Mathematical Tools in Oelies uF TEC PreeLearners’ Planet In this section students can generate unlimited unique online as well as printable tests on Physics, Chemistry and Maths. Take the test online and get instant results or take a print for later use. More than 1 lac questions to practice! Pattern of Question -MCQ, -MCQ with more than one option correct, - Assertion and resoning based questions - Comprehension based questions + Numerical - Fill in the Blanks, - Matrix Matching, - True and False, - Subjective questions for board exams + Question based on experiments BISCO MNCL 1. Emulated testing 2. Instant reporting 3. Comprehensive analysis of test 4. Benchmark your self (All india rank and percentile) 5, Detailed explanation to each problem kao aed 1. Take a test 2. View results 3. Create your own test bry ete Rua as ss 1. Students get a better understanding of the critical examination format 2. Emulated tests give a feel of actual online testing enviornment Subsoribe now www.learnersplanet.com admin@learnersplanet.com Call : (91) 9099020032pon nan PF WNP 11. INDEX Common Formulae... Sequences. Logarithms... Elementary Trigonometry Polynomial, Linear, and Quadratic Equations Inequalities. Binomial Expression and Theorem Coordinate Geometry Graphs for Common Functions . Elementary Calculus Integral of a Function... ut Leamers’ Planet meneeeall www.learnersplanet.com Page 1ut Learners’ Planet Common Formulae (i) (a+b)’=a? +b? +2ab (ii) (a—b)?=a? +b? -2ab (iii) (a+b +c)’=a" +b? +c? + 2ab + 2be+2ca (iv) (a+b)(a—b)=a" —b? (v) (a+b)? (vi) (a—b)? (vii) (a+b)? -(a—by’ = 4ab (viii) (a+b) +(a—by’ =2(a’ +b”) a’ +b* + 3ab(a+b) —b*—3ab(a—b) Sequences . A sequence is an arrangement of numbers that have been arranged according to some rule. Depending on the kind of rule followed, there can be many possible sequences. Arithmetic Progression (A.P.): . In this sequence, every number is obtained by adding a certain constant value (either positive or negative) in the preceding number. (a) 1, 3,5, 7, ... (each number is obtained by adding 2 to preceding number) (b) 2,5,8,... ° We can represent an AP as below: a,at+d,a+2d...,a+(n—1)d Page 2 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Here,a is called first term, dis called common difference. a+(n-1)dis the n™ term. The sum of n terms of AP is S,=at(a+d)+(a+2d)+....+[at+(n-1)d] =" f2a+(n—1)d] 2 Geometric Progression (GP): In this sequence, every number is obtained by multiplying its preceding number by a fixed number called common ratio. (a) 1, 2,4, 8, (each digit is obtained by multiplying previous digit by 2) (b) LS =k Here, the common ratio is > We can represent a GP as below: a, ar, ar’, ar"? Here, ais the first term, ris the common ratio ar“ is the n™ term The sum of n terms of a GP is given by S,=atartar+....¢an™ Page 3 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet e When r <1 and n becomes very large, r" becomes very small. So, in that case, you can write the above result as s.=<— (n is infinite). 1-r Natural Numbers: Sp=1+2+3+..4+n _A(n+1) 2 Squared Natural Numbers: 5 =P 42? +..4(n)= n(n+1)(2n+1) n os ——_ Solved Example (1) Find the sum of series 7+ 10+13+16+19+22+25 Sol: S, =. +2,]=517+25] =112 [Asn=7; do =7; a, =a; = 25] (2) Find the sum of series Q=2q 44,4 3.9 27 Sol: Above equation can be written as Q=q+ [s titdegie By using the formula of sum of infinite terms of G.P. Page 4 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet (3) What is the sum of the series (4ded+ oe) ? 3.9 27 . a . . - 1 Sol: Since it is an infinite series here sum S=—*— Here atras It is an effective tool used to make complicated calculations in a simple manner. Consider the expression, a“ = b. This expression implies that ‘a’ raised to the power ‘x’ is equal to ‘b’. This expression has another form given below. Log, b=x The statements a” = b and log, b = x are equivalent. Here, ‘a’ is called the base of the logarithm. Generally, we find logarithm with base 10. For this, we will use a table to find logarithm of a number. 10° =0 10° = 100 10° = 1000 Page 5 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet 10* = 10000 10° = 100000 Now, if we multiply ten thousand by one hundred we get one million, or writing this down: 10,000 x 100 = 1,000,000 or 10* x 10° = 10° (Notice, 4 + 2 = 6) In other words, we can multiply two numbers by adding their powers. These powers are the logarithms of the numbers. For instance, the logarithm of 100 is 2. Logarithm of 10 is 1, that of 1000 is 3. What about the logarithm of 101 or 15.27? Logarithm is split into two parts (MANTISSA & CHARACTERISTC), separating the size of the number from its value. For example: Considering the number 15, 150 and 1500 15 lies between 10 and 100, so its logarithm must be between 1 and 2, i.e. 1. something. 150 lies between 100 and 1000, so its logarithm must be between 2 and 3, i.e. 2. something. 1500 lies between 1000 and 10000, so its logarithm must be between 3 and 4, i.e. 3. something. In each case, the “something” is the same and this is what is printed in the Page 6 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet tables. This is known as the MANTISSA. . The user has to supply the number (1, 2, 3,) that goes before the decimal point. This is known as the CHARACTERISTC. . In the tables, the logarithm of 15 is printed as 1761. ° The logarithm of 15 is 1.1761 ° The logarithm of 150 is 2.1761 ° The logarithm of 1500 is 3.1761... Laws of Logarithms: First law (Product Law): . The logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of logarithms of its factors. i.e. log, (mxn)=log,m+log,n log, (mxnxp)=log,m+log,n+log,p and so on. Remember log, (m+n) #log,m+log,n Second Law (Quotient Law): . The logarithm of a fraction is equal to the difference between the logarithm of numerator and the logarithm of denominator. ; m i.e. log,—=log,m—log,n n log,m Remember 22 #log,m—log,n log,n Page7 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet Third Law (Power Law): . The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the logarithm of the number multiplied by the power. i.e. log,(m)" =nlog,m Corollary: © Since {im =m‘" a/n 1 log, Ym =log,m'/"=—log,m n Antilogarithms: . If log 5274 = 3.7221, then 5274 is called antilogarithm of 3.7221 and we write: antilog 3.7221 = 5274 . We find an antilogarithm from antilogarithm tables. The antilogarithm tables are used in the same way as the logarithm tables. The only difference between the two tables is that column at the extreme left of the log table contains all two digit number starting from 10 to 99; whereas an antilog table contains numbers from. 00 to .99 (i.e. all fractional numbers with only two digits after decimal) in the extreme left column of it. Note: (i) Antilog tables are only to find the antilogarithm of decimal part. (ii) To find the antilog of 2.368 means to find the number whose log is 2.368. Page 8 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet Solved Example (1) Iflog x = 2.798, find x. Sol: If is given that, log x = 2.798 => x = antilog 2.798 Antilog 2.798= the number, characteristic of whose log is 2 and mantissa is 798. From antilog table, the value of .79 under 8 is 6281. Since the characteristic of log of the number is 2. -. The number has 2 + 1 = 3 digits in its integral part (i.e. 3 digits before the decimal point). -. Antilog 2.368 = 628.1 = x = 628.1 Practice Problem 1: © Look up logarithm of 15.27 (a) Work out characteristic, in this case it is 1 (b) Run down the left-hand column until it reaches 15 (c) Now move right until it is on column 2 (1818) (d) Find the difference on column 7 of the differences (20) (e) Add the difference (f) Logarithm of 15.27 is 1.1818 + 0.0020 = 1.1838 Practice Problem 2: . Multiply 15.27 by 48.54 (a) Look up the logarithms, log of 15.27 is 1.1838 and log of 48.54 is 1.6861. Page 8 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (b) (a) (e) (f) (s) (h) (i) Add the logarithms 1.1838 + 16861 2.8699 Mentally remove and store the characteristic (2). Antilogarithmic table: Run down the left-hand column until it finds .86 Move index finger along the row until it is on column 9 (7396) Move other finger to difference column 9 and read the difference (15) Add the difference 7396 +15 7411 The characteristic was 2, meaning the answer is between 100 and 1000 Insert the decimal point in the correct place 741.1 Practice Problem 3: . (a) (b) (c) Divide 54.19 by 10.27 To divide we have to subtract the logarithms Look up the logarithms Subtract them 1.7339 ~ 1.0115 0.7224 Page 10 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet cmeeeeeall (d) Then look up the antilog of 0.7224, (which is 5277). (e) Remembering that the characteristic is 0, insert the decimal point in the correct place 5.277. Practice Problem 4: . Find the square root of 52.73 (a) Square roots are formed by dividing the logarithm by 2 (for cube roots, divide by etc) (b) Look up the logarithm of 52.73 (1.7220) (ce) Divide by 2 (1.7220 + 2 = 0.8610) (d) Look up antilog of 0.8610 (7261) (e) Insert the decimal point in the correct place 7.261 Some useful formulae on logarithms: © = logpa=x =>b*=a © logatlogb=log ab . log a—log b = le(2} . log 1=0 © loga"=nloga Page 11 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet Solved Example (1) If log 2=0.3010 and log3=0.4771, find the value of: (a) log 6 (b) log 5 (c) log 24 Sol: (a) log 6 =log(2x3)=log2+log3 =0.3010+ 0.4771=0.7781 1 (b) log5 = logs =log10-log2 =1-0,3010=0.6990 (-. log, 10=1) 1 (c) logv24 = log(24)2 =HHoe (2x3) =5[3t0g2 +1083] =3{3x 0.3010+ 0.4771] = 0. 69005 Ans. (2) Without using log tables, evaluate: 1 2log,, 5+log,,8 71080 4 1 Sol: 2log,,5+log,,8 71°80 4 =l0B i. 5° +108;8—l08,9(4).” =log25+log8—log2 (no base is written means, the base is 10). = oe{ 2 | =tog100=2 Ans. Page 12 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (3) Sol: (4) Sol: 1 Write the logarithmic equation for E =m. Bad mv? 2 => logE =log1—log2+logm+logv” => logE= 0-log2+logm+ 2logv => logE =logm+ 2logv —log2 Find the value of: (i) 3.832141.4307 (ii) 1.9256—4.5044 (iii) 1.7544x2 (iv) 2.3206 +3 3.8321 1.4307 . “ (i) since after adding decimal parts, we have 1 to carry 1.2628 o.14+341=1-34+1=-1=1 1.9256 4.5044 (ii) [since, 1-4 =-3=3] 3.4212 1.7544 x2 [since, 1x2+1=2+1=1] (ii) 1.5088 240.3206 34+1+0.32 2 240.3206 _ 3414 0.3206 5. 4 ayo -7.aao2 (iv) 2.3206+3= www.learnersplanet.com Page 13it Leamers’ Planet [To make the integral part 2 divisible by 3 take 2=3+1 (5) Iflog x = 2.368, find x. Sol: It is given that, log x = 2.368 = x = antilog 2.368 Antilog 2.368 = the number, characteristic of whose log is 2 and mantissa is 368. From the table, the value of .36 under 8 is 2333. Since the characteristic of log of the number is 2. logx =log5.67 —log0.304 —log 45.42 = 0.7536 -1.4829 -1.6573=1.6134 — x=antilog 1.6134 = 0.4106 Ans. 2 3 (b) Let x =(0.02467) 2 2 => logx =—log 0.02467 =—x2.3921=2.9281 3 3 => x =antilog 2.9281 = 0.08474 ans. Page 14 www.learnersplanet.com(7) Find the value of x, if 2"= 7 Sol: Ifis given 2°=7 Taking log on both sides xlog2 =log7 => xx0.301=0.845 > x= 88 9 91 Ans. 0.301 (8) Find the value of 2°¢ Sol: Let x=2°* Taking log on both sides logx =0.4log2 =0.4x0.301=0.1204 s=r0 e If the length of arc PQ= radius of circle r, then 6 = 1 radian. Radian: . When a body completes on revolution, then @=2n rad + 2m rad=360° or 2x3.14 rad=360° a 36 > lrad =———-=57.3 3.14 ° Basic Trigonometric Ratios: . Consider a right angled triangle ABC as shown. One of the angles is 6 and Page 16 www.learnersplanet.comit Learners’ Planet the other one is 90 — 8. The side opposite to angle to angle 0 is called perpendicular or opposite side. The longest side (AC) is the hypotenuse. The third side (BC) is called base or adjacent side. Perpendicular (P) A Base (B) BB List of basic ratios: Pp (i) sin’=— H B (ii) cos8=— H Pp iii) ~tano=— (iti) : 1 H (iv) cosec@ =—— =— sin@ P 1 H (v) sec@ =—— =— cos8 B 1 B (vi) cot@ =——-=— tand P Relations between basic ratios: (i) sin? @+cos*@=1 Page 17 www.learnersplanet.com Ldit Learners’ Planet (ii) sec? @-tan’? O=1 (iii), cosec? @-cot? @=1 (iv) sin (90—@) = cos 8 (v) cos (90-8) = sin ® (vi) tan (90-6) = cot ® Values of trigonometric Ratio: Angle | sin@ | cos@ | tand | sec |cosec@) cot@ o° 0 1 0 1 co | 30° | 2 va 2 vB 2 > ) vB UB ae [| 2 | 2 1 v2 | 2 1 aoe sr | va 2 va 2 2 | zy 2 | v3 | VB 90° 1 | 0 = | oo 1 0 (1) As the measure of angle increases, values of sine ratios increase till Tt 90° or rad). 2 (2) As the measure of the angle increases, values of cosine ratios decrease till s0*( or). 2 Page 18 www.learnersplanet.com Ldit Learners’ Planet (3) As the measure of the angle increases, values of tangent ratio increases indefinitely till 90%( or) . Angle : sin® | cos 0 | tano | secO | cosec 6 | cot 0 0 0 To) 0 | te 1 tse 90° 1 0 | te | 0 | te | oa 180° 0 a | 0 | te | = | te 270° | -1 0 | too | 0 | too | 1 (4) The symbol © (infinite) does not represent a specific value, so the value shown by this symbol is termed as undefined. Four Quadrants and Sign Conventions: Consider two mutually perpendicular lines intersection at O. These two mutually perpendicular lines divide the plane into four parts called quadrants. Page 19 www.learnersplanet.com Ldit Leamers’ Planet Points to Remember: (i) To determine the sign of a trigonometrical ratio in any quadrant, OP will be taken as positive in all four quadrants. (ii) In first quadrant, all trigonometrical ratios are positives (iii) In second quadrant, only sin@ and cos@are positive. (iv) In third quadrant, only tan@ and cot 6 are positive. (v) In fourth quadrant, only cos@ and sec@ are positive. (vi) The value of sin@ and cos@are such that —1 (v) sin(-1485°) =—sin(3x 360° + 45°) =—sin45° = SinA=4/5 and cosB=—22,0 ale Find the value of sin105° vB41 we" Find the values of 8,0<@<2n for which cos@=—1/2. sin105* = sin(180° — 75") =sin75° = First of all we find the principal value of the angle by taking the modulus of the value given. Principal value means numerically least angle (0 c=V6 units b c iva 2 v6 , a From sine rule; —— =—— =——.. or sinA sinB sinc sinA sinB_ sin60° which gives; ZA=75°,ZB=45° Polynomial, Linear, and Quadratic E Real Polynomial: e Let a,a,,a,_a, be real numbers and x is real variable, then f(x) =a, +a,x+a,x’ +......+a,x" is called a real polynomial. Degree or Index of a Polynomial: . The highest power appearing in a polynomial is called its degree. ° For example, f(x)=x* + 8x +3 is a polynomial of degree 3. . It is not necessary that the highest power must be of a single variable only. For example, ° f(x) =3x’y+y’ +2 is a polynomial of degree 3 because of variable y in term xy. . We add powers of the variables in a term to find degree of a polynomial irrespective of the nature of variables. Page 30 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Linear Equations: Equations having polynomials of unit degree are called linear equations. eg.x+y=2or2x+3=5. Such equations always represent a straight line on a graph. Quadratic Equations: Equations of second degree are called quadratic equations. The general form of quadratic equations is ax? +bx+c=0, where a¥0. Roots of a Quadratic Equation: (i) (ii) (iii) Sum of its roots is given by a+B= a Solution of a quadratic equation is called its roots. Roots are those values of a variable such as an x for which the given quadratic equation collapses to zero. As a rule, a quadratic equation always has two roots which may or not be equal. Roots of a quadratic equation are generally represented by a andB Let ax? +bx+c=0 be a quadratic equations. Then: -b+yb’ -4ac ~b—vb? —4ac Its roots are wT ; sO a a b+vb* —4ac Solution is given by x =— 2a Page 31 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet (iv) Product of its roots is given by ap= a (v) Difference of its roots is given by a—B= Ineq (5 * An inequalities is different from an equation. Where as, in case of an equation, there are definite values of the variable involved in the equation, in case of an inequality, there is a range of possible values of the variable involved. Example: (1) x #0 The solution of this inequality is all values of x except zero. (2) x-—120 The solution is clearly all x which are greater than or equal to 1 (3) |x-1]20 => x-120, provide x—1 is a positive value. OR —(x-1) 20, provided x —1 is a negative value. x21 andx<-1are the possible solutions. Beet) . An algebraic expression containing two terms is called a binomial expression. Page 32 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | . For example (ab), (2x-2)(x+4} (x43) etc. are binomial y x expressions. Binomial Theorem for positive integral index: . The general form of a binomial expression is(x+a)’, where n is any positive integer (called index) and x and a are real numbers. Binomial Theorem: o (eta) a"Cyx" "Cx al "Cx" a? +. Cx! * where °C,= ~ and nl =n (n-1)(n-2)..3x2x1, ri(n—r) ° The expression n! is read as “factorial n” and is the product of first n natural numbers e.g. 5!=5x4x3x2x1=120 (i) Total number of terms in the expansion = (n + 1) (ii) In every successive terms in the expansion, the power of x goes on decreasing by 1 and that of a increasing by 1 , so that the sum of the powers of x and a in each terms is always equal to n. (iil) "C7 ¢,"C,, C, are called binomial coefficients. nt _n(n—1)(n—2)...3x2x1 U(n—1)! 1(n-1)(n—2)....3x2x1 1 Page 33, www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet nl Similarly, °C, =————— 2i(n-2 Binomial Theorem for any Index: ° If n is positive, negative or fraction and x is any real number such that -1 < x < 1, i.e. x lies between -1 and +1, then according to the binomial theorem n(n=1) , n(n—1)(n—2) x? 2! 3! (1+x)'=1+nx+ x° +....coterms Note: (i) if nis a positive integer. Then the expansion will have (n+1) terms. (ii) If n are a negative integer or a fraction, then the number of terms in the expansions will be infinite, i.e, there will be no last term. (iii) If |x| 1, then only first two terms of the expansion are significant. It is so because the values of the second and higher order terms become very small and can be neglected. Thus, in this case, the binomial expansion reduces to the following simplified forms when |x| 1: (1+x)"=1+nx (1+x)"=1-nx, (1—x)"=1-nx, and (1-x) “=1+nx Page 34 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet Solved Example (1) Solve the equation 10x? —-27x+5=0 Sol: By comparing the given equation with standard equation a = 10, b = - 27, —b+-vb? -4ac _ =(-27)+V(-277 -4x10x5 _ 27423 2a 2x10 20 and c=5x= 5 1 .. Roots of the equation are 2 and . (2) Expand (1+x) for |x| <2. Sol: Here n=~-2 is a—ve integer, therefore no. of terms will be infinite; w.(1+x) =1+(-2)x CAH, 6ae2-12-2), =1-2x+3x? —4x° + $ies0o 1 (3) Find the square root of (99)? correct to 3 decimal places. ob ns 1 é ry Sol: (99)? =(100-1)2 = 100 1-) =10(1-0.01) 100 By comparing the given equation with standard equation -)) (1+x)" atime Fees Page 35 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (4) Sol: (5) 1 3G"), sous at =10| 145 (-0.01)+ =10[1-0.005—0.0000125 +........ to ] =10[1—0.005 neglecting all other terms] =10x0.995 = 9.995 Evaluate (1001)? upto six places of decimal. (1001)/? = (1000 + 1)" = 10(1 + 0.001)*/2 By comparing the given equation with standard equation n(n—1) i? (1+x)" =1+nx+———»’ 4... 2! x= 0.001 and n= 1/3 \ 1 af. 1 |x(.001)? +. 10(1+ 0.001)'/? = 10] 1+ (0.001) + 3\3 tae 2! ~10]1+0,00032~ 0.000001)... =10[1.0003301] = 10.003301(Approx.) The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a height h above the gr’ (R+hy surface of earth is given by g'= z: If h<0 m>0 m<0O (ii) Circle: Janis Jeans Jeaxis (a) a fl 7 taxis Taxis Xryer (x-b) +(y-kP =r? (x-1P+y=r Page 41 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet (iii) Parabola: ¥ y y (a) () (e) (0, 0) 2 x (0,0) yx xsy y y » ¥ (a) (b) tc) x - x (1,0) 5 y = bx—ax? (iv) Ellipse: ¥ * E ~—— a —+ 2 eo 1, F, and F, are called Foci Page 42 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet a>b,e<1 | OF, |= OF, |= ae, e= (iv) Hyperbola: (ay () 1 a =1, F, and F, are called its Foci xy =1 or x =— y | OF, |=] OF, |=ae, e= y. y. () (d) b * . Y(x-b)=1 xy=1 Page 43 www.learnersplanet.com Ldut Learners’ Planet Solved Example (1) Sol: (2) Sol: Ans: (3) Sol: Find the slope and y intercept of the equation 2x-y+5=0 Comparing with standard form y=mx+c Here 2x-y+5=0canbewrittenasy =2x+5. Herem=Sandc=5 .. Slope = 2, intercept = 5 The equation of a curve is given as y = x — 5x + 6. The curve intersects the x-axis at {a) (2, 0) (b) (3, 0) (c) Both (a), (b) (d) Nowhere Giveny =x’ —5x+6. When this curve intersects the x—axis, y=0 2? —5x+6=0 ox? —5x+6=0 x? —3x-2x+6=0 x(x-—3)-2(x-3)=0 (x-2)(x-3)=0 x=2,3 (c) The coordinates of a particle moving in xy-plane vary with time t as: x = at’, y = bt. The locus of the particle is (a) Parabola (b) Circle (c) Straight line (d) Ellipse Given x =at’, y=bt Page 44 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Sol: (5) Sol: This is equation of a parabola. + (a) In above problem, the equation of locus is b’x ab bx? (a) ¥° > (b) y? x (c) ya (d) y’ =—abx 2, b Here y? =~ a - (a) The coordinates of a particle moving xy-plane vary with time t as x= at, y = bt +c. The curve traced by the particle is (a) Straight line (b) Parabola (c) Hyperbola__(d) Circle Given x=at,y=bt+c x Heret=— a Clearly this is equation of a straight line. : (a) Page 45 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet cmeeeeeall (6) The trajectory of a particle moving in xy-plane is y = x° — 3x” — 4x + 12. The particle crosses the x-axis (a) Once (b) Two times (c) three times (d) Four times Sol: Here y=x*>—2x?—4x+12 Clearly it is a polynomial of degree 3. =. It will have three roots, [They are -2, 2, 3] Ans: (c) (7) If speed v varies with time t as: v = 2t?, then, the plot between v and t will (b) | t (d) t Clearly it is a curve whose slope is increasing be given as (a) | t () t Sol: Here v=2t’ d ae igh ti asa atlit increases with time ) It Ans: (c) Page 45 www.learnersplanet.comit Learners’ Planet aT LA Ae Differentiation: . The purpose of differential calculus is to study the nature, (i.e increase of decrease) and the amount of variation in quantity when another quantity (on which first quantity depends) varies independently. Situations differentiation is of use are growth of plants, expansion of solids on heating, variation in the velocity of a uniformly accelerated object, etc. Quantity: . Anything which can be measured is called a quantity. Constants and Variables: . A quantity whose value remains constant throughout the mathematical operation is called a constant, e.g integers, fractions,n , e, etc. On the other hand a quantity which can have any numerical value within certain specific limits is called a variable. Dependent and Independent Variables: . A variable which can have any arbitrary value within specific limits is called as independent variable, whereas one whose value depends upon the numerical values assigned to the independents variable is defined as dependent variable. Page 47 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Differential Coefficient or Derivative of a Function: Suppose y be a function of x, y= F(x) (i) The value of the function or the dependent variable y depends on the value of dependent variable x. If we change the value of independent variable x to x+ Ax, then value of the function will also change. Let it becomesy + Ay, Hence, y+ Ay=f(x + Ax) (ii) Subtracting equation (i) from (ii), we gety+Ay—y=f(x+Ax)—f(x)Or Ay = f(x + Ax)— f(x) (iii) Above equation provides the change in the value of function y, when the value of variable x is changed from x to x+ Ax. Dividing both side of the equation (iii) byAx, we get a x x (iv) Above equation gives average rate of change of function when the value of the variable x changes in the interval between x and x+Ax. Taking limits on both sides of equation (iv), when Ax approaches zero, we get lim (@)- time) = fila), (,) ax0\ Ax} ax0 AX If above limit exist uniquely and finitely for all values of x in the given interval, then it is called the differential coefficient or derivative of f(x) or y with respect to x. Page 48, www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet It is represented by 4 [f(x)] or 2 dx dx Hence, SY _ jig LX + Ax) FO) (yi) dx 4x90 Ax It is clear that equations (v) or (vi) provide instantaneous rate of change of the function y with respect to variable x. Hence, differentiation of a function with respect to a variable implies the instantaneous rate of the change of the function with respect to that variable. Geometrical interpretation of the Derivative of a Function: Suppose the function y=f(x) is represented graphically by a curve, as shown in fig. Let us take two points P(x, y,) and Q(x, + Ax, y, + Ay)on this graph. When these points P and Q are joined, we get a chord PQ. Suppose chord PQ makes an angle a with the positives x-axis. Draw a perpendicular PR on the line QB. : v= tx) Page 49 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet PR = AB = OB- OA = (x, + Ax)—x, = Ax and QR=Ay Hence, slope of chord PQ: = YoFAY Vo _ f%y +Ax)= flxo) ax Ax A => etana (i) Ax Suppose point Q approaches points P. As this happens, Ay and Ax become smaller and smaller. In the limiting case, point Q will almost coincide with P such that the chord PQ becomes almost a tangent to the curve at P. Let the tangent to the curve at P makes an angle 8 with the positive x-axis. The slope of this tangent will be tan@. So, as point Q approached point P: Ax =dx, Ay =dy anda d Hence, from equation (i) we obtain aentand IK Therefore, geometrically the differential co-efficient or derivative of y= f(x) with respect to x at any point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve representing y= f(x) at that point. Properties of Derivatives: Derivative of a Constant times a Function The derivative of constant times a function is the constant times the Page 50 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (2) (3) (4) (5) derivative of the function. That is, oy [kf Gy Jk“ rook ot ; where kis a dx dx dx constant. Derivative of Sum of the two Functions The derivative of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their derivatives. e+ ait dx dx Linear Property of differentiation The above two rules may be combined to provide linear property of differentiation. d df. d afl) + bab] = aS + pb £8, where a and b are constants. Product Rule The derivative of the product of two functions f(x) and g(x) is given by df Gere ee Aa, “I (x)xeXx)]= +B Quotient Rule The derivative of the quotient of two functions f(x) and g(x) is given by df dg [| oe dx| g(x) g Page 51 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet (6) Chain Rule . Suppose that f is a function of x, which in turns is a function of t. The derivatives of f with respect to t is equal to the product of two derivative, df_ df dx Mh Th OM dt dx dt Derivative of some important Functions: (1) Trigonometric functions (i) 4 (sinx) =cosx dx tii) 2 (cos x)= -sinx dx (iii) 1 (tan x) = sec’x dx ‘ d 2 (iv) —(cot x) =-cosec’x dx d (v) —(sec x) =tan x sec x dx d (vi) —(cosec x) =—cot x cosec x dx 4 do (du) (vii) gc CIN eos dx } d (du (cos u) =-sinu| dx dx Page 52 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (2) (3) (ix) Guttaned=secru( S) dx dx ) (du) (x) gulcotul=meosectu( S| dx dx } . d (du (xi) —(sec u)=secu tanu ax dx d a dd du (xii). —(cosec u) =—cosecu cot u| — dx dx Logarithmic function (i) (log ,x}=tlog, dx x (ii) “(log ,x)=4tog, (e)=* dx x x Exponential function d (i) —(e*)=e* dx ii) 9 (ey ex SH) (ii) ae ay) Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function: Higher order derivatives are used to find the maximum and minimum values of a function. At the points of maxima and minima first order derivatives become zero. As at these points function does not offer any variation, so the derivative ends up with zero to indicate no variation. The first derivative offers no identification points of maxima and minima. This Page 53 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet job is complete by the 2” derivative. As from the graph, we can easily find out that slope of the curve at points d d Aand Bis zero, so a must be zero, i.e Yio dx dx Now, to distinguish A and B as the points of maxima and minima, check the trend of slope at the points of consideration, i.e whether the change in slope is positive or negative. ¥ 0 At point A (maxima), in the neighborhood of point A slope is changing from +ve to -ve , i.e. 2" derivative of the function will less then zero, ie ¢ “Yeo dx a Hence, the condition for maxima is that =e has to be less than zero at the point of consideration. At point B (minimum), as the slope of tangent in the neighborhood of B is changing from —-ve to +ve , so the second derivative of the function will be Page 54 www.learnersplanet.com& Leamers’ Planet | ay greater than zero i.e d 2 >0 x @ . Hence, the condition for the minima is that ar has to be greater than x zero at the point of consideration. Application in Physics: (i) _ Instantaneous velocity is defined as rate of change of position at an instant > 3 . ‘ > Ar _dr with respect to time u =lim —-=— aro At dt (ii) If we are given position of an object as a function of time, the differentiation of position function with respect to time gives the velocity at that instant. z (iii) Instantaneous acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity at an a 35 . . 7 it ic of 7. Av _idv instant with respect to time and it is given by a =lim — =—. ato At dt Page 55 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet (iv) If we are given velocity of an object as a function of time, the differentiation of velocity function with respect to time gives the acceleration at that instant. Solved Example (1) Differentiate the following with respect to x (i)? (ii) vx (iii) ax’ +bx+e (iv) 2x?-e ——_(v) 6loge*-Vx-7 Sol: (i) 243) =3e dx Hi) 9 gt? ad oge Ci) Fa? = 00) 1 —tyyin_ 1 2 Ok Ui) fax? bx =a) Fb 4 Ue) =anchb (i) xt -e)= tk ot 1-Ste)= 6x? —e* a 9) ep Ltoe 4) ety?) 0) < (log, x vk -7)=6 <(log,x) +5, find dy/dx x 1 3 =2 Wit 3a ag 240 dx wx 2 x?) a wx x Differentiate x.logx—x d d Ya (x <= axe OB) GO) =x (logx) +logx—(x)-1=x4+logx—1=logx. dx dx x Page 57 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | dy 7 a (7) ax dy x (sinx)—sinx—(x) Sol; —=—o% x = z dx x’ +e (8) Differentiate tt with respect to x logx+20 2a er + Sol: Let yo, logx +20 / eae Then 2-4 {_x +e" dx dx(logx+20 (logx-+20)-2-(¢ +e*)—(x? +e°)} (logx+20) = dx dx (logx +20) (logx +20)(2x + e*) —(x? +ei(2+0) = (logx +20) (9) ifx+y=xy? Find Y dx Sol: Differentiating with respect to x, we get d dy d,, —(x)+— =—(x ax ) dx ax! v) dy _ Fay iad dy 2 dvs 14+— =x.—(y’)+y’—(x) or, 1+ =xx3y’.—+y*.1 or, dx ax”) y ax ) dx y dx y d Z(t-3w')=v-1 Page 58 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | dy _y-1 “ax 13x? (10) x+y =tan (xy), Find dy/dx Sol: Differentiating with respect to x, we get pd rag ftanbu)} = (x)+2 dx dx dy one { dy } 1+— =sec’ (xy))x.— +y.1) dx () dx y or 1+ 2¥ =x sec? (xy) *Y- + ysec? (xy) or, dx dx dy 2 2 Yi = -1 onl xsec’ (xy)} ysec’ (xy) .dy_y sec’ (xy)—1 “dx 1-xsec?(xy) © (11) Find the angle of tangent drawn to the curve y=3x’—7x+5 at the point (1, 1) with the x- axis. Sol: y=3x?-7x+5 Slope of tangent ath aox-7 at (1, 1) a <.tan@ =-1=> 0=135°, x (12) Differentiate the following with respect to t (i) sint? (ii) e"* (iii) sin(wt + 8) sol: (i) —“4sint’)=cost?-2(t?)=2t cost’ dt dt Page 59 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | sinty — gsint sint (ii) se )=e Stsint)=e cost (iii) A isin (wt +6)]=cos(wt+ 8) Awe +6)=cos(wt+6).w dt dt (13) The height reached in time t by a particle thrown upward with a speed u is given 1 . « . . ‘ ‘ by h=ut—et’. Find the time taken in reaching the maximum height. 1 2 Stut—tet’}=u-28t=0 ot = dt 2 2 8 Sol: For maximum height 2° A metal ring is being heated so that at any instant of time t in second, its area is given by Anat ats2m. (14) What will be the rate of increase of area at t=10sec. Sol: Rate of increase of area “ —See “ye =6t 4 (da 1_ 181m (4) =6x10+==—— dE se 3 8 sec Page 60 www.learnersplanet.comit Learners’ Planet Integral of a Func Integration is an inverse operation to differentiation: It is an operation of finding such a function for which the given function is a derivative. For example, intergral I(x) of the function f(x) = 2x is xis 2x. We may write f(x) = =a For f(x) = 2x, we have I(x) = x” Ix Let, f(x) be a function of x such that differential coefficient of any other function g(x) w.r.t x is f(x). We then say that integral of f(x) w.r.t x is g(x), which is without limits and hence is indefinite. Such an integral is called indefinite integral and is written as Jfeo dx =g(x) +k, where k is called the constant of integration. Note: | (x) = xis not the unique function whose derivative is equal to 2x. In fact, there are infinite functions, e.g x?+1, x?+2,x?+3, and so on, which satisfies the equation. Therefore in general we may write I(x) =x’ +c, where c is a constant which may take any arbitrary value. The function I(x) is also called the ‘indefinite’ signifies that it is arbitrary to within an additive constant. An indefinite integral is donated as Ix) = [ Fo) dx. The symbol of J donates the operation of integration. The expression f(x) is called the integrand. Sometimes, the function I(x) is also called the anti-derivative of the function f(x). Page 61 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Properties of Indefinite Integral: (1) (2) (3) (4) The indefinite integral of constant times a function is equal to the constant times the integral of the function. af(x)dx = af flddx, where ais a constant. The indefinite integral of an algebraic sum of two or more function is equal to algebraic sum of their integrals. [Fx) + a(x) Jdx= | fooddx+ faved Linearity property: The above two properties may be combine together to give the linearity property of indefinite integrals. [af(x)+be(x)}dx=a fle)dx+b f etx)dx; where a and b are constant. If Jfbddx=Fod+c, then JfOc+b)dx= Fox +b)+c flax +b)dx=Flax-+b)+e , where a, b and c are constant a Standard Formula for Integration: (1) (2) (3) (4) cudx =c fudx (ututw)dx=[udx- fudx+ [ wdx net +c, providedn4—1 +1 ng x x"dx= n cdx=cx where c is a constant Page 62 www.learnersplanet.com(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (14) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) nt +¢) 1 ex"dx=c n x ‘dx=log, x+c e“dx=e*+¢ sin x dx =—cosx +c : cosax sinax dx=-———+¢ a cosx dx =sinx+c sinax cosax dx = +¢ a sec’x dx=tanx+c cosec’ x dx =—cotx+c b sin(ax +b) dx——22S@X*5) | cos(ax-+b) dx=Si0@x+b) , (ax+b)"" (ax +b)"dx= a(n) dx=log, (ax +b)+c +c; provided n#-1 ax+b it Leamers’ Planet | www.learnersplanet.com Page 63it Learners’ Planet al oxtb e (19) Jer ax= +c a (20) fsec*(ax+b) dx anlaxtb),, a cot(ax+b) te * (ax+b) dx= f21)_Jeosec? (ax-+b) dx 7 Definite Integral of a Function: . Integration of a function f(x) w.r.t x when x varies from a to b called, » definite integral is written as Jfooax, where f(x) is called integrand, a and b are the lower and upper limits of the integral. If the integral of f(x) w.r.t x is g(x) then the value of above integral is [g(b) — g(a)]. Algebraic Method to Evaluate Definite Integral: ° Algebraically, definite integral between the two limits a and b can be calculated in the same way as we determine the indefinite integral with a little difference as illustrated below: fx) Page 64 www.learnersplanet.com Ldit Leamers’ Planet | . . J fodax = [16 18 =b)-H0); where | (x) is the indefinite integral of the function f(x) Properties of Definite Integral: (1) The linearity property b flere +Bg(x) | dx= aff sic febod where a andB are constants. (2) The additive property b ¢ 6 Jf) ax= | Fox) ax-+ J F0x) dx (3) A definite integral carried out in a direction of decreasing x is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the integral carried out in the direction of increasing x between the same pair of limits. b a J foodx=— | Fodax 3 b Geometrical Significance of a Definite Integral: . Consider a function y = f(x) which is represented graphically as shown in fig. The area bounded by this curve, the x-axis and the two lines x = a and x . = b defines the definite integral of the function f(x) as: D = f(x) dx where a is called lower limit and b is called upper limit. More precisely, definite integral as defined by the equation signifies the area under the curve Page 65 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet between the limits a and b. fs) fix) x) ap b x = a _—— ~ = Note: (i) If the curve lies above x-axis, area enclosed under the curve is positive i.e. D>0 (ii) If the curve lies below x-axis, area enclosed by the curve is negative i.e. D< 0 (iii) If the curve is symmetrically distributed about the x-axis the positive and negative areas enclosed by the curve will be cancelled, as shown in fig. i.e. D=0. Geometrical Method to Evaluate Definite Integral: . The definite integral of a function can be determined if we could geometrically calculate the area enclosed the curve. Consider a curve as shown in figure below. Divide the interval from x=a to x=b into n sub- intervals of which Ax, , Ax,,....x, Page 66 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet fa {e) These sub-intervals may be of equal width, but not necessarily. The left edges of the success sub-intervals are denoted as x, ,x,,X)....--X,+ Now, we divide the area enclosed under the curve into a series of n rectangles. The first rectangle is of the base width Ax, and height f(x:) ..the last one of base width Ax,, . Since the area of each rectangle is equal to the product of the base and height therefore the total area of all the n rectangles is given by A, =F(x, JAX, + £0) +... FOX, )OX, A,= >of) Ox; a Where Ax, is base width of the i" rectangle and f(x) is height of the i” rectangle strip. Page 67 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | Note: The area calculated by the equation gives a better approximation to the true area enclosed under the curve between limits a and b, as the number n increases to a larger value. And ultimately as the value of n approaches to infinity or Ax, approaches to zero then the equation gives the true area enclosed under the curve. . Fi lim DY fl«,)0x,= | fladx Application in Physics: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) > Velocity function u of a particle is the integral if its acceleration > function a . > > v(t}=fadt > Displacement function x of a particle is the integral function of its velocity > function vu . 3S x=fude Impulse | is defined as the integral of force with respect to time. 2S V=[Fdt Work W is defined as the integral of force with respect to displacement . w=[Fds Page 68 www.learnersplanet.comut Learners’ Planet Solved Example 14x) (1) Sol: (14+3x+3x7 sep dx oS GS a 1 3 8 x? 43x? + 3x? a i 2 3 Z x? 3x? 3x? xX? =~ +— + + 4 € 1/2 3/2 5/2 7/2 265 22 =Wx +20 ee +5 +C. (2) Solve J(Jt4¥ 2x -V1=2x))dx Sol: [(v1+2x-V1-2x)dx 1 : (a+2x)2 _(1-2x)2_1 3 3 =x2 =x(-2 7 3X2) [(2+2x)°? +(1-2x)" Je. Page 69 www.learnersplanet.comit Leamers’ Planet | (3) Integrate with respect to x — 1—sinx sot: f —\~ax=| (—1_-x = . 1-sinx (a sinx 1+sinx sinx 1+sinx 1-sin’ x dx Fer x cos’x sinx =f dx ‘cos? x os x Jsec’xdx+ [Tanx Secxdx=Tanx+Secx +c Integrate the following (i) [jax Ui) [cosa x (it) f° $B ay (iv) J" tan? xd oor ° iv fae = fxd 5] [2x]. =2v2 ne yn /2 Jt dx = sine =1 (ii) [eos p =[sinx],” = sine ‘ay pad (iii) Jk 2 Ox = ka, n/a nya (iv) tan? xdx= J (sec? x-1)dx=[tanx]-/* — ; ; Page 70 www.learnersplanet.com