/542

720/308

Demand/supply (2007/08)

Demand (2009/10)

815

878.8

Demand (2010/11)

890

967

Surplus/Deficit (10/11)

-290

-537

Max 20 MW and
7,00,00,000 KWh
annually

Source: 10 Yr 10000 MW Task force Report 2009 (BS 2065) and NEA annual report 2010
Load Shedding minimum 2 hours in wet season and maximum 16 hours of a day in the dry season in 2009/10 and it
has been forecasted to increase up to 18 hours of load shedding in a day during dry season of 2011/12.
The increase of annual power demand at present is about 80 MW per year and it will increase with increase of
economic activities (industrial and commercial activities) within the country.
Trend of Electricity Demand in the future

Chapter 1

10

Source: NEA Annual report 2009/10.

Chapter 1

11

Chapter 1

12

1.1.6 Potential Hydropower in world

The worlds total technical feasible hydro potential is estimated at 14 370 TWh/year, of
which about 8082 TWh/year is currently considered economically feasible for
development.
About 700 GW (or about 2600 TWh/year) is already in operation, with a further 108 GW
under construction [Hydropower & Dams, World Atlas and Industry Guide, 2000].
Most of the remaining potential is in Africa, Asia and Latin America:
Remaining hydropower potential is in Africa, Asia and Latin America
Technically feasible
Economically feasible
potential:
potential:
Africa
1750 TWh/year
1000 TWh/year
Asia
6800 TWh/year
3600 TWh/year
North + Central America
1660 TWh/year
1000 TWh/year
South America
2665 TWh/year
1600 TWh/year
Total
12835 TWh/year
7200 TWh/year
At present hydropower supplies about 20 per cent of the world's electricity. Hydro
supplies more than 50 per cent of national electricity in about 65 countries, more than 80
per cent in 32 countries and almost all of the electricity in 13 countries.
(Source: IAEA Report on Hydropower and the World's Energy Future)
1.1.7 Potential Hydropower of Nepal
Nepals theoretical hydropower potential of 83 GW is about 1.5% of worlds total
hydropower potential of 5610 GW in comparison with the Nepals land (147181 km2) of
only 0.11% of the world total (Shrestha, 1985, p.34).
This shows that hydropower potential per unit land area in Nepal is about 13 times higher
than that of the world average.
As the aforementioned value of hydro potential does not include that from the small river
basins (i.e. catchment areas < 300 sq. km, river length < 10 km.) and there are significant
numbers of such rivers in Nepal, the real hydropower potential of Nepal might be much
higher than this. To date, there are no comprehensive and detailed studies defining the
total micro hydro potential of Nepal from such small rivers.

Chapter 1

13

Theoretical hydropower potential of rivers of Nepal

1.1.8 Challenges and Opportunities of hydropower Development in Nepal

Although Nepal has developed its first hydropower project about a century ago, the
development pace of its hydropower development is not as it was expected and needed.
Due to this, severe load shedding is unavoidable and becomes a part of Nepalese people.
Only about 1.5% of the economically feasible potential or 1% of theoretical potential has
been installed. Only about 48% of the total population has access to the electricity.
Challenges
The following are the challenges that were faced in hydropower development in Nepal

Lack of political stability

Political situation in Nepal is not favorable and stable since from 1990. Any one
of elected government has completed its full phase tenure since from the great
peoples movement in 1990 (Jan Andolan of 2046). Political parties and leaders
do not have clear vision for development of hydropower and its water resources
for well being of the Nepalese people. Political leaders focused only on benefits
of their own people and parties rather than the overall development of Nepal.
During Panchyat period also, the development pace in hydropower is not
encouraging as the development activities were based on grant and aid of
developed countries and developing partners. There was no vision of technology
transfer and independency. During Ranas regimes, the hydropower development
was carried out only for limited use of their own benefits.
Present political instability has brought disorder in laws and regulations enhance
violence and insecurity at local and central level. This resulted retardation of
investment and development activities in hydropower.

Lack of Technology and Skilled man power

Although Nepal has large potential of hydropower development, it does not have
its own technology and sufficient skilled man power. The Nepalese engineer has

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lack of confidence in engineering due to little experience and knowledge in design

and construction of hydropower projects of large scale greater than 50 MW. The
technology and technical equipments for quality monitoring and standard
specifications and norms has not been developed in Nepal. The machines and
hydro-mechanical equipments production and maintenance facilities has not been
developed fully yet.

Lack of Investment
The development of hydropower project needs considerable investment i.e. Rs
12~14 corore for 1 MW hydropower development. The gestation period (i.e. the
time period between the start of investment to the start of return from the project)
of the hydropower projects are higher than 4~5 years, and the payback period
(complete recovery of investment) of the hydropower projects are 8~10 years.
Although the investment in hydropower is relatively high but not more beneficial
compared to the investments in other sectors like trade and commerce, industries
etc, the investment in hydropower is not growing up in the scale as it is required.
Without foreign investment, the hydropower development could not be
accelerated to its desired level. For this, stable political system, Good safety and
security, clear policies and priority of hydropower developments, assured markets
and return of their investment mechanism are essentials for creating conducive
environment of investment in hydropower.

Lack of infrastructures
The feasible and attractive hydropower projects are located in remote areas where
physical infrastructures like access road, transmission lines, basic health facilities
and other essential skilled manpower and construction materials with equipments
availability is very poor or not available at the site. Development of these
infrastructures needs heavy investments.
The lack of integrated infrastructure developments policies made haphazard
developments resulting the minimum benefits of the infrastructures that could be
achieved. The poor maintenance and rehabilitation of the infrastructures reduces
the service quality and reliability of the services.

Risk imposed by Global Warming and Climate Change

The water is the basic raw material for the power production through hydropower
plant. The global warming (0.06 0C ~ 0.08 0C in Nepal~Himalayas) has resulted
increase of atmospheric temperature resulting the fast rate of snowmelt. The snow
in the Himalayas acts as the overhead tank and gives flow in the rivers
continuously throughout the years. Fast melting of snow due to global warming
results the depletion of snow storage and can cause depletion of low flow in long
term posing threats to the hydropower production. The disturbances in monsoon
rainfall pattern and amount are also attributed to the climate change. The extreme
drought and flood events with high sediment and debris flow seems to be more

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frequent in recent years posing serious uncertainties and threads to the hydropower projects. The GLOF events has been increased and caused serious floods
with debris flow which may damage the structures of hydropower projects. The
natural risks and threads have been taken as the one of the most difficult
challenges in hydropower development.
Opportunities
Nepal is in between the two giant countries China and India. Both of the countries are
developing very rapidly in recent years. They need lot of power/energy for their
development activities. Nepal has more than six thousands of rivers and rivulets and has
favorable topographical and geological conditions for hydropower developments. The
following points can be taken as opportunities for hydropower development in Nepal.

Clean Energy
Hydropower is taken as clean energy as it does not produce any pollution during
its use and production. It is renewable and hence more attractive sources of
energy. The technology of its production and uses has been already developed and
affordable. The hydropower is easy to handle and transport from its production to
the load center.
The water of Nepalese rivers can be taken as white coal and policies has been
introduced to exploit the white coal in worldwide for supply of necessary energy
(IAEA energy for future world).

Market available
The market for Hydropower is easily available for Nepal since its neighbors are
being in developing phase and the economic activities are being taken at rapidly.
The electricity energy produced in Nepal can be exported to India and China thus
helps to reduce trade gap of the nations with these country.
Electricity produced can also be used for domestic use in promotion of industrial
activities and replacement of the petroleum fuels that has to be imported paying
hard currency. Thus market for hydropower development is abundant and can be
taken as opportunities.

Favorable geological and topographical conditions

The steep topography (High river gradient) with good geological conditions (hard
rock in river bed) are the favorable and essentials for development of hydropower
projects at low cost of investment. The perennial rivers with considerable low
flow are good for hydropower productions. Although sediment flow rate in the
middle mountains and chure range are high, the sediment flow and production
rate in high Himalayas are less and can be taken as the opportunity.

Cheap labor force availability

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Nepal has developed lot of engineering institutes and technical centers after the
restoration of Democracy in 1989 (BS 2046). The institutions have produced lot
of skilled and semi skilled man powers. Although the human resources do not
have experience of the mega projects, they have equipped with theoretical and
practical knowledge at the institutions. These human resources are available at
cheap rate compared to that of the man power from developed countries. The
availability of the man powers both skilled and unskilled labors can be taken as
good opportunities to develop hydropower schemes for harnessing nations water
resources.
1.2

Introduction to power (Electricity) system in Nepal

Power System comprised of three components; a) Production/generation b)

Transmission/ evacuation and c) Distribution.
1.2.1 Production/Generation
Power production in the form of electricity needs rotation of the electric coil inside strong
magnetic fields. Generator is the electromechanical parts which converts the mechanical
energy in to the electrical energy based on Faradys Principle. The coil is rotated in stron
magnetic field at high velocity to induce electricity in the coil. The range of voltage of
the generated current is 6.6KV to 11 KV. The shaft of the generator can be rotated
providing energy from various sources like from coal, Diesel and water. Based on the use
of energy to drive the shaft of generator, power system can be grouped in to two systems.
Thermal Power system
Electricity is produced from running of generator directly from shaft energy obtained
from diesel engines. Steam engines can also be used for to drive the shaft of generator.
Coals/Gasoline is used as main fuel for steam engines. The efficiency of the thermal
power system is relatively lower than the hydropower generation and it is expensive than
hydropower regarding the operation and maintenance cost. The total installed capacity of
thermal power is 53.4 MW but about 20 MW is in operational use.
Hydropower system
In this system, Electricity power is generated by the use potential or kinetic energy of
water. As, water is being renewable in nature, high importance has been provided for this
system. Besides it, hydropower system is pollution free and so, it is taken as the
environmental friendly system for power production. Although the investment cost is
high, the operation and maintenance cost is low and it is attractive being the clean energy
having no pollution during production and consumption. The total installed capacity is
about 634.3 MW out of which 92 MW is reservoir type and rest 542.3 MW is runoff river
types which produce about 500 MW only in wet season and 200 MW in dry season.
Advantages
Disadvantages
i) Renewable (white coal)
High gestation period
ii) Running cost is low
high investment cost
iii) Quick response (1 to 2 min) to power system (peaking) dependent in nature

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Solar power system

Solar or photovoltaic cells are used to trap solar energy and to produce electricity. In
Nepal solar system is used only for lighting the in the rural areas as the power production
is in small scale and expensive.
In developed countries the other sources of power supply are Nuclear, Tidal, Wind and
Geothermal.
1.2.2 Transmission/Evacuation system
Generally the load centre is far from the generation or production system and the power
produced from the plants are evacuated or transmitted to the distribution centre through
transmission line. Transmission Lines do not supply the power to the customer it supplies
the power to the distribution centre (Sub stations) only. The electricity generated from the
generators are in 11 to 25 KV range and stepped up to the transmission voltage
33/66/132/230 KV. Transmission line may be single circuit or double circuit depending
upon the numbers of wires in the transmission line. In developed country high
transmission voltage 765 KV and 1200 KV as power capacity is directly
proportional to the square of transmission voltage. For transmission line greater than
600 km, DC transmission is economical at 400 KV and the line is connected to AC
system at the two ends through a transformer connecting through converter and inverter
(silicon control rectifier)
1.2.3 Distribution system
Based on supply system, power system can be divided into isolated and grid system. In
isolated system the power is supplied from a definite power plant while in grid system the
supply of power is made available from multi power plants. Failure of a particular power
plant will not disturb the power supply in grid system. The grid system might be regional,
national or international also.
Advantage
Use of remote energy source
Improve reliability
Utilization of the time difference between various time zones where peak demand
are not coincident, require low installed capacity
Maintenance of power plant possible without disturbing the supply
Disadvantage
High power loss in transmission lines in the grid connected system due to long
transmission lines
1.3

Types and Classification of Hydropower plants as Low head, Medium

Head and High Head
1.3.1 Based on Installed capacity

Less than 100 KW:

100 KW to 500 KW:
500 KW to 10 MW:
10 MW to 300 MW:
Bigger than 300 MW:

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Micro
Mini
Small hydro
Medium Hydro
Big Hydro

18

1.3.2 Based on Head of the power Plant

Low, medium and high head are terms used to indicate the most suitable type of turbine
for the project. Various types of turbines are used depending upon the head of the power
plant.
Low Head up to 10 m Use: Cross-flow, axial-flow or propeller turbine (Kaplan)
Medium Head 10 m to 200 m Use: Cross-flow, Francis, Pelton or Turgo turbine
High Head 200 m to 1000 m Use: Pelton, Turgo-impulse or Francis turbine
Francis Turbine

Pelton Turbine

Pelton Turbine Runner Close view

Kaplan Turbine (Propeller)

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Bulb Turbine (horizontal and vertical alignment)

Schematic View of Hydropower Plant

Dandekar book
Low head Less than 15 m
Medium head 15 to 70 m
High Head 71 to 250 m
Very High Head above 250 m

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Turbine Type and Use

High head Impulse Turbine (Pelton,
turgo turbine)
Medium Head Mixed flow Turbine
(Farncis,)
Low Head axial flow Turbine (Kaplan,
Bulb, Propeller)
Medium and Low Head Turbines are
Reactive Turbine

P.N. Modi and Seth Book

Low head Less than 30 m
Medium head 30 to 250 m
High Head above 250 m

20

1.3.3 Based on the types of water use for the power plant
Runoff the river, Pondage Runoff River (PROR), storage, pump storage plants and Tidal
Run-of-River (RoR) type
A run-of-river project is built to use some or most of the flow in a stream depending upon
the flow throughout the year. No attempt is made to store water for the dry periods. A
run-of-river project would not normally have a dam, other than an intake weir, which is a
very low head structure at the intake. The intake weir keeps the water in the stream high
enough to fill the pipe at all times.
Suitable where the fluctuation of flow in dry season and wet season flow are small like in
rivers coming from Tibet at border such schemes do not alter the flow regime at the
downstream. Khimti, Khudi, Trishuli etc
Pondage Run-off River Type (PROR)
Run off river plants are provided with pondage to regulate flow to the plant which
enables them to take care of our to hour fluctuation in load on the plant throughout the
day or week. The water in river are stored at the head pond during non peak load or off
peak load hours of a day to with draw or use the stored water for power production
during the peak hours of load. The PROR power plants may operates at full capacity for
all hours during high flow or rainy season but it produces power at full capacity at peak
load hours. The power plant may shut down or operate at lower capacity during the peak
off hours in dry season. At the same location, the installed capacity of the PROR plants
are higher than the ROR type plants and operate at full capacity only at peak load hours.
Marshyangdi 69 MW, Middle Marshyangdi 70 MW and Kaligandaki A 144 MW are
PROR project in Nepal.
Reservoir Storage Plants
Hydropower plants which draw water from large storage reservoirs developed by
constructing dam across the river are called reservoir or storage project. Depending upon
the storage volume, these plants can hold surplus water from periods when the stream
flow exceeds demands for utilization during the period when demand exceeds the stream
flow. Better utilization of hydropower potential is thus achieved with such plants. The
water flow stores in wet season to supply in dry season. Kulekhani reservoir project is
only one storage project in Nepal Kulekhani-I 60 MW and Kulekhani-II 32 MW.
Pump storage

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Plants in which all or portion of the water used by these plants is pumped back to the
head water pond to be made available again for the power generation during peak hours
of demand. This type of the power plant essentially consists of a tail water pond and head
water pond. During peak load water is drawn from the head water ponds through the
penstock to operate hydro electric generating units. The water is collected in to tail water
pond and during the off peak hours, pumps are operated to pump the water back from the
tail water pond to the head water pond. Power for operating the pumps is provided by
some of peak thermal or hydropower plant.
For head up to 120 m special Francis turbine has been developed for the pump storage
plants. The runners of the turbines are so shaped that they can be used both as turbine as
well as pumps. Such turbines are known as reversible turbines.
For high head, multistage centrifugal pumps are used for pumping water and high head
Francis Turbines are installed in power production.
Tidal Plants
Sea water rises or falls twice a day, each full cycle occupying about 12 hours 25 minutes.
The tidal range or the difference between the high tide and low tide level is utilized to
generate power.

Tidal Range

12 hr 25 min

12 hr 25 min

This is accomplished constructing a basin separated from the sea by a wall and installing
a turbine in opening through this wall.
During high tide water passes from the sea to the basin thus running the turbine and
generating power. During low tide, water from the basin flows back to the sea which can
also be utilized to generate power by providing another set of turbine operating in
opposite flow direction.
Example France: Rance power plant, tidal range 11 m, 9 units of 38 MW each with total
capacity of 342 MW.

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1.3.4 Types of Hydropower plants based on Function

Base load plant and Peak plants
Base load plants
As the name indicates base load plants are those which are capable of substantially
continuous operation in the base of the load curve throughout the year. Both ROR and
Reservoir plants can be used as base load hydro plants. When ROR plants without
pondage are used as base load plants, their full plant discharge is seldom more than the
minimum flow of the river and can not support the power system during dry season.
Hence the reservoir hydro power plants are used as base load plants during the low flow
season.
Peak Load Plants
Peak load plants are those designed and constructed primarily for taking care of peak load
of a power system. Pumped storage plants are peak load plants. PROR plants can operate
both as peak load and base load plants depending upon the river flow and load on the
power system.
During High flow season
ROR plants runs at maximum capacity and acts as base load plants in Nepal
Thermal plants and reservoir plants are operated as peak load plants to generate extra
power needed beyond the capacity of the ROR plants.
During Dry Flow season or low flow season
ROR plant operates at very low capacity due to lean flow available at dry season. The
ROR plants only can not support the base load of the power system. Hence additional
power that may require supporting the base load, reservoir power plants and thermal
power plants are also operated as the base load plants. PROR projects are used as peak
load power plants and load shedding plan is introduced at peak our due to insufficient
power production during dry flow season.
Hydropower plants have better peaking characteristics (response fast maximum 3 to 4
minutes) and there is absolutely no wastage when they are idle.
Thermal power plants have slow response (at least 30 minutes) and continuous loss of
fuel at idle conditions.

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