Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Inuence of biodiesel blending on physicochemical properties and

importance of mathematical model for predicting the properties
of biodiesel blend
M.A. Wakil a,, M.A. Kalam a, H.H. Masjuki a, A.E. Atabani b, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah a
a
b

Center for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 24 October 2014
Accepted 16 January 2015

Keywords:
Biodiesel
Edible oil
Non-edible oil
Blending
Physicochemical properties
Mathematical modeling

a b s t r a c t
The growing demand for green world serves as one of the most signicant challenges of modernization.
Requirements like largest usage of energy for modern society as well as demand for friendly milieu create
a deep concern in eld of research. Biofuels are placed at the peak of the research arena for their underlying benets as mentioned by multiple researches. Out of a number of vegetable oils, only a few are used
commercially for biodiesel production. Due to various limitations of edible oil, non-edible oils are becoming a protable choice. Till today, very little percentage of biodiesel is used successfully in engine. The
research is still continuing for improving the biodiesel usage level. Recently, it is found that the blended
biodiesel from more than one feedstock provides better performance in engine. This paper reviews the
physicochemical properties of different biodiesel blends obtained from various feedstocks with a view
to properly understand the fuel quality. Moreover, a short description of each feedstock is given along
with graphical presentation of important properties for various blend percentages from B0 to B100.
Finally, mathematical model is formed for predicting various properties of biodiesel blend with the help
of different research data by using polynomial curve tting method. The results obtained from a number
of literature based on this work shows that the heating value of biodiesel is about 11% lower than diesel
except coconut (14.5% lower) whereas kinematic viscosity is in the range of 45.4 mm2/s. Flash point of
all biodiesels are more than 150 C, except neem and coconut. Cold ow properties of calophyllum, palm,
jatropha, moringa are inferior to others. This would help to determine important properties of biodiesel
blend for any percentage of biodiesel and to select the proper feedstock for better performance.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The primary catalyst of any countrys socio-economic development is energy. However, through modernization the demand
of energy consumption is facing a serious threat due to the gradual declination of fossil fuels. Various sectors for instance, industry, transport, agriculture, domestic sector, etc. require energy
from sources like wood, coal, petroleum products, nuclear power,
solar, and wind [1]. Currently, more than 80% of energy demand
is catered by fossil fuels [2]. The deep concern about fossil fuels
is that its generation of toxic pollutants links to global warming,
climate change and even some impasse diseases [3]. To compete
with this critical situation, a good number of research have been

Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 163269524.

E-mail addresses: wakil_01@yahoo.com (M.A. Wakil), kalam@um.edu.my (M.A.
Kalam).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.01.043
0196-8904/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

conducted to nd alternative to fossil fuels for eco-friendly

condition.
Biodiesel is considered to be a notable option for at least complementing conventional fuels [3]. Its production from renewable
sources such as vegetable oils and fats has been widely reviewed
[410]. It is advantageous over petroleum product because it is
safe in handling, biodegradable, non-toxic, has higher combustion
efciency, higher cetane number, contains no sulfur, etc. [1,3,1114].
In addition, it is advantageous for numerous social benets like
rural revitalization, creation of new jobs and reduced global
warming [15].
Among the available sources of biodiesel, edible oils are dominating in several countries as diesel substitute. For instance, canola
and soybean are used in USA, palm oil in Malaysia, rapeseed oil in
Europe etc. [12,14]. Currently, more than 95% of the world biodiesel comes from edible oil. In the year 20042007 the edible oil used
for biodiesel production was 6.6 million tons which would attribute 34% of the increase in global consumption of biodiesel and

52

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Nomenclature
APME
CIME
COME
CME
CMME
JCME
MOME
NME
POME
RBME

Aphanamixis polystachya methyl ester

Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester
Coconut methyl ester
Canola methyl ester
Croton megalocarpus methyl ester
Jatropha curcas methyl ester
Moringa oleifera methyl ester
Neem methyl ester
Palm methyl ester
Rice bran methyl ester

also lead to one third of the total projected growth of edible oils
between 2005 and 2017 [16]. This large usage of edible oils for biodiesel has caused a serious impact on food supply. It has the ability
to lead to starvation especially in developing countries and impose
antagonistic effect on environment [13]. The prominent solution is
to use second generation feedstocks (non-edible oils) which has
higher potential for biodiesel production [13] and can easily eliminate the food vs fuel concern. Another boosting feedstock is algae.
Although full scale commercialization from algae has not begun
yet, but it is expected to be rich in oil content (oil content in microalgae can exceed 80% of its weight of dry biomass) [3].
The use of vegetable oils started more than a century ago. Apart
from the remarkable advantages, biodiesel has couple of difculties to be used as a replacement of fossil fuels in engine such as
high viscosity and density and low volatility and heating value
[12]. These difculties lead to problems in pumping, atomization,
gumming, injection fouling, piston ring sticking, etc. [1]. Another
serious threat for biodiesel industry is the cost of feedstock which
currently accounts for over 7085% of biodiesel production cost
[13,17,18]. One solution to alleviate this problem is to use multiple
feedstocks of varying percentage. It will not only subside the cost
of production but also enhance product quality. Problems of using
edible oils can also be moderated by switching these with non-edible oils. It has been proven that biodiesel containing up to B5 will
have no notable difference in terms of power and fuel economy
when it is compared to diesel [19]. ASTM D7467 suggests blending
of 20% biodiesel with diesel. In 2014, the Chevy Cruze Clean Turbo
Diesel is directing the engine with rated B20 biodiesel compatibility [20]. Now-a-days research is going on to increase the use of biodiesel blending with diesel. Consequently, biodiesel blending
(biodiesel and diesel) bring a new topic in research arena. A number of researches have been undertaken already on biodiesel
blending [17,2127]. Accordingly, it has become easier to have a
clear concept of the physicochemical properties of edible and
non-edible vegetable oils with varying blending percentages for a
better understanding on blend qualities. Survey of existing
literature shows that most of the studies focus on pure biodiesel

SME
SFME
CB10
CoB
CrB
JB
CP
PP
CFPP

Sesame methyl ester

Sterculia foetida methyl ester
Calophyllum biodiesel (10% + Diesel 90%) blend
Coconut biodiesel, diesel blend
Croton biodiesel, diesel blend
Jatropha biodiesel, diesel blend
Cloud point
Pour point
Cold lter plugging point

properties rather than properties of blending. Therefore, this

review aims rstly at focusing on the physicochemical properties
of edible and non-edible biodiesel and their blends with diesel
(B0B100). Secondly, mathematical equation for various biodiesel
blends would be produced in order to predict the important properties of blended biodiesel for any percentage of biodiesel. Here, a
polynomial curve tting method is used to generate the equation.
It is believed that such kind of studies will assist researchers for
further study about optimal usage of biodiesel.
2. Biodiesel feedstocks
Feedstock-related cost has been regarded as a primary obstacle
as it constitutes roughly around 6090% of the total biodiesel production cost [28]. Biodiesel can be produced from a wide variety of
oils. These include vegetable oils (edible and non-edible oils)
[13,2934], food processing waste (waste cooking oils, animal fat
(tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat) [28,3537]), industrial residues) [38], algae, halophytes (Salicomia bigelovii [39]), sewage
sludge [40], etc.
Globally, more than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identied
as potential biodiesel sources [12,13,29,41]. The regional climate
mainly affects the feedstock selection for biodiesel production
[13]. Table 1 presents some important oil bearing species
[1,2,8,13,14,16,29,42].
A concise description of some edible and non-edible oil plants
including their country of origin, oil content and their necessary
uses are portrayed in Table 2 with their fatty acid composition in
Table 3. The identication of plants and seeds of the selected oil
sources are shown in Fig. 1.
3. Characteristics of crude oils and biodiesels
Characterization of oil properties is necessary to research about
the processing of crude oil to biodiesel and afterwards to diesel
engine successfully. The physical and chemical properties of any
fuel are signicant factors which help to decide whether the oil

Table 1
Oil species for biodiesel production.
Category

Source of oil

Edible oil

Sunower, Rapeseed, Rice bran, Soybean, Coconut, Corn, Palm, Olive, Pistachia Palestine, Sesame seed, Peanut, Opium Poppy, Safower oil, Amaranth,
apricot, argan, artichoke, avocado, babassu, bay laurel, beech nut, ben, Borneo tallow nut, carob pod (algaroba), cohune, coriander seed, false ax, grape
seed, hemp, kapok seed, lallemantia, lemon seed, macauba fruit (Acrocomia sclerocarpa), meadowfoam seed, mustard, okra seed (hibiscus seed), perilla
seed, pequi,(Caryocar brasiliensis seed), pine nut, poppy seed, prune kernel, quinoa, ramtil (Guizotia abyssinica seed or Nigerpea), rice bran, tallow, tea
(camellia), thistle (Silybum marianum seed), and wheat germ
Jatropha, Karanjaor Pongamia, Neem, Jojoba, Cottonseed, Linseed, Mahua, Deccan hemp, Kusum, Orange, Rubbe rseed, Sea Mango, Karanja or Honge,
milk bush, Nagchampa, Rubber seed tree, Tobacco seed oil, Algae, Halophytes and Xylocarpus moluccensis

Non-edible
oil

Waste or recycled oil

Animal fats
Tallow, Yellow grease, chicken fat and by-products from sh oil, etc.

Table 2
Acknowledgement of some edible and non-edible oils.
Name of oil

Characteristics

Country of available

Oil
Yield of
content plant seed

Uses

Refs.

kg/ Kg/ha
tree
A widespread species found in Indo-China and 30
Species in the family Meliaceae also known as pitraj tree. It is
indigenous as evergreen tree mainly growing in the tropical area of western Malaysia. Indonesia, India, Bangladesh, 40%
Asia. This deciduous, perennial tree grows to 2030 m long. Flower etc.
clusters occur in leaf axils, less than a foot long. Seeds are greyish
brown. Flowering: MaySeptember

25
40

[4347]
Herbal medicine, potential for
biodiesel, The wood is used for
construction of ships, vehicles, posts
and agricultural tools

Calophyllum inophyllum L.

Known as penaga laut, non-edible oil seed tree belongs to Clusiaceae Native Australian tree, Found in tropical region 45
family. It enables to tolerate harsh environmental conditions (acidity, of India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, etc. 70%
salinity, and drought), require little maintenance, 10004000 mm
rainfall is sufcient per year. It is non-invasive, fruits profusely
(300010,000 seeds tree1 season1). Duration of harvest is two
months, Flowering in MarchMay and fruiting in OctoberNovember

25 4680
50

For burning, timber, medicinal uses, [13,4750]

etc.

Croton megalocarpus

40
C. megalocarpus belongs to Euphorbiaceae family. It is a multipurpose The plant id indigenous to East Africa and
tree of Mexican and Central American origin with height 1540 m. It widely found in mountain of Tanzania, Kenya, 45%
Uganda, etc.
is capable to engender at the altitude of 1200 m and 2450 m
respectively. It requires less water footprint and fertilization during
cultivation stage

50

Coconut

Coconut is member of the family Arecaceae. Found throughout the Indigenous to Indo-pacic origin. Philippines,
tropic and sub-tropic area. It is familiar as large palm growing up to Indonesia, India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Mexico,
Brazil etc.
30 m tall with pinnate leaves 46 m long. On very fertile land a
coconut tree can yield 75 fruits per year but often yield less than 30
mainly due to tough cultural practices. Coconut palms are growing in
more than 80 countries of the world with a total production of 61
million tons per year. Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry
climates and cannot grow without frequent irrigation, in drought
conditions

Jatropha curcas

This plant is native to Mexico, Central America, 43

J. curcas belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It grows throughout
Africa, India, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, and 59%
most of the tropics and can survive on poor soil and drought
condition. It is reported as wild, semi-arid-climates plant. It owers in Paraguay
MarchSeptember and fruiting in AprilMay and OctoberNovember
of ellipsoidal green fruits. It produces seeds after 12 months and
reaches its maximum yield after 45 years.

0.5 100
2.0 8000

Moringa oleifera

Native to sub-Himalayan tracts of north-west

Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated tree species in the
India, Africa, Latin America, Pakistan,
family of Moringaceae grows throughout most of the tropics. It is
drought tolerant and can survive in arid, harsh and infertile land. The Bangladesh, Afghanistan, etc.
tree can range from 5 to 10 m in height; sometimes can be even 15 m.
The plant starts bearing pods 68 months after planting

35
45%

3000

Neem

Neem (Azadirachta indica), a tree of mahogany family Meliaceae. It is Native to Asian countries like India, Pakistan,
fast growing evergreen tree and can reach a height of 1520 m, rarely Bangladesh, etc.
to 3540 m. It is drought tolerant, thrives in area with sub-arid to
sub-humid condition with annual rainfall 4001200 mm and hardly
below 400 mm. This is a typical tropical to subtropical tree can
tolerate high to high temperature but cannot tolerate temperature
below 4 C. Duration of harvest is 23 months. Flowering starts in
MarchApril and fruiting in JuneJuly. The white, hard inner shell of
the fruits enclose with one and rarely two or three seeds

30
39%

Palm

Palm oil tree belonging to the species namely, Elaeis guineensis. Oil Mostly available in South East Asia (Indonesia,
palms are originally from Western Africa, but can ourish wherever Malaysia), Thailand, Brazil, Nigeria, Colombia,
heat and rainfall are abundant. It is found to be a tropical perennial Ecuador, Costa Rica Venezuela, etc.

5000 Rejuvenating chemical peels, pain

10,000 relieving and anti-inammatory
drag, biodiesel production, etc.

60%

[13,5153]

Coconut oil is used for Skin

[1,54]
moisturizer, ingredient for soap, etc.

20
35

Bio-fuels, carbon dioxide

sequestration, etc.

[13,47,53,55
57]

Moringa leaves uses as sources of

food, as forage for livestock, etc.

[53,5860]

Toiletries, pest control, cosmetics,

Pharmaceuticals, etc.

[47,61,62]

4000 Cooking ingredient, confectionery,

5000 cosmetics, body products and
cleaning agents
(oil)

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Aphanamixis polystachya

[12,6366]

53

(continued on next page)

Originated from Africa and Turkey, Also in India, 57

China, Sudan, Burma, Tunisia, Egypt, Thailand, 63%
Mexico, Guatemala, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, etc.
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L) is an oil seed herbaceous crop of the
Pedaliaceae family primarily found in tropical and subtropical areas. It
is very drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system and
requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. It is an
annual plant growing 50100 cm tall with opposite leaves 414 cm
long. The owers are yellow, tubular with four-lobed mouth. The
ower may vary in color with some being white, blue or purple
Sesame

Rice bran

plant grows well in lowland with humid places. Identies as

unbranched, single stemmed which can grow up to 2030 m in
height. Can be cultivated for 4050 years. It carries fruits from the
fourth year onward. Due to the reduction in fruit production it is right
choice to replanting for every 25 years rotation

However, rice can be grown practically

Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or
anywhere, even on a steep hill
Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Rice is the most important cereal
cultivated in the world which fed more than half of the people of the
world. Rice bran is a by-product of rice milling process. Due to the
presence of active lipase and high free fatty acid, about 6070% of rice
bran oil production is non-edible. Rice cultivation requires ample
water

16
32%

440

kg/ Kg/ha
tree

Food, nutraceutical, Pharmaceutical

industry

Refs.
Uses
Oil
Yield of
content plant seed
Country of available
Characteristics
Name of oil

Table 2 (continued)

[68,69]

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Popular ingredient in Japan, Also uses [1,18,67]

as medicine, animal food, cosmetics,
shoes cream, etc.

54

is suitable for engine or unsuitable. Researchers have shown that

the properties of biodiesel vary signicantly due their diverse fatty
acid composition which provides an obvious effect on engine performance. Therefore, it is important to characterize biodiesels
according to preset standard testing methods [13]. American
Standard Test Method (ASTM) and European (EN) standard have
formulated the specication for biodiesel as shown in Table 4
[1,2,12,13,87,88]. Table 5 shows some selected properties of crude
edible and non-edible oils. It is seen that the heating value of crude
oils vary in the range of 38,50040,000 kJ/kg. The maximum kinematic viscosity was reported for Calophyllum inophyllum
(55.478 mm2/s) and rice bran (52.225 mm2/s). Among these feedstocks Moringa oleifera contains highest oxidation stability
(41.75 h at 110 C) while the maximum acid value was in C. inophyllum (41.74 mg KOH/g oil).
On the other hand, except coconut (38,300 kJ/kg) the heating
value of other edible and non-edible methyl esters are almost
above 39,500 kJ/kg as shown in Table 6. Coconut possesses the
lowest kinematic viscosity (3.1435 mm2/s). However, according
to data found from various researches, all feedstocks indicated in
this study have satised ASTM limit for viscosity. It is found that
Neem and coconut have lower ash point rather than other feedstock. Cetane number varies from 45 to 75.

4. Impact of blending on physicochemical properties of

biodiesel
Though biodiesel satisfy the ASTM and EN limits, it cannot be
used alone in diesel engine due to its high kinematic viscosity
and density and also lower oxidation stability and heating value.
To improve those properties, it is blended with diesel. In this paper
we carried out some work to review the variation of physicochemical properties such as kinematic viscosity, caloric value, density,
ash point, cloud point, pour point, CFPP, and oxidation stability
with the varying blended percentage, B0 (Pure diesel)B100 (Pure
biodiesel). The data were gathered from different resources as in
Refs. [18,51,100115] and depicted in Figs. 29, respectively.
As biodiesel is completely miscible to diesel, biodiesel and diesel blend was prepared using a beaker glass on a volume basis and
the mixture was agitated with a shaker for about 1530 min at
ambient temperature. The effects of blend on the important properties are discussed in the following sections.

4.1. Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the measure of resistance to uid ow
over another due to internal friction. It is the most critical property
as it affects injection behavior [14]. Viscosity of vegetable oil is
typically ten times higher than petroleum based diesel [116]. High
viscosity leads to a poorer atomization and vaporization, formation
of shoots, etc. [13,14,117]. The data collected from various research
articles based on viscosity of many feedstocks at various blend
percentages are depicted in Fig. 2. It is seen from gure that at
any blend percentage, Calophyllum, Moringa, Neem and Rice bran
biodiesel blends show higher viscosity than other feedstocks
except that at lower blend percentages (below B30), the viscosity
variation are small. For instance, results for B20 show that the
average viscosity of each feedstock, APME = 3.657, CIME = 3.482,
COME = 3.54,
CMME = 3.50,
JCME = 3.74,
MOME = 3.67,
NME = 3.81, POME = 3.54, RBME = 3.50, SME = 3.37 mm2/s respectively. Average value of B100 for each feedstock biodiesel are
APME = 4.46,
CIME = 5.23,
COME = 4.06,
CMME = 4.376,
JCME = 4.57, MOME = 4.87, NME = 5.4, POME = 4.39, RBME = 4.82,
SME = 4.339 mm2/s respectively.

Table 3
Fatty acid composition of crude edible and non-edible oils.
C8:0

C10:0

C12:0

C14:0

C16:0

C16:1

C17:0

C18:0

C18:1

C18:2

C18:3

C18:4

C20:0

C20:1

C22:0

C22:1

C24:0

C24:1

Aphanamixis polystachya
(meliaceae) [13,70]
Calophyllum inophyllum L. [13]

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

23.1

N/D

N/D

12.8

21.5

29

13.6

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

0.09

14.6, 17.9

2.5

N/D

37.57, 42.7

26.33, 13.7

0.2, 2.1

N/D

0.94

0.72

N/D

N/D

2.6

N/D

Croton megalocarpus [52]

Coconut oil [1,11]

N/D
N/D

N/D
14

N/D
51,48.8

6.5
7.5, 7.8

0.1
0.1

0.1

11.6
5, 4.4

72.7
1, 0.8

3.5, o.4
0

N/D
65.7

N/D
N/D

0.9
N/D

N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D

N/D

N/D
N/D

Jatropha curcas[1,13,16]

N/D

0.1

N/D

0.1
18.5,
19.9
1.4, 0.1

19.96,
18.5
3.8
3

0.2, 0.4

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

41.6, 32.1,
31.4, 32.8
1.0, 8.1, 0.7

N/D

N/D

0.2

N/D

N/D

N/D

0.2-0.26

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D
N/D

0.1
N/D

1
0.3, 0.8
0.40.6,

0.3
0.23

N/D
N/D

2.3-15.8,
18.3
10.2, 10.1
35.4,35.6
26.435.1

N/D

N/D
N/D

14.4-24.1
18.1
4.5, 4.4
2.1, 2.2
1.72.5

0.2

Palm [1,11,16]
Rice bran [3,11,13,73]

13.6-16.2,
18.1
42.8, 42.6
12.5, 17.7
11.716.5

2.0,
5.8
N/D

N/D

N/D

4, 0.907,
5.8
0.8-3.4

7.1

Neem [3,11]

39.1, 40.8,
44.7
72.2, 66.6,
79.4
49.1-61.9,
44.5
40.5
47.5, 40.6
39.243.7

0.2, 0.2

N/D

0.7,
0.9
1.4,
2.1
N/D

0.1

Moringa oleifera [7072]

12.6,15.6,
15.1,14.2
6.5, 7.8, 9.1

0.2
1.1, 1.8

1.1
N/D

N/D
0.2, 0.4
0.6,

N/D
N/D

N/D
0.3

N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D

Sesame [1]
Stauntonia chinensis [28]
Raphanus sativus [74]
Annona diversifolia [75]
Syagrus coronate [76]
Syagrus coronate [77]
chufa sedge [78]
Citrus reticulate [79]
Phoenix dactylifera [80]
Idesia polycarpa [81]
Calotropis gigantean [82]
Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.)
[83]
Fodder radish (Raphanus
sativus L. var oleiferus)
[84,85]
Citrullus colocynthis [86]

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
9.0
6
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
6.0
6
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
42.0
37
N/D
N/D
24
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
16.0
11
0.1
N/D
13
N/D
N/D
N/D

13.1
6.87
6.13
16.40
8.0
8
13.1
26.90
17.44
15.06
15.5
20.96 1.2

N/D
0.21
0.05
N/D
N/D
N/D
2.1
N/D
N/D
6.5
0.3
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

3.9
1.19
1.68
5.22
4.0
3
2.8
4.62
<0.3
1.18
10.5
20.29 0.2

52.8
79.95
23.87
70.42
12.0
24
61.6
26.75
36.8
5.5
31.1
22.14 0.7

30.2
8.32
13.46
7.97
3.0
5
17.2
37.65
7
70.6
36.3
27.47 1.4

N/D
0.13
10.34
N/D
N/D
N/D
1.4
3.80
N/D
1.1
0.8
8.84 2.2

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
1.72
0.68
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.7
0.26
N/D
N/D
0.6
0.29 0.9

N/D
0.51
8.58
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D
1.64
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.2
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.1
N/D

N/D
N/D
31.76
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
0.2,
0.4
0.9
N/D
N/D
0.61
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.8
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.4
N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

3.6

27.9

7.6

4.6

N/D

2.2

11.2

N/D

33.3

0.6

2.0

N/D

N/D

N/D

0.7

10.53

0.05

0.14

9.57

14.07

64.65

0.1

N/D

0.12

0.06

0.01

N/D

N/D

N/D

N/D

5.5, 9.7,
7.1
6.0, 5.5,2.7

N/D

N/D
N/D
1.26
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Oil

N/D  Not detected.

55

56

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Fig. 1. Some pictures of edible and non-edible plants and seed.

4.2. Density
The airfuel ratio and energy content of the air fuel mixture
largely depend on fuel density within the combustion chamber
of diesel engine [14]. In general, density of biodiesel is slightly
higher than petro diesel and it is augmented by increasing biodiesel percentage in blends [12,14]. Fig. 3 shows density variations
with blend percentage variations. It is found that except Neem biodiesel (having higher density 0.891 g/cc at 40 C) the density of
other feedstocks biodiesel are lower than 0.87 g/cc. Moreover, Rice
bran and Sesame biodiesels have the same trend of increasing density (0.849, 0.853, 0.857, and 0.86 at 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% blend
percentage). Except Aphanamixis, Calophyllum and Neem, density
of other biodiesel varies slightly with the rise of biodiesel percentages in blend.

4.3. Caloric value

In general, biodiesel has lower caloric value than diesel
because of its higher oxygen content [1214]. Among the data
presented in Fig. 4, it is found that only Aphanamixis (Pitraj) and

Coconut biodiesel contain signicantly lower caloric value

(38,080 and 37,722 kJ/kg on an average) where the caloric value
of other biodiesels are nearly 40,000 kJ/kg. The heating value of
blended biodiesel is higher than biodiesel and slightly lower than
diesel. The heating value decreases marginally with the increasing
percentages of biodiesel in blend. With the rise of blend percentage
(for example, B20B30B40, etc.), caloric value decrease to about
250400 kJ/kg except coconut biodiesel blend which decrease
quite higher (about 700 kJ/kg). Up to B60, Palm, Rice bran and Sesame biodiesels have shown considerable heating value above
42,000 kJ/kg. This value is 7% lower than petro diesel where pure
biodiesel has normally 12% lower caloric value than diesel.

4.4. Flash point

Flash point is a measure of ammability of fuels which is inversely proportional to volatility [1214]. The biofuels specication
for ash point is meant to protect against contamination for highly
volatile matters. In general, biodiesel has higher ash point than
petro-diesel. The average ash point of pure biodiesel is almost
double than that of diesel. There is an increasing trend of ash

57

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Manchurian apricot (Prunus mandshurica Skv.)

Xylocarpus moluccensis

Siberian apricot (Prunus sibirica L.)

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.)

Fig. 1 (continued)

Table 4
U.S. and European specication for biodiesel.
Property

Kinematic viscosity at 40 C (mm2/s)

Density at 15 C (kg/m3)
Caloric value (MJ/kg)
Flash point C
Pour point (C)
Cloud point (C)
Cold lter plugging point (CFPP) (C)
Cetane number
Oxidation stability at 110 C (h)
Acid value (mg KOH/g)
Free glycerin (wt% max)
Total glycerin (wt% max)
Carbon residue (wt% max)
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at 50 C)
Iodine value (g/l2/100 g) max.
Water and sediments (vol%, max)
Total sulfur (ppm), max
Phosphorous (ppm), max

U.S. (ASTM D6751-08)

Europe (EN 14214)

Test methods

Limit

Test methods

Limit

D 445
D 1298

D 93
D 97
D 2500
ASTM
D 613
D 675
D 664
D 6584
D 6584
D 4530
D130

D 2709
D 5453
D 4951

1.9-6.0
880

93
15 to 16
3 to 12
Max + 5
47 min
3 min
0.5 max
0.02
0.24
0.05
No. 3 (max.)

0.05
15b
10

EN ISO 3104
EN ISO 3675/12185
EN14214
EN ISO 3679

EN 14214
EN ISO 5165
EN 14112
EN 14104
EN 14105
EN 14105
EN 10370
EN 2160
EN 14111
EN 12937g
EN 20846
EN 14107

3.5-5.0
860-900
35
101 min.

51 min
6 min
0.5 max
0.02
0.25
0.30e
No. 1
120
0.05
10
4

58

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Table 5
Properties of crude edible and non-edible oils.
Properties

Aphanamixis
polystachya [89]

Calophyllum
[2]

Coconut [2]

Croton
[2]

Jatropha [2]

Moringa
[2]

Palm [2]

Rice
bran
[90]

Sesame
[90]

Neem [91]

Heating value (kJ/kg)

38729

38,511

37,806

39,331

38,961

39,762

39,867

39,548

39,386

Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s) at 40 C
Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s) at 100 C
Viscosity Index (VI)
Density (kg/m3) at
40 C
Flash point (C)
CFPP (C)
Cloud point (C)
Pour point (C)
Refractory Index
Oxidation stability (h
at 110 C)
Acid value (mg KOH/
g oil)
Transmission (%T)
Copper strip
corrosion 3 h at 50 C
Absorbance (Abs)
MIU (wt%) [95]
FFA (wt%) [95]

35.093

55.478

27.64

29.844

48.095

43.468

41.932

52.225

34.087

32,000
40,000[92]
35.83

7.2547

9.5608

5.9404

7.2891

9.1039

9.0256

8.496

10.393

7.6364

177.9
0.9164

165.4
0.9249

168.5
0.9089

224.2
0.9100

174.1
0.9054

195.2
0.8971

185.0
0.8998

192.8
0.9069

202.9
0.9066

0.9200

5
4
1.4789
0.09

236.5
26
8
8
1.4784
0.23

264.5
22
17
19
1.4545
6.93

235.0
10

1.4741
0.14

258.5
21
9 1[1]
4 1[1]
1.4652
0.32

263.5
18
10
11
1.4661
41.75

254.5
23
23[93]
12[93]
1.4642
0.08

300.50
0
0
1.4718
4.40

280.0
44
3
4
1.4709
9.795

100
11[92]
19
10

12.4 [92]

26.7

41.74

11.6[3]

14.47[86]

32.64 [3]

91.2
1a

18.5[95]
7.40[93]
63.2
1a

13.56

34.7
1a

8.62
2.90[3]
69.2
1a

1.314

61.6

12.07
3.343[94]
87.5
1a

87.10
1a

78.4

0.209

0.46

0.16
0.30
0.21

0.199
0.03
0.54

0.06
2.74
0.05

0.106

2.16
2.14

0.04
2.74
0.07(Lauric
acid)
2.7
2.0

31.4
7.3

1.0
7.3

4.0
0.9

0[b][68]

1990
47.6

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Sulfur (ppm) [95]

Phosphorous (ppm)
[95]

0.058

1.68[93]

61.8
1a
0.209
0.16
1.17(Palmitic
acid)
3.5
322.9

point for biodiesel blends as portrayed in Fig. 5. Calophyllum and

coconut biodiesel have shown considerably lower ash point
(122 and 139 C on average) than other biodiesels (APME = 170,
CMME = 178, JCME = 166, MOME = 163, NME > 150 [118],
POME = 160, RBME = 185, SME = 186 C on average). It is seen from
data that the variation of ash point basically occurs within the
range of 38 C with the increase of blend B20. This trend is found
up to B60, but the variation is increased about 1530 C when biodiesel percentage increase above 60% in blend.

1 C). Jatropha and croton show a moderate variation of 03 C

and 3 to 0 C, respectively.
Jatropha and Palm biodiesel have the same trend of CFPP
(Fig. 8). Coconut and Croton were found to have decreasing trends
of CFPP (5 to 4 C), (5 to 6 C) while Aphanamixis, Calophyllum,
Jatropha and Palm biodiesel have increasing trend with the
increase of biodiesel blends. The minimum CFPP was found at
90% biodiesel blend for Croton which is 6 C and for Coconut at
90% and 100% blend (4 C). Moreover, pure Moringa and Sesame
biodiesel show 2 C and 3 C respectively.

4.5. Cloud point (CP), pour point (PP), and cold lter plugging point
(CFPP)

4.6. Oxidation stability

These properties are considered to be cold ow properties as

they establish the limit for the use of fuels under cold weather conditions [2,13,14,119,120]. The cloud point is the lowest temperature at which smallest observable cluster of wax crystal rst
appears [120]. Pour point is the lowest temperature at which the
wax becomes semisolid and loses its ow characteristics. Cold lter plugging point is an estimation of lowest temperature at which
fuel will provide a trouble free ow in certain fuel systems
[13,120]. In general, biodiesel has higher CP and PP than diesel.
The CP and PP of biodiesel feedstock largely depends on fatty acid
composition [12,13]. The freezing point of biodiesel increases with
the increase of carbon atoms in carbon chain and decrease with
double bonds [29,121]. It is found from Fig. 6 that Moringa and
Palm have rising trend of cloud point while Croton gives the
reverse trend. Maximum cloud point is noted on Moringa (19 C)
and it varies from 8 to 19 C for the blends. The minimum cloud
point is observed on croton (4 C).
The minimum pour point was observed for Coconut at 20% biodiesel blend (15 C) and it increases with blend percentages as
shown in Fig. 7. While the highest pour point was found for Moringa 19 C, sesame biodiesel has a little variation in pour point (0

Oxidation stability is a prominent parameter that assesses the

fuels quality. Oxidation stability of biodiesel is generally inuenced
by some factors such as presence of air, heat, traces of metal, peroxides, light and fatty acid composition [12]. The presence of double bonds in biodiesel results in a high level of reactivity with
oxygen, especially when placed in direct contact with air, sunlight
or water [122124] which afterwards affects engine adversely.
From Fig. 9, it is clear that with the rise of blend percentages the
oxidation stability is waning. Moringa biodiesel has the best stability (26.2 h at 110 C) than other feedstocks at B100 and 88.84 h,
71.27 h and 64.25 h for B40, B60 and B80 respectively, the reverse
results were found for Calophyllum biodiesel (0.09 h at 110 C). On
the other hand, Coconut biodiesel also has a good oxidation stability (113.06, 85.88, 64.54, 56.55, 41.05, 32.08, 23.23, 5.12) for B20,
B30, B50, B60, B70, B80, B90, B100 respectively. On the other hand,
Croton, Sesame and Rice bran biodiesel give moderate stability.
5. Mathematical modeling for predicting the important
properties of biodiesel and its blend
The prediction of important physical and chemical properties of
biodiesel and its blends (weather with diesel or biodiesel) is a very

59

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

important factor in the design of fuel spray, atomization and

combustion and emission system for diesel engines. It is also a
highly demanding parameter because research is going on with
various feedstocks for biodiesel production. These equations would
help to predict the property at any percentages of biodiesel in
biodieseldiesel blend. Recently, several studies have been
conducted to examine the physical and chemical properties of
biodieseldiesel blends. The following paragraph will summarize
the most important works done in this aspect.
Saxena et al. [14] reviewed various methods for the prediction
of important thermophysical properties such as cetane number,
kinematic viscosity, density, higher heating value, ash point,
cloud point pour point, cold lter plugging point and vapor pressure for various biodiesel feedstocks.
Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar [125] developed an equation
to calculate cetane number of various vegetable oils and their biodiesel from their viscosity, density, ash point and higher caloric
value. They concluded that this equation gives an accuracy of 90%.

Atabani et al. [2] discussed the concept of biodieselbiodiesel

blending to improve the properties of some feedstocks. For
instance, blending of Sterculia feotida methyl ester (SFME) and
coconut methyl ester (CoME) improves the viscosity of (SFME)
from 6.3717 mm2/s to 5.3349 mm2/s (3:1), 4.4912 mm2/s (1:1)
and 3.879 mm2/s (1:3) respectively. Similar work was conducted
on the effect of biodieselbiodiesel blending on cloud point, pour
point and cold lter plugging point. The properties at different biodieselbiodiesel blends percentages were estimated using the
polynomial curve tting method. This paper concludes that blending of edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks could be considered as an approach to improve the properties of the nal product.
Moser [17] indicated that the fuel properties of Soybean methyl
ester were improved by blending with Canola, Palm and Sunower
methyl esters to satisfy the IV (<120) and OSI (>6 h) specications
contained within EN 14214. The CFPP of Palm methyl ester was
improved by up to 15 C through blending with Canola methyl
ester. Statistically signicant relationships were elucidated

Table 6
Properties of edible and non-edible methyl esters.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Properties

Aphanamixis
polystachya [89]

Calophyllum
[2]

Coconut
[2]

Croton [2]

Jatropha
[2]

Moringa
[2]

Palm
[2]

Rice
bran
[90]

Sesame
[90]

Neem [91]

Heating value (kJ/kg)

Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s) at 40 C
Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s) at 100 C
Viscosity Index (VI)
Density (kg/m3) at
40 C
Flash point (C)
CFPP (C)
Cloud point (C)

39,960
4.7177

39,513
5.5377

38,300
3.1435

39,786
4.0707

39,738
4.9476

40,115
5.0735

40,009
4.6889

39,957
5.3657

39,996
4.3989

39,810
3.70

1.8239

1.998

1.3116

1.6781

1.8557

1.9108

1.7921

1.9609

1.7236

220.7
0.8735

183.2
0.8776

230.8
0.8605

276.3
0.8704

194.6
0.8742

206.7
0.8597

203.6
0.8591

187
0.8681

229.0
0.8848

0.8680

188.5
5
8

162.5
11
12

118.5
1
1

164.0
4
3

186.5
10
10

176.0
18
21

214.5
12
13

174.50
0

208.5
1
1, 6[68]

19
67.07[71]

15
52[1]

3
73.6[13]

1, 14[68]
50.48[68]

76, 120[92]
11[96]
9[92],
14.4[96]
2[92]
4853[92]

1.4494

1.4468

1.4541

9
10

Pour point (C)

Cetane no.

13
57.3[13]

4
59[1]

2
46.6[52]

11

Refractory Index at 25
(C)
Oxidation stability (h
at 110 C)
Acid value (mg KOH/g)
[96]
Free glycerin (%mass)
[96]
Total glycerin (%mass)
[96]
Sulfur (ppm) [96]
Carbon residue [96]

1.4574

1.4357

1.4569

10
55.4[97],
57.1[13]
1.4513

0.16

6.12

8.01

0.71

4.84

12.64

23.56

1.61

1.14

7.1

0.448

0.30

0.106

0.156

0.185

0.046

0.586

0.3[67]

0.649[96]

0.025

0.16[94],
0.2[98]
0.019[51]

0.006

0.001

0.003

0.001

0.02[92]

0.065

0.22[51]

0.10

0.067

0.068

0.083

4.11

0.94
0.01

3.84
0.026

9.9
0.033

1.81
0.01

6.0
0.047

0.0[68]
0.6214[68]

0.158[96],
0.26[92]
473.8[96]
0.105[96]

12
13
14
15
16
17

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Properties

Stauntonia chinensis
[28]

Raphanus sativus
[74]

Annona diversifolia
[75]

Manchurian apricot
[99]

Siberian apricot
[99]

Heating value (kJ/kg)

Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at 40 C
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at
100 C
Viscosity Index (VI)
Density (kg/m3) at 40 C
Flash point (C)
CFPP (C)
Cloud point (C)
Pour point (C)
Cetane no.
Refractory Index at 25 (C)
Oxidation stability (h at 110 C)
Acid value (mg KOH/g)
Free glycerin (%mass)
Total glycerin (%mass)
Sulfur (ppm)
Carbon residue

N/D
4.48
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D

36.3
4.451
N/D

N/D
4.32
N/D

N/D
4.34
N/D

N/D
N/D
167
-9
N/D
N/D
52.1
N/D
2
0.12
0.003
0.14
5 (mg/kg)
0.05

N/D
N/D
N/D
6
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
0.082
0.000
0.108
0.79 (mg/kg)
N/D

N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
0
-9
44.7
N/D
N/D
0.5
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D

N/D
N/D
180
-15
N/D
N/D
49.7
N/D
2.9
N/D
0.015
0.16
4.5 (mg/kg)
N/D

N/D
N/D
175
-14
N/D
N/D
49.2
N/D
2.7
N/D
0.017
0.14
4.7 (mg/kg)
N/D

60

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Fig. 2. Kinematic viscosity at 40 C (mm2/s).

Fig. 3. Density at 40 C.

Fig. 4. Caloric value.

between oxidation stability and iodine value, oxidation stability

and saturated fatty acid methyl ester (Sunower methyl ester)
content, oxidation stability and CFPP, CFPP and iodine value, and
CFPP and Sunower methyl ester content. However, the only practically signicant relationship was that of CFPP vs. Sunower
methyl ester content when Sunower methyl ester content was
greater than 12 wt%.
Oghenejoboh and Umukoro [126] indicated that blending of
biodiesel from some feedstocks such as palm, palm kernel, Jatropha and rubber oils with diesel has resulted in an increase in the

caloric value, decrease in density, cloud point, pour point, kinematic viscosity and ash point of biodiesel. The same work was
done by Krishna [127] to improve the cold ow properties of
biodiesel.
Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar [128] developed an equation
to predict the higher heating value of biodiesel based on its kinematic viscosity, ash point and density with 0.949 accuracy.
A review on the physical and chemical properties and the fatty
acid composition of 26 biodiesel feedstocks (including of 22 edible
and non-edible oils and four animal fats) was conducted by

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

61

Fig. 5. Flash point.

Fig. 6. Cloud point.

Fig. 7. Pour point.

Giakoumis [129]. The author derived an excellent correlation

between iodine number and the degree of unsaturation. Besides, a
small statistical correlation (R2 > 0.60) was also established for
cetane number, density, pour point, carbon content, number of carbon atoms, stoichiometric airfuel ratio and T90 distillate
temperature.
Kalayasiri et al. [130] developed 2 empirical equations to predict the saponication number and iodine value of biodiesel based
on its fatty acid composition.

SN

X 560  Ai 
MW i

IV

X 254  D  Ai 
MW i

where SN  the saponication number, Ai  the percentage of each

component, D  the number of double bond, MWi  the molecular
mass of each component and IV  the iodine value.
Krisnangkura [131] illustrated a simple method to estimate the
cetane number of biodiesel which is based on their saponication
and iodine numbers. The range of the calculated values covers all
the cetane numbers of vegetable oil methyl esters determined
experimentally. When it was applied to individual fatty acid methyl

62

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Fig. 8. Cold lter plugging point (CFPP).

Fig. 9. Oxidation stability (h at 110 C).

Table 7
Mathematical equation for predicting properties for various biodiesel blends.
Biodiesel blends

Property

Biodiesel-diesel blending
APME + Diesel
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
CIME + Diesel
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
COME + Diesel
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
CMME + Diesel
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
JME + Diesel
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

Mathematical equation

R2

Variable

Ref.

y = 6E05x2 + 0.0169x + 3.3722

y = 2E07x2 + 0.0005x + 0.8298
y = 0.0137x2  0.6219x + 89.225
y = 0.2778x2  41.011x + 45,223
y = 0.0004x2 + 0.0566x  5.3142
y = 9E05x2 + 0.1131x  4.3545
y = 0.0008x2 + 0.1681x  4.4431
y = 7E05x2 + 0.0141x + 3.191
y = 2E07x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8348
y = 0.0048x2 + 0.0445x + 69.912
y = 0.0869x2  69.155x + 45,336
y = 0.0017x2  0.167x + 7.3147
y = 0.0007x2  0.0629x + 8.3846
y = 0.0003x2 + 0.1194x  0.1888
y = 2E05x2 + 0.0045x + 3.3625
y = 9E08x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8351
y = 0.008x2  0.1823x + 73.239
y = 0.008x2  74.066x + 45,292
y = 0.0017x2 + 0.0494x + 6.1818
y = 0.001x2 + 0.0153x + 7.5524
y = 0.0031x2  0.3092x  2.007
y = 4E05x2 + 0.0044x + 3.3503
y = 1E08x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8271
y = 0.0118x2  0.2759x + 79.312
y = 0.0362x2  61.61x + 45,377
y = 0.0018x2 + 0.0532x + 6.1469
y = 0.0009x2  0.0374x + 7.0699
y = 0.002x2 + 0.1696x  1.3706
y = 5E05x2 + 0.0059x + 3.4774
y = 2E07x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8274

0.9947
1
0.9683
0.9898
0.9161
0.978
0.9893
0.9989
0.9998
0.9948
0.9989
0.5621
0.8207
0.9606
0.9075
0.9994
0.9655
0.9994
0.9536
0.9083
0.4009
0.919
0.9997
0.9293
0.9968
0.8972
0.9609
0.7637
0.8463
0.9997

x is the dependent variable; x  biodiesel%

[113]

63

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Table 7 (continued)
Biodiesel blends

Property
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value
CFPP
Cloud point
Pour point
Kinematic viscosity
Density at 40 C
Flash point
Caloric value

MOME + Diesel

NME + Diesel

POME + Diesel

RBME + Diesel

SME + Diesel

CIME + Diesel

R2

Mathematical equation
2

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

at 40 C

Biodiesel-biodiesel blending
SFME-POME
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C
SFME-COME
POME-CME
Cloud point
JCME-CME
CIME-CME
POME-CME
Pour point
JCME-CME
CIME-CME
POME-CME
Cold lter plugging point
JCME-CME
CIME-CME

Variable

y = 0.0085x + 0.081x + 74.015

y = 0.176x2  68.831x + 45,205
y = 0.0007x2 + 0.0719x + 4.6853
y = 0.0008x2  0.09x + 6.7238
y = 0.0004x2 + 0.013x  1.0594
y = 3E05x2 + 0.0192x + 3.2815
y = 1E07x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8272
y = 0.0075x2 + 0.0604x + 74.8
y = 0.0444x2  56.284x + 45,223
y = 0.0006x2  0.1293x + 4.3843
y = 8E05x2 + 0.1146x + 6.6224
y = 0.0013x2 + 0.316x + 0.042
y = 0.0002x2 + 0.0423x + 2.9568
y = 6E07x2 + 0.0005x + 0.8374
N/D
y = 0.5887x2  118.16x + 46,138
N/D
N/D
N/D
y = 7E05x2 + 0.0042x + 3.3741
y = 1E07x2 + 0.0002x + 0.8351
y = 0.0098x2  0.2335x + 77.701
y = 0.1495x2  62.708x + 45,106
y = 0.0022x2  0.1529x + 6.007
y = 0.0023x2  0.1882x + 8.7622
y = 0.0006x2 + 0.0578x  1.3692
y = 4E05x2 + 0.0237x + 3.0904
y = 7E08x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8319
y = 0.0165x2  0.6966x + 80.524
y = 0.1462x2  63.082x + 45,358
y = 0.0007x2  0.0947x + 4.4311
N/D
N/D
y = 2E05x2 + 0.0102x + 3.1682
y = 3E08x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8319
y = 0.0168x2  0.7353x + 81.618
y = 0.0635x2  59.489x + 45,381
y = 0.0007x2  0.0049x + 4.2296
y = 0.0008x2 + 0.0137x + 5.2554
y = 0.0018x2 + 0.145x  0.2907
y = 0.1664x + 2.8361
y = 3.9209x + 825.46
y = 0.6678 x2  1.0049x + 71.355
y = 0.5934x + 45.848

0.9808
0.9869
0.9709
0.2857
0.8353
0.9919
0.9994
0.9464
0.9901
0.9361
0.9606
0.9869
0.9559
0.9993

y = 0.5159x2  1.1195 + 6.3599

y = 0.9533 x2  4.1182x + 6.3457
y = 3.4286x2  20.629x + 13.429
y = 1.1429x2  12.857x + 10.457
y = 3.4286x2  12.171x + 12.171
y = 2.2857x2  20.114x + 14.114
y = 13.714x2  6.2857x + 10.286
y = 13.714x2  8.6857x + 13.286
y = 6.8571x2  15.543x + 11.943
y = 6.8571x2  14.743x + 10.543
y = 5.7143x2  16.286x + 11.486

0.9908
0.9981
0.9704
0.979
0.9867
0.9784
0.9785
0.9972
0.9843
0.9639
0.9918

Ref.

0.994

0.8893
0.998
0.9305
0.9696
0.8763
0.7907
0.9076
0.9599
0.9999
0.9521
0.9849
0.932

0.9983
0.9999
0.9438
0.9989
0.9854
0.7033
0.6526
0.9978
0.9998
0.9965
0.9994

[101]

x  POME%
x  COME%
x  CME%

[2]

N/D  Not determined.

esters from C8 to C24, a straight line parallel to that of Klopfenstein

was obtained. The developed equation was as follows:


CN

46:3




5458
 0:225  IV
SN

where CN  the cetane number, SN  the saponication number,

and IV  the iodine value.
Ramrez-Verduzco et al. [132] attempted to develop 4 empirical
correlations that can be used estimate the cetane number, kinematic viscosity, density and higher heating value of biodiesels
based on their molecular weight and degree of unsaturation. The
estimated values were found to be in a good agreement with the
experimental values and an average absolute deviation (AAD) of

5.95%, 2.57%, 0.11% and 0.21% for the cetane number, kinematic
viscosity, density, and higher heating value were found. Those
derived equations were as follows:

;i 7:8 0:302  M i  20  N

lnni 12:503 2:496  lnMi  0:178  N

4:9
 0:0118  N
Mi

Pi 0:8463

di 46:19 

1794
 0:21  N
Mi

64

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 5167

Table 8
Mathematical equation for predicting properties for various biodiesel feedstocks.
Biodiesel blends
CMME
CIME
COME
POME
MOME
CMME
CIME
COME
POME
MOME
Various biodiesel
Feedstocks

R2

Ref.

FP = 183.95  (KV) + 1221.6  (KV) + 2099.5

FP = 0.4884  (KV)2 + 5.1448  (KV) + 47.913
FP = 33.934  (KV)2 + 188.35  (KV) + 325.3
FP = 74.797  (KV)2 + 517.44  (KV) + 968.12
FP = 13.79  (KV)2 + 73.438  (KV) + 164.68
CV = 2410.4  (KV)2 + 10, 323  (KV) + 37.233
CV = 560.27  (KV)2  7392.4  (KV) + 63. 326
CV = 33.934  (KV)2  188.35  (KV) + 325.3
1413.7  (KV)2 + 15, 028  (KV) + 79.180
3063.7  (KV) + 55. 367

0.9534
0.9887
0.9933
0.9569
0.9724
0.9891
0.9975
0.9933
0.996
0.9912

[113]

Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV)

Kinematic viscosity (KV) vs. Density (DN)
Kinematic viscosity (KV) vs. Flash point (FP)
Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Density (DN)
Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Flash point (FP)
Density (DN) vs Kinematic viscosity (KV)
Flash point (FP) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV)
Density (DN) vs. Flash point (FP)
Density (DN) vs. Caloric value (CV)

HHV = 0.4625  (KV) + 39.450

KV = 16.155  (DN) + 930.78
KV = 22.981  (FP) + 346.79
HHV = 0.0259  (DN) + 63.776
HHV = 0.021  (FP) + 32.12
DN = 15.77  (KV) + 929.59
FP = 12.36  (KV) + 176.3
FP = 1.46  (DN)  1099.9
CV = 0.0207  (DN) + 23.28

0.9677
0.9902
0.9819
0.7982
0.9530
0.9724
0.964
0.91
0.9568

[134]

Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV),

Density (DN), Flash point (FP)

HHV = 0.4527  (KV)  0.0008  (DN)  0.0003  (FP) + 40.3667

0.949

[128]

Property
Flash point (FP) vs. kinematic viscosity (KV)

Caloric value (CV) vs. kinematic viscosity (KV)

Mathematical equation
2

[135]

N/D  Not determined.

where ;i  the cetane number of the ith FAME, Mi  the molecular

weight of the ith FAME, N  the number of double bonds in a given
FAME, ni  the kinematic viscosity at 40 C of the ith FAME in mm2/
s, Pi  the density at 20 C of the ith FAME in g/cm3 and di  the
higher heating value of the ith FAME in MJ/kg.
Talebi et al. [133] developed a new software package (the BiodieselAnalyzer) that can predict 16 different properties of biodiesel based on the fatty acid methyl ester prole of the oil feedstock
used in making it.
The polynomial curve tting method has been used in several
studies [2,101,113,134,135] to predict the properties of biodieseldiesel blends. Mathematically, a polynomial of order k in X is
expressed in the form of:

Based on the review work that is conducted in this paper, for

future work it can be recommended to investigate the optimization
of biodiesel blends (both biodieseldiesel and biodieselbiodiesel)
as different biodiesel feedstocks possess some superior qualities as
well as some inferior qualities. Moreover, in depth instrumental
analysis for instance, effect of temperature, reaction time and catalyst type on biodiesel yield can help researchers to select more
potential candidate for biodiesel to be used commercially.

Y Co C1X C2X2    CkXk

Acknowledgements

where X is the variable as a function of available data and Y is the

predicted value. Table 7 shows some examples of the generated
equations for various biodiesel blends. Table 8 shows some mathematical equations for predicting properties of various biodiesel
feedstock.
6. Conclusion
In recent time, the research on biodiesel is reaching to the peak
because it is found as a good complementary substitute to diesel
than other sources. A number of research have been conducted
on biodiesel from different feedstocks by various researchers and
some are still ongoing for a considerable level of usage. Accordingly, this study highlighted the physicochemical properties under
various biodieseldiesel blend. For clear understanding, a short
description on feedstock has been also carried out. A polynomial
curve tting method is used to generate mathematical equation
for different biodieseldiesel blend in order to predict the properties of any percentage of biodiesel in the blend. This would help the
researchers to optimize the blend percentage which is necessary to
meet the impending scarcity of petro-diesel. The other protable
advantage would be the proper selection of combined feedstock
to improve the performance of engine relative to diesel without
any or little modication. This is necessary as there is the challenge

of using single feedstock as biodiesel for better performance along

with some demerits of edible feedstock.
7. Recommendation

The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education and University of Malaya, Malaysia for the nancial assistance
through High Impact Research Grant titled: Development of alternative and renewable energy carrier (DAREC) with Grant Number
UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/60.
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