Transport across the membrane

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier between the cell and the
extracellular environment. Its permeability properties ensure that essential
molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and lipids readily enter the cell, metabolic
intermediates remain in the cell, and waste compounds leave the cell. In short, the
selective permeability of the plasma membrane allows the cell to maintain a
constant internal environment. In several earlier chapters, we examined the
components and structural organization of cell membranes The phospholipid
bilayerthe basic structural unit of biomembranesis essentially impermeable
to most water-soluble molecules, such as glucose and amino acids, and to ions.
Transport of such molecules and ions across all cellular membranes is mediated by
transport proteins associated with the underlying bilayer. Because different cell
types require different mixtures of low-molecular-weight compounds, the plasma
membrane of each cell type contains a specific set of transport proteins that allow
only certain ions or molecules to cross. Similarly, organelles within the cell often
have a different internal environment from that of the surrounding cytosol,
and organelle membranes contain specific transport proteins that maintain this
difference.
In animals, sheets of epithelial cells line all the body cavities (e.g., the stomach,
intestines, urinary bladder) and the skin. Epithelial cells frequently transport ions
or small molecules from one side to the other. Those lining the small intestine, for
instance, transport products of digestion (e.g., glucose and amino acids) into the
blood, and those lining the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid into the stomach
lumen. In order for epithelial cells to carry out these transport functions,
their plasma membrane must be organized into at least two discrete regions, each
with different sets of transport proteins. In addition, specialized regions of the
plasma membrane interconnect epithelial cells, imparting strength and rigidity to
the sheet and preventing material on one side from moving between the cells to the
other.

The protein-independent movement of small hydrophobic molecules across

phospholipid bilayers and present an overview of the various types of transport
proteins present in cell membranes. We then describe each of the main types of
transport proteins. We also explain how specific combinations of transport proteins
in different subcellular membranes enable cells to carry out essential physiological
processes, including the maintenance of cytosolic pH, the transport
of glucose across the absorptive intestinal epithelium, the accumulation of sucrose
and salts in plant-cell vacuoles, and the directed flow of water in both plants and
animals. Often the same type of transport protein is involved in quite different
physiological processes.
Passive transport
Passive transport is a movement of biochemicals and
other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes. Unlike active
transport, it does not require an input of chemical energy, being driven by the
growth of entropy of the system. The rate of passive transport depends on
the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, depends on the organization
and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of
passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis.

Diffusion (simple)

Passive diffusion on a cell membrane.

Diffusion is the net movement of material from an area of high concentration to

an area with lower concentration. The difference of concentration between the
two areas is often termed as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will
continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials
from an area of higher concentration to the lower, it is described as moving
solutes "down the concentration gradient" (compared with active transport, which
often moves material from area of low concentration to area of higher
concentration, and therefore referred to as moving the material "against the
concentration gradient"). Simple diffusion and osmosis are similar. Simple
diffusion is the passive movement of solute from a high concentration to a lower
concentration until the concentration of the solute is uniform throughout and
reaches equilibrium. Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically
describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a membrane until there
is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of the membrane.

Simple diffusion and osmosis are both forms of passive transport and require
none of the cell's ATP energy.

Facilitated diffusion

Depiction of facilitated diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion, also called carrier-mediated diffusion, is the movement of
molecules across the cell membrane via special transport proteins that are
embedded within the cellular membrane. Many large molecules, such as glucose,
are insoluble in lipids and too large to fit through the membrane pores. Therefore,
it will bind with its specific carrier proteins, and the complex will then be bonded
to a receptor site and moved through the cellular membrane. Facilitated diffusion is
a passive process: The solutes move down the concentration gradient and don't use
extra cellular energy to move.

Filtration

Filtration is movement of water and solute molecules across the cell membrane due
to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the
size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. For
example, the membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very
small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being
filtered through. On the other hand, the membrane pores of liver cells are
extremely large, to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized.

Osmosis

The effect of osmosis on blood cells under different solutions.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable

membrane. The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable
membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential.
A cell with a less negative water potential will draw in water but this depends on
other factors as well such as solute potential (pressure in the cell e.g. solute
molecules) and pressure potential (external pressure e.g. cell wall).

Active Transport

Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient

(from low to high concentration). In all cells, this is usually concerned with
accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions,
glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from
adenosine (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active
transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Active transport uses
energy, unlike passive transport, which does not use any type of energy. Active
transport is a good example of a process for which cells require energy. Examples
of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the
uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
Details
Specialized transmembrane proteins recognize the substance and allow it access to
cross the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because it is one to which
the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable or because it is moved
against the direction of the concentration gradient. In the case of secondary
transport, such proteins expend energy upon forcing the substance to cross. In this
case, known as primary active transport, the proteins involved in it are pumps
which normally use the chemical energy of ATP. The other cases are known as
secondary active transport, and energy is usually derived through exploitation of

an electrochemical gradient. This case involves pore-forming proteins that form

channels through the cell membrane.
In an antiporter one substrate is transported in one direction while a second is co
transported in the opposite direction. In a symporter, two substrates are transported
in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport processes are
associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one of the two substances
is transported in the direction of its concentration gradient, utilizing the energy
derived from the transport of second substance (mostly Na+, K+ or H+) down its
concentration gradient.
If substrate particles are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of
higher concentration (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or against the concentration
gradient), specific trans-membrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins
have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and thus transport
them into the cell. Because energy is required for this process, it is known as
'active' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation
of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium
pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.
Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts
exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts
from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient.

Primary active transport

The action of the sodium-potassium pump is an example of primary active

transport.
Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses metabolic
energy to transport molecules across a membrane.
Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane
ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all animal life is the sodium-potassium
pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. Other sources of energy for
Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example
of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron
transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the
inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of
primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved
in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across
the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form
of NADPH.
Model of active transport

ATP hydrolysis is used to transport hydrogen ions against the electrochemical

gradient (from low to high hydrogen ion concentration). Phosphorylation of
the carrier protein and the binding of a hydrogen ion induce a conformational
(shape) change that drives the hydrogen ions to transport against the
electrochemical gradient. Hydrolysis of the bound phosphate group and release of
hydrogen ion then restores the carrier to its original conformation.[5]
ATP using primary active transport types
1. P-type ATPase: sodium potassium pump, calcium pump, proton pump
2. F-ATPase: mitochondrial ATP synthase, chloroplast ATP synthase
3. V-ATPase: vacuolar ATPase
4. ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporter: MDR, CFTR, etc.
Secondary active transport

Secondary active transport

In secondary active transport, also known as coupled transport or co-transport,
energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast
to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead it relies

upon the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions in/out of the
cell.[6] Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient,
but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to
that where it is less concentrated increases entropy and can serve as a source
of energy for metabolism (e.g. in ATP synthase).
In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his
discovery of the sodium-glucose co-transport as the mechanism for intestinal
glucose absorption. Crane's discovery of co-transport was the first ever proposal of
flux coupling in biology.
Co-transporters can be classified as symporter and antiporters depending on
whether the substances move in the same or opposite directions.

Antiport

Function of Symports and Antiports

In an antiport two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions
across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low
concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other
solute from a low concentration region to a high one. An example is the sodiumcalcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to
transport one calcium out.
Many cells also possess a calcium ATPase, which can operate at lower intracellular
concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this
important second messenger. But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly:
only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes
into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes" and enables
rapid recovery. This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several
enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to
meet specific, intermittent needs.

Symport
Symport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low
concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high
concentration (against its electrochemical gradient). Both molecules are
transported in the same direction.
An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which cotransports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium
ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines,
trachea, heart, brain, testis, and prostate. It is also located in the S3 segment of
the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited
in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in SGLT1 prevent effective reabsorption
of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Vesicles, small sacs made of membranes, can transport and store substances within
the cytoplasm. Active transport is used to transport large molecules by a process
called as:
Endocytosis
Exocytosis

Endocytosis is the process in which the cell membrane is invaginated forming a

vesicle that contains extracellular medium. In endocytosis the particles to be
transported are enclosed in small portions of the cell membrane to form vesicles.
This enclosed particle is then bought into the cell by using energy in the form of
ATP.

Exocytosis is used by the cells to release secreted proteins to the exterior.

Expulsion of waste products takes place by exocytosis. This process is the reverse
of endocytosis in which the cell membrane fuses with the particle and releases the
contents outside.

R.A. # 1
Transport Across the
membrane
Submitted by: Nanquil, Nealeth B.
Submitted to: Professor Cyda O. Meimban
Yr./Course: I-BSN