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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees

Megan Wierzbowski
Conservation Biology
Integrative Paper
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
Introduction, Importance, and Background
Albert Einstein once said If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, then man
would have only four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no
more animals, no more man. This quote may seem a bit excessive, but once you take a look at
the dynamics of a bee colony, you will begin to see the significance of bees in life!
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a major role for humans, both agriculturally and
economically. Honey bees are a very important species that are of utmost concern. Honey bees
affect almost everyone from the beekeepers themselves, to farmers, to the consumers. Out of
the 115 most important food crops globally, 87 (or 75 percent) depend on pollination by animals,
like the honey bees, for the production of the fruit, vegetable or seeds; with honey bees
pollinating almost all of them (Bianco M. et al. 2014). CCD has the potential to cause a $15
billion direct loss of crop production and $75 billion in indirect losses (Rucker & Thurman
2012).
Recently, massive declines of the honey bee have been reported. This decline was first
reported on the east coast of the United States in 2006 (Gifford, C. 2011). During the fall of
2006, beekeepers in the United States reported a 30-90% loss of their colonies, but the loss of the
colonies did not seem to match anything that had been seen before, such as pests and pathogens
((Ellis, J. et al. 2009). With an absence of a known cause of the loss of the honey bee colonies,
the term Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) was coined (vanEngelsdorp, D. et al. 2009). High
mortality rates of honey bees is by far not a new concept. Throughout history, fungus, mites, and
starvation have all had impacts on colony health. What makes CCD such a concerning syndrome

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
is the fact that there is no specific cause of the disappearance of most or even all of the adult
worker bees. Symptoms of CCD include the rapid loss of the adult worker honeybees, few or no
dead bees found in or around the hive, immature bees (brood) still left in hive, queen still
present, and lastly the pollen and honey are still stored in the hive (Gifford, C. 2011).
While the first reports of colony collapse disorder was seen in 2006, it is still very much a
great concern. Honeybee declines are still occurring. As seen in figure 1, which shows managed
honeybee colony winter losses in the U.S, it is shown that there has been extreme losses, over the
accepted values in the recent past. For the winter of 2013/2014, 23.2% of managed honey bee
colonies in the United States died and 65.4% experienced winter colony loses greater than the
average acceptable winter mortality rate of 18.9% (vanEngelsdorp D. et al. 2014). With all of
these facts in mind, there needs to be something done to conserve the honey bees.
Analysis of Conservation Alternatives
Conservation of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) needs to happen, there is no question
about that, but the question that remains is exactly how can we stop, or even at the least reduce,
the amount of the honey bee colony collapses throughout not just the United States but
worldwide.

Because [CCD] involves many different causal factors and actors spanning

agricultural production and consumption, potential solutions are complex (Bianco M. et al.
2014). The first and foremost plan of action would be to gain more insight into the actual cause
of colony collapse disorder. Research is the key here. Most current research agrees that there is
no one single causal factor, and that there is many different factors working synergistically. With
no one broad consensus about the cause, how are we to stop this. The USDA researchers in 2010
state that there are three major possibilities: (1) pesticides, (2) a new parasite or pathogen, and
(3) a combination of existing stresses that may compromise the immune system of bees and

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
disrupt their social system. Those stresses could include high levels of infection by the Varroa
mite; poor nutrition due to apiary overcrowding, pollination of crops with low nutritional value,
or pollen or nectar scarcity; exposure to limited or contaminated water supplies; and migratory
stress (Johnson, R. 2010).
This huge task of finding the actual cause of the collapse of the colonies is very daunting
in both the senses of time and financial aspects. There have been some federal funding from the
USDAs Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in recent years. In May 2008, Congress enacted
the 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246), which provided additional funding for research and
conservation programs addressing honey bees and pollinators (Johnson, R. 2010). The total
funding for the year 2010 from ARS was only $9,790,000, with another $2.75 million annually
until 2012 for honey bee pest and pathogen surveillance (Johnson, R. 2010). This bill could
certainly be expanded on, especially with allotting more funds to research. With having honey
bee pollination accounting for nearly $14 billion annually just in United States agriculture alone
(Kribs-Zaleta & Mitchell 2014), you would expect more funding. The bills passed in congress
provide research and extension grants on not only finding the cause(s) of CCD, but also
developing mitigative and preventative measures to improve native and managed pollinator
health as well as promoting the health of honey bees and native pollinators through habitat
conservation and best management practices (Johnson, R. 2010).
More legislation to protect and research honey bees could also be implemented. In fact,
the Presidents 2015 Budget recommends approximately $50 million across multiple agencies
within USDA to: enhance research at USDA and through public-private grants, strengthen
pollinator habitat in core areas, double the number of acres in the Conservation Reserve Program
that are dedicated to pollinator health, and increase funding for surveys to determine the impacts

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
on pollinator losses (The White House 2014). Also, The U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), will give $8 million in Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) incentives for Michigan,
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wisconsin farmers and ranchers who establish new
habitats for declining honey bee populations. This is in addition to $3 million USDA designated
to the Midwest states to support bee populations earlier in 2014 through the Natural Resources
Conservation Service Environmental Quality Incentives Program (FSA 2014). A few small
agencies have also been created such as the Northern Bee Network (NBN), CANPOLIN
(Canadian Pollination Initiative, COLOSS (Prevention of Honeybee Colony Losses), and the US
Department of Agricultures Areawide and Managed Pollinator CAP (Coordinated Agricultural
Project). All of these agencies can be expanded on and more funding created.
Pesticides: With these three major possibilities, either alone or collectively, we have a
starting point of what kind of research needs to be done to save the bees. The first most likely
cause of CCD seems to be pesticide use. In the past 20 or so years, there has been a rapid
increase in the use of pesticides in agricultural farming, however, non-target pollinators such as
the honey bee have been negatively affected by the consumption of the contaminated nectar and
pollen (Palmer, M.J. 2013). In the agricultural realm, many pesticides are used to treat and gain
a higher crop yield. In one study, when colonies were placed near crops of sunflower treated
with imidacloprid, foraging is disrupted and colonies dwindle and die as foragers fail to return to
the hive (Underwood & vanEngelsdorp 2007). The bees cognitive impairments caused by the
neonicotinoids can disrupt the honey bees learning and behavior (Palmer, M.J. 2013).
Pesticides are also being directly applied to hives as to treat and prevent mites. To treat
mites, many beekeepers use miticides that are applied directly to the hive (Gifford, C. 2011).
Applied pesticides can severely weaken the honey bee immune system (vanEngelsdorp, D. et al.

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
2009); making the bees susceptible to diseases. Worker bee lifespan is also exponentially
reduced when exposed to sub-lethal levels of coumaphos during the larval and pupal stages
(vanEngelsdorp, D. et al. 2009).
With pesticide use comes both costs and benefits. The direct benefits of pesticides can be
seen in both the farmers of the crops as well as the beekeepers. Pesticides create a higher yield
of crops for the farmers as well as helping the beekeepers keep their bees healthy. With a higher
yield of crops, the consumers are directly positively impacted, making the food we consume
more affordable. But then comes the costs of using these pesticides. The effects of pesticide use
on pollinators, specifically honey bees, is not completely known. Again, more research needs to
be done in order to completely understand the short and long-term effects on pollinators. A few
small bills have been passed, but funding is still needed. The 2008 farm bill (P.L. 110-246),
gives research grants for investigating the sublethal effects of insecticides, herbicides, and
fungicides on honey bees and native and managed pollinators (Johnson, R. 2010). Another bill,
Save Americas Pollinators Act of 2013 (H.R. 2692), is also being debated. It directs the EPA
Administrator to suspend the registration of neonicotinoids until it is scientifically proven that
such pesticides do not cause unreasonable adverse effects on pollinators, including honey bees
((Bianco M. et al. 2014). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) does not currently
ban or severely restrict the use of neonicotinoid pesticides (Bianco M. et al. 2014). These
restrictions of certain pesticide use can severely impact agricultural production in negative ways,
so the cost and benefits of just discontinuing use of those pesticides needs to be weighted. To get
rid of/reduce pests, there are many other non-invasive options other than these pesticides that are
wreaking havoc on honey bee populations. Those options should be considered. Bats have been
known to be very good and healthy in the reduction of insects, so possibly considering

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
biocontrol.

If the current pesticide use is going to continue though, more communication

between both beekeepers and farmers needs to happen. Educating the beekeepers and farmers
about the harmful effects of these pesticides can be a great start. Beekeepers and farmers can
work in tandem to help, possibly, the collapse of the honey bee. They both rely on bees, just in
separate ways. Farmers need the bees to pollinate their crops, and the beekeepers rely on the
bees as their livelihood.
Parasites/Pathogens and Stressors: The next two main factors that may be causing the
decline in honey bee population are parasites/pathogens and just stressors in general from
humans and the environment. Parasites and pathogens have, as notes before, had an impact on
honey bee population throughout history. While humans cannot stop all parasites and pathogens
from affecting honey bees, we have found ways to decrease the prevalence.

Elevated

populations of varroa mites, Nosema spp., and honey bee tracheal mites (HBTM) are known to
damage colonies (vanEngelsdorp, D. et al. 2009). This could be a cause for CCD. Another
virus, the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), has also been found in research to be a cause for
CCD. The only pathogen found in nearly all samples (96.1%) from CCD-affected colonies, but
not in non-CCD colonies, was the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) (Johnson, R. 2010). With
these parasites and pathogens in mind, the question to ask is how can we stop these pathogens,
and why are they affecting the honey bees so much even though they have been around for some
time. We have already discussed pesticides and how they can be both a benefit and cost, but why
they are affecting the bees now is a great concern and leads us to the next topic of stressors that
can harm honey bee health in many negative ways.
Humans generally tend to forget about the ecosystem and the role we play in affecting it.
Many stressors can impact honey bee health and have been somewhat studied. Again, we have

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
already spoken about how pesticides can lower the immune system of honey bees. The next few
are strictly anthropogenic causes: monocropping, loss of genetic diversity, transportation of the
bees themselves, and malnutrition. Monocropping is a very common practice in the United
States. Farmers plant a single crop species, replacing large areas of native vegetation. There is
only one source bees have for nutrition and may contribute to poor bee nutrition. Having access
to a diversity of pollen sources at any given time may be an important missing link to maintain
honey bee colony health (Bianco M. et al. 2014). Loss of genetic diversity in recent years is
also a large contender in CCD. Loss of genetic diversity could be from a few sources artificial
queen insemination (Gifford, C. 2011), and the buying and selling of bee colonies from a few
specific sites. Growers actually pay beekeepers $40-150 per colony just to ensure that they will
have an adequate supply of honey bees to pollinate their crops during that season (Ellis 2007).
Some research has shown that a lack of genetic diversity among honey bee populations
significantly lowers the probability of colony survivorship (Bianco M. et al. 2014). To increase
the genetic diversity, the first plan could be to actually increase the gene pool by possibly using
other subspecies of honey bees: Apis mellifera mellifera, Apis mellifera carnica, and Apis
mellifera ligustica (Bianco M. et al. 2014). This could cause harm though if not properly
planned out and researched beforehand, but if done correctly may help add genetic diversity.
Long-distance transportation of bees to provide pollination services likely causes stress to
transported colonies, though there is little information to date about the effects of transportation
per se on honey bees (Bianco M. et al. 2014). To lessen the amount of transportation needed,
local communities can begin beekeeping. This can be an introduction of jobs to people and at
the same time helping save the bees! The commercial beekeepers could also possibly expand

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
their companies to smaller substations across the continent to lessen the time transporting as well
as stress on the bees
Recommendations and Conclusions
Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) are undoubtedly the single most valuable animal
pollinators to agriculture because they can be easily maintained and transported to pollinatordependent crops (Williams, G.R. et al 2010). U.S. honey bees produce about $150 million in
honey annually and the global economic cost of bee decline has been estimated at as high as $5.7
billion per year (NRDC 2011). Seeing the importance of the honey bee in not only the
economy but the ecology of the earth should be of utmost concern because it will impact almost
everyone in one way or another whether that be the actual farmers losing their crops, the
beekeepers losing their bees, or the consumers which are going to be paying top dollar for crops
because they are going to be in short supply and more trade would be needed from other
countries.
Clearly, no silver bullet strategies are evident to help the decline of honey bees, but there
is always a starting point. I do believe that the research to find the causes of colony collapse
disorder is the first and foremost plan. There is clearly not one specific cause for colony collapse
disorder and every single factor in this paper may contribute in some way to the decline in honey
bee population. Antropogenic causes are probably the main cause of collapse. The way
humanity manages or mismanages its nature-based assets, including pollinators, will in part
define our collective future in the 21st century. Human beings have fabricated the illusion that in
the 21st century they have the technological prowess to be independent of nature (Bianco M. et
al. 2014). Many people do not see the vast value of the honey bee in their everyday life, so
educating the public could help. As the biological system breaks down, humans will face

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
consequences that will severely impact their health and their livelihoods (Gifford, C. 2011).
Creating a bee-friendly habitat could help everyone in the end, but the valuation needs to be
shown.

Figure 1: Summary of the total overwinter colony loss (October 1 April 1) of managed honey
bee colonies in the US across the 8 annual national surveys (red bars). The acceptable range
(blue bars) is the average percentage of acceptable loss declared by the survey participants in
each of the 8 years of the survey. (vanEngelsdorp D. et al. 2014)

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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
References:
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Collapse Disorder: A Descriptive Study. PLoS ONE 4(8): e6481.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006481
2. Gifford, Chelsea, "Colony Collapse Disorder: The Vanishing Honeybee (Apis Mellifera)"
(2011). Undergraduate Honors Theses. Paper 720.
3. Williams, G. R., Tarpy, D. R., vanEngelsdorp, D., Chauzat, M.-P., Cox-Foster, D. L.,
Delaplane, K. S., Neumann, P., Pettis, J. S., Rogers, R. E. L. and Shutler, D. (2010), Colony
Collapse Disorder in context. Bioessays, 32: 845846. doi: 10.1002/bies.201000075
4. Palmer, M.J. et al. Cholinergic pesticides cause mushroom body neuronal inactivation in
honeybees. Nat. Commun. 4:1634 doi: 10.1038/ncomms2648 (2013).
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Integrative Paper Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) in Honey Bees
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