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Number of errors Range for all dot products but one Range for the right row
2
4 to 4
28 to 32 or 28 to 32
3
6 to 6
26 to 32 or 26 to 32
4
8 to 8
24 to 32 or 24 to 32
5
10 to 10
22 to 32 or 22 to 32
6
12 to 12
20 to 32 or 20 to 32
7
14 to 14
18 to 32 or 18 to 32
With eight or more errors, the ranges overlap, and so correction is not possible. However, this
code has minimum Hamming distance 16, so that one can detect up to 15 errors.
0
0
G=
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
P =
1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
whose jth row is the encoding of j 1, for j = 1, . . . , 16; it looks like this:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sixteen of the codewords are the rows of P ; the other sixteen are the rows of P , corresponding
to the encoding of the numbers 16, . . . , 31. To decode a 16-long string w of 1s and 1s, compute
the product w P . As it was for the (64, 6) Hadamard code, the following table tells the tale:
Number of errors Range for all dot products but one Range for the right row
0
0
16 or 16
1
2 to 2
14 to 16 or 14 to 16
2
4 to 4
12 to 16 or 12 to 16
3
6 to 6
10 to 16 or 10 to 16
As before, the right row is the one that contains either the codeword (corresponding to a transmitted number from 0 to 15) or its negative (corresponding to a transmitted number from 16 to
31). With four or more errors, the ranges overlap, and so correction is not possible. However, this
code has minimum Hamming distance 8, so that one can detect up to 7 errors.
As an example, the 5-bit string 01011, corresponding to the integer 11, encodes as the 16-long
(1, 1) vector e = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1). Let f = e with the second 1
changed to 1, let g = e with the first two 1s changed to 1s, and let h = 3 with the first three
1s changed to 1s. Then
eP
f P
gP
hP
In each case (with 0, 1, 2 or 3 errors), the outlier is the 12th entry, corresponding to the number
11. However, if q = e with the first four 1s to 1s, we see that
q P = (8, 0, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0, 0, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0),
and we have no outliers. That is because q is also the vector consisting of all 1s with four 1s
changed to 1s, and so q is at a Hamming distance of four from at least two different codewords.
If A is a matrix, denote its transpose by At . The matrix P has the property that P P t = 16I,
where I denotes the identity matrix of order 16. Such matrices are called Hadamard matrices, and
have connections with many other areas of mathematics including cryptography.