AIM - Study of production consideration for casting.

Theory

Casting - Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a
casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.

1. Solidification of Melts
When a melt is poured into a colder mold, metal in contact with the mold solidifies in the form of
roughly equiaxed fine grains, because cooling rates are high, and the wall induces heterogeneous
nucleation.
Solidification proceeds by the growth of a few favorably oriented nuclei, in the direction of heat
extraction. This leads to be observed columnar structure. Because of the preferred growth direction
of the large grains, the casting will have very anisotropic properties.
Since most metals shrink on solidification, the liquid meniscus gradually drops and a shrinkage
cavity (pipe) remains.
2. Casting Materials
Although some non-metals are cast, the process is primary importance in the production of metal
products. The metals most frequently cast are iron, steel, aluminium, brass, bronze, magnesium, and
certain zinc alloys.
3. Casting Procedure
In all casting processes six basic factors are involved. These are as follows:
1. A mold cavity, having the desired shape and size and with due allowance for shrinkage of the
solidifying metal, must be produced. Any complexity of shape desired in the finished casting must
exist in the cavity. Consequently, the mold material must such as to reproduce the desired detail
and also have a refractory character so that it will not be significantly affected by the molten
metal that it contains. Either a new mold must be prepared for each casting, or it must be made
from a material that can withstand being used for repeated castings, the latter being called
permanent molds.
2. A suitable means must be available for melting the metal that is to be cast, providing not only
adequate temperature, but also satisfactory quality and quantity at low cost.
3. The molten metal must be introduced into the mold in such a manner that all air or gases in the
mold, prior to pouring or generated by the action of the hot metal upon the mold, will escape, and
the mold will be completely filled. A quality casting must be dense and free from defects such as
air holes.
4. Provision must be made so that the mold will not cause too much restraint to the shrinkage that
accompanies cooling after the metal has solidified. Otherwise, the casting will crack while its
strength is low. In addition, the design of the casting must be such that solidification and
solidification shrinkage can occur without producing cracks and internal porosity or voids.
5. It must be possible to remove the casting from the mold so a permanent mold must be made in
two or more sections.
6. After removal from the mold, finishing operations may need to be performed to remove
extraneous material that is attached to the casting as the result of the method of introducing the
metal into the cavity, or is picked up from the mold through contact with the metal.
4. CASTING PROCESSES

Much of the development that has taken place in the foundry industry has been directed toward
meeting these six objectives with greater economy. Six major casting processes currently are used.
These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Sand casting
Plaster-mold casting
Investment casting
Centrifugal casting
Permanent-mold casting
Die casting
Squeeze casting

6.1. SAND CASTING

Sand casting is a flexible, inexpensive process. Sand is used as the mold material. The sand grains,
mixed with small amounts of other materials to improve the mold ability and cohesive strength, are
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the desired casting. Products covering a wide range of
sizes and detail can be made by this method. A new mold must be made for each casting, and gravity
usually is employed to cause the metal to flow into the mold. The process is not so accurate as die
casting or investment casting.
6.2. PLASTER-MOLD CASTING
Plaster-mold casting is somewhat similar to sand casting in that only one casting is made and then the
mold is destroyed, in this case the mold is made out of a specially formulated plaster. 70 to 80%
gypsum and 20 to 30% fibrous strengtheners. Water is added to make a creamy s1urry. This process is
limited to non-ferrous metals, because ferrous metals react with sulphur in gypsum. The core boxes
are usually made form brass, plastics, or aluminium.
6.3. INVESTMENT CASTING
Casting processes in which the pattern is used only once are variously referred to as "lost-wax" or
"precision-casting" processes. In any case they involve making a pattern of the desired form out of
wax or plastics (usually polystyrene). A metal flask is placed around the assembled patterns and
refractory mold slurry is poured to support the patterns and form the cavities. A vibrating table
equipped with a vacuum pump is used to eliminate all the air from the mold. After the mold material
has set and dried, the pattern material is melted and allowed to run out of the mold.
When the metal is cooled, the investment material is removed by means of vibrating hammers or by
tumbling. As with other castings, the gates and risers are cut off and ground down.
6.4. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting consists of having sand, metal, or ceramic mold that is rotated at high speeds.
When the molten metal is poured into the mold it is thrown against the mold wall, where it remains
until it cools and solidifies. The process is being increasingly used for such products as cast-iron
pipes, cylinder liners, gun barrels, pressure vessels, brake drums gears, and flywheels. The metals
used include almost all castable alloys.
Because of the relatively fast cooling time, centrifugal castings have a fine gram size. There is a
tendency for the lighter non-metallic inclusions slag particles, and dross to segregate toward the inner

radius of the casting where it can be easily removed by machining. Due to the high purity of the outer
skin, centrifugally cast pipes have a high resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
6.5. PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES
The process utilizes a metal casting die in conjunction with metal or sand cores. Molten metal is
introduced at the top of the mold that has two or more parts, using only the force of gravity. After
solidification, the mold is opened and the casting ejected. The mold is reassembled and the cyc1e is
repeated. The molds are either metal or graphite and, consequently, most permanent-mold castings are
restricted to lower melting point nonferrous metals and alloys.
6.6. DIE CASTING
Die casting differs from ordinary permanent-mold casting in that the molten metal is forced into the
molds by pressure and held under pressure during solidification. Most die castings are made from
nonferrous metals and alloys, but substantial quantities of ferrous die castings now are being
produced. Because of the combination of metal molds or dies, and pressure, fine sections and
excellent detail can be achieved, together with tong mold life. Special zinc-, copper-, and aluminiumbase alloys suitable for die casting have been developed which have excellent properties, thereby
contributing to the very extensive use of the process.
Because die-casting dies usually are made from hardened tool steel, they are expensive to make. In
addition, the die sections must contain knockout pins, which eject the casting.
6.7. SQUEEZE CASTING
Squeeze casting, also known as liquid-metal forging, is a process by which molten metal solidifies
under pressure within c1osed dies positioned between the plates of a hydraulic press. Squeeze casting
consists of metering liquid metal into a preheated, lubricated die and forging the metal while it
so1idifies. The load is applied shortly after the metal begins to freeze and is maintained until the
entire casting has solidified. Casting ejection and handling are done in much the same way as in
closed die forging.
The applied pressure and the instant contact of the molten metal with the die surface produce a rapid
heat transfer condition that yields a pore-free fine-grain casting with mechanical properties
approaching those of a wrought product.
The squeeze casting process is easily automated to produce near-net to net shape high-quality
components.
The process was introduced in the United States in 1960 and has since gained widespread acceptance.
7. MELTING AND CASTING
During melting process chemical content of the raw material is determined. Alloying is achieved at
this stage where raw materials are in liquid phase. Most known furnace types to prepare the liquid
metal are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Crucible Type Furnaces

Coupol Type Furnaces
Electric-Arc Furnaces
Converters

e. Siemens-Martins Furnaces
8. Design of Castings
When designing casting the most important consideration is the effect of shrinkage during cooling.
Other important factors include metal flow, and porosity.
Some general rules are,
- Avoid sharp corners - they can lead to hot tearing during cooling.
- Use fillets cautiously - they lead to stresses as they shrink a radius of 1/8" to 1" are acceptable.
- Avoid large masses - they will cool more slowly, and can lead to pores and cavities in the final part.
Cores can be used to hollow out these large volumes. Metal padding `chills' can also be placed inside
the mold near large masses to help increase cooling rates.
- Use uniform cross sections -this will keep the cooling rate relatively uniform and avoid stresses.
- Avoid large flats - large flat areas tend to warp.
- Allow some give as the part cools - by allowing the shrinkage of one part to deform another slightly,
the internal stresses will be reduced. Figures of 1-2% shrinkage are common.
- Put parting lines near corners - this will hide the flash.
- Straight Parting Lines - where possible a straight parting line will allow easier mold making.
- Use a Draft angle - A small angle of 0.5-2 on the vertical walls will make the pattern easier to
remove.
- Machining Allowances - allow excess material for later machining of critical dimensions
- Wide Tolerances - because shrinkage occurs as the part cools it will be very hard to keep tight
tolerances.
- Stress Relieve When Needed - Stress relief can reduce the effects of non-uniform cooling.
- Avoid thin sections - These will be very hard to fill, and will tend to harden quickly.

-Avoid internal features - These will require extra steps in mold making, and may create metal flow problems.
Advantages of Casting:
1. On basis of size of object to be manufactured: Size of cast objects varies over large range. An object from
5gm to 200tonn, anything can be cast.
2. On basis of complexity: Casting can be effectively used for complex shaped objects. It can work where
general machining processes can not be used, as in complicated inner and outer shapes of object.
3. Weight saving: Component made with casting process is lighter than the component made with other
machining processes.

4. Control over the process: Casting provides versatility. Wide range of properties can be attained by adjusting
percentage of alloying elements.
5. Accuracy: Casting can be made with hair like precision provided proper molding and casting technique is
employed.
6. Fibrous structure: Only casting has this advantage. Casting leaves component with its solid fibrous structure
which inherit great compressive strength. So, component subjected to compressive strength are made with
casting ex. IC engine cylinder.
7. Control over grain size: Grain size of cast component can be easily controlled by controlling cooling rate
which in turn can be used to modify the properties.
8. Low cost: Casing is one of cheapest method for mass production.
Disadvantages of Casting:
1.

Though casting is cheapest for mass Production, it becomes non economical in case of job production.

2.

Sand casting leaves rough surface which needs machining in most of cases. It adds up the cost in
production.

3.

Again in sand casting, poor dimensional accuracy is achieved.

4.

Cast products are superior for compressive loads but they are very poor in tensile or shock loads. (They are
brittle).