SAVAGE 1

John Savage
Professor Lim Song Hwee
CULS5204B Cultural Studies in Film and Video
8 December 2014
Challenges to Film-as-Ethnography in Chinese Cinema
1. Introduction
In Primitive Passions, Film as Ethnography, Rey Chow calls for the radical
deprofessionalisation of anthropology and ethnography as intellectual disciplines.1 Writing
from a postcolonial, anti-orientalist standpoint, Chow asserts that a new ethnography is
possible only when we turn our attention to the subjective origins of ethnography as it is
practiced by those who were previously ethnographized and who have, in the postcolonial
age, taken up the active task of ethnographizing their own cultures.2 While her call for
deprofessionalisation is indeed radical, Chow demonstrates the validity of her assertions
meticulously in the chapter. By looking at two films by what is often deemed as Chinese
directors, this essay looks to assess the possibilities of her proposed method of a newethnography.
If we see the ultimate goal of a new-ethnography as to provide an accurate depiction
of a culture free from the biases of an outsider, then the focus of depiction still remains as
accuracy even if choosing to disregard the abstract notions of what it means to be an
outsider.3 While Chow absolves the Chinese Director Zhang Yimou from his critics by her
claim of their prioritisation (of) some original essence of Chinese culture, it is undeniable
that the imagery in films such as Hero (2002) and Curse of the Golden Flower (2006) are
1

Chow, Rey. Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema. New
York: Columbia UP, 1995. 181. Print.
2
Ibid. 180
3
"New Ethnography, Sociology Guide." New Ethnography, Sociology Guide. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/New-Ethnography.php>.

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highly exaggerated and exoticised as compared to his earlier works such as Red Sorghum
(1987).4 Red Sorghum, aside from being Zhangs directorial debut, also put him on the
international stage, winning him the Golden Bear at the 1988 Berlin International Film
Festival.5 Yet even Red Sorghum, set in the idyllic pre-occupied countryside of China and
without the bells and whistles of shining armour and fancy swordplay had struck white
audiences as exotic. In the words of a film reviewer from the New York Times, (Red
Sorghum) is a handsomely produced, finally lugubrious piece of exotica6
Therefore, if Zhangs films have indeed been about the production of images of the
exotic and interested in pandering to foreign devils, then Zhang has been doing it from the
very start. The significance of the visual image in these films is inescapable; or as Roger
Ebert writes, with regard to Hero, (Zhang) once again creates a visual poem of extraordinary
beauty.7 And prior to that, The cinematography in "Red Sorghum" has no desire to be
subtle, or muted; it wants to splash its passionate colors all over the screen with abandon, and
the sheer visual impact of the film is voluptuous.8 Although I am tempted at this juncture to
further elucidate on the concepts of outsider and original essence, I will first discuss Rey
Chows case on why the focus on visuality may be the first step in developing a newethnography through an analysis of select scenes from Red Sorghum.

2. Visuality

Chow 176
"Prizes & Honours 1988." | Berlinale. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1988/03_preistr_ger_1988/03_Preistraeger_1988.html>.
6
Canby, Vincent. "Red Sorghum (1987) Film Festival; Social Realist Fable of 1930's China." The New York Times.
The New York Times, 9 Oct. 1988. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=940DE6DC1F30F93AA35753C1A96E948260>.
7
Ebert, Roger. "Hero Movie Review & Film Summary (2004)." All Content. 26 Aug. 2004. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
8
Ebert, Roger. "Red Sorghum Movie Review & Film Summary (1989)." Roger Ebert. 28 Feb. 1989. Web. 7 Dec.
2014.
5

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Of all the colours one is exposed to in a viewing of Red Sorghum, one colour stands
out Red. In fact, red is a more prominent feature in the film then the entirety of Taylor
Swifts last world tour. When we are first introduced to JiuEr, portrayed by a youthful Gong
Li, she is garbed in a traditional red wedding dress, carried in red sedan through a landscape
of red earth. Although we are given a brief respite from the red onslaught for a moment as the
carriage goes through the green sorghum fields, which incidentally ferment to become the red
coloured Hong Gao Liang wine, by the end of the film these sorghum fields will become red
as well. As well as the sky, as well as anything else as far as the eyes of JiuErs son can see.
Yet, the red our eyes perceive is merely the representation of the red our mind sees within the
non-visual contents of the film - it is a piece of Socialist Realist cinema, although claims of
realism in any socialist work are often highly debatable.9
Yet the definitive excellence of the film lies in its ability to convey its underlying
theme through its visual imagery alone, that the inevitable future of China would be red. In
this sense, JiuEr is less of a character than she is an embodiment of Maoist ideals, the very
words she spouts come seemingly straight out of the Little Red Book.10 The visual imagery
serves to reemphasise the goodness of red and its inevitability. In the scene where JiuEr
first sees the fruits of their combined labour, the wine that emerges from the distillery is red
(see fig. 1). If the redness of this wine is particularly significant, it is in its incorruptibility. In
the scenes that follow, the narrators grandfather, portrayed by Jiang Wen, urinates into the
vat of wine (see fig.2). Yet instead of becoming putrid, the wine is later deemed as a success
due to the addition of this catalyst which intended to be corrupting.

Canby
A poorly articulated article offering perspectives form within China. "Red Sorghum: The Transformation of
Chinese Society Reflected in Film." Red Sorghum: The Transformation of Chinese Society Reflected in Film-Electronic Lesson Plans--The Film and The Life in China after 1949. Shaanxi Normal University. Web. 7 Dec.
2014. <http://jpkc.snnu.edu.cn/en/ShowArticle.asp?ID=6>.
10

SAVAGE 4

Fig. 1 The wine is a deep red colour. From Red Sorghum. Perf. Gong Li,
Jiang Wen. Xi'an Film Studio, 1988. Film.

Fig. 2 The narrators grandfather urinates into a vat of wine. From Red
Sorghum. Perf. Gong Li, Jiang Wen. Xi'an Film Studio, 1988. Film.

When the film takes a turn from the idyllic peasant life to the horrors of war, we are
provided with the scene of the peasants crushing the sorghum fields, crushing the plants from
which the good wine originates from. If the films visuals have a comment to make on the
Japanese invasion, it is that it was but a mere encumbrance to the inevitable redness. When a
trap is set in order to exact vengeance for the perpetrated atrocities, the clash between the
Japanese troops and the winery workers cover the sorghum fields in blood. As a child cries in

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a pit of the red earth of the battle grounds (see fig. 3), an eclipse paints the sky red in unison
with the horrors that had occurred on the ground.

Fig. 3 The crying son of JiuEr stands in a pit of red earth. From
Red Sorghum. Perf. Gong Li, Jiang Wen. Xi'an Film Studio, 1988.
Film.

Although it is possible to comment more on the use of colour in the films, one has
every right to be cautious in dissecting the thematic implications of mise en scene derived
from technology. An example from the Japanese film industries of the 1930s justifies this. In
Aesthetics of Shadow, Daisuke Miyao makes the case that Japanese filmmakers in the 1930s
had sought to emulate the visual styles of Hollywood lighting, but faced with a severe
shortage of the necessary equipment, as such, the much sought after Paramount Tone was an
unobtainable.11 In making do with the best they had, Japanese films of the early 1930s were
defined by the Shochikus Kamata Tone, before an increased focus on contrasty tones led to
the birth of what would be later on labelled as a Japanese Aesthetics of Shadow.12 The
aesthetics of shadow, which did not stem from a traditional Japanese aesthetic notion, can be
construed as a development arising from technical limitations.13 It is also these similar

11

Miyao, Daisuke. The Aesthetics of Shadow: Lighting and Japanese Cinema. Durham and London: Duke UP,
2013. 27. Print.
12
Ibid. 201
13
Ibid. 200

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technological limitations which lead one to question if the completed product, the film, is in
complete accordance with the expectations of the films maker?
In the same review of Red Sorghum mentioned earlier, Ebert points out that the film
was shot on Technicolor equipment which was sold to China when Hollywood switched over
to cheaper and faster forms of film production.14 Technicolor equipment which he describes
as making some of the best colour films in the world. In this regard, if the cinematography in
Red Sorghum has no desire to be subtle or muted was this merely a result of technical
limitations imposed on the filmmaker?
Japanese film history has yet another point to make on the current state of Chinese
filmmaking. The bombing of Pearl Harbour in 1941 left Japanese filmmakers with an urgent
need to resolve the contradiction of portraying nationalistic themes with western aesthetics.
With the increasingly rigid imposition of censorship laws on filmmakers, a novel written by
Tanizaki in 1933, In Praise of Shadows, became a handy way of solidifying the aesthetics of
shadow as a concept distinctively Japanese.15 However, what is of greater concern here is the
imposition of censorship measures itself. Japanese films of that period were strongly curtailed
by legislation and were as such reiterations of the same few key themes.16 It is in this context
of censorship that the film of Zhang Yimou was made shortly after the Cultural Revolution
(10 years). It is only logical that a reiteration of similar themes, amounting from censorship,
still projects only one half of a culture the half which authorities deem fit for presentation.
Since the history of visuality in film was plagued by technological handicaps then,
and is still plagued by the issue of censorship now, at which point should the focus on

14

Ebert, Roger. "Red Sorghum Movie Review & Film Summary (1989)." Roger Ebert. 28 Feb. 1989. Web. 7 Dec.
2014.
15
Miyao 209 & 214
16
Miyao 197

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visuality begin? Furthermore, what would it make of cultures who arent equipped with the
tools to be a part of this modern visual culture?
3. Translating a Culture into Film
If China is indeed, as Rey Chow suggests, a sum total of the history and culture of
a people, then the process of translating a culture into film would be the transmission of
such a content; in which some of this content would be the same original essence
prioritised by critics of Zhang.17 Yet, as I have argued earlier, strong regulation and
censorship policies in China would inevitably curtail the transmission of the myriad of
themes which would constitute to the sum total of the history and culture of a people.
If a new-ethnography is only possible by looking at the subjective origins of selfethnography, then who exactly would be these self-ethnographers we should be looking to in
the case of ethnographizing China? Would the works of Mainland Chinese filmmakers be
freer of this outsider bias when compared to a China-born director who has spent most of
his life abroad?18 How then should we approach the works of individuals who were born and
raised abroad, but yet identify themselves as Chinese?19 What then of works from
marginalised communities in the Peoples Republic of China who refuse the ethnic label of
Chineseness?20
Yet despite these issues, I would agree with the sentiment put forth by Johannes
Fabian, and shared by Rey Chow, with regard to the covealness of cultures.2122 Chow argues
the case of how modern media can serve to function as a loci of cultural transmission,
17

Chow 184
Here the two directors I have in mind are Zhang Yimou and John Woo
19
Here I am referring to Tsui Hark
20
Tibet is often considered a distinct cultural entity from China. See, Van Pragg, Walt, and Michael Van. "The
Legal Status of Tibet." Cultural Survival. 1 Jan. 1988. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/the-legal-status-tibet>.
21
Fabian, Johannes. Time and the Other. Columbia UP, 1983. Print.
22
Chow 194
18

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allowing for what was regarded as the primitive to be recognised as a contemporary. In fact,
what this loci of translation is, is the removal of in-betweeness between the colonialist self
and the colonised other that Homi Bhaba recognises as what constitutes the figure of colonial
otherness.23
It is through the will of the god from the machine, that Chow Yung Fat can once again
join us in A Better Tomorrow 2 (1987, John Woo). After his death as Mark in the first movie,
we are revealed to the existence of his twin, Ken, working as a chef in New York City in the
introductory portion of the second film. In Chows first appearance in A Better Tomorrow 2,
we are immediately presented with an East and West conflict. Local Caucasian mobsters have
caused a ruckus in the restaurant, and we are presented with a table talk scenario, typical of
mob films, where terms are discussed. As the Caucasian mobster sits on one end of the table,
Ken sits at the other end. The visual of the scene is charged with tension as flips between East
confronting West, the table between them representative of the cultural distance between two
parties (See fig.4 & fig. 5). Tension mounts as Ken refuses to give in to the demands of the
mobster and mocks him with a quarter he has in his pocket the awkward dubbing of Chow
speaking in English contributes to the effect of this mockery through the subversion of a
western language, and culminates in the mobster flipping the plate of fried rice in front of
him all over the place.24 The scene then explodes, metaphorically speaking.

23

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. Print.

Driesen, C.V. "When Language Dances: The Subversive Poer of Roys Text in The God of Small Things.."
Arundhati Roy: The Novelist Extraordinary. New Delhi: Prestige, 1999. 365-376. Print.
24

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Fig. 4 Ken stares down the Caucasian mobster. From A Better

Tomorrow 2. Perf. Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti
Lung. 2001. DVD.

Fig. 5 The Caucasian mobster sets out his demands. From A Better
Tomorrow 2. Perf. Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti
Lung. 2001. DVD.

If we think of the distances between the two individuals as representative of a cultural

divide, then the scene that follows would be the rapid removal of this divide. As Ken picks up
the scattered grains of rice, he launches into a soliloquy on the importance of rice to his
culture where he describes rice to be like his mother and father. The scene would
undoubtedly resonate strongly with Asian audiences, who too recognise the importance of

SAVAGE 10

rice as a part of their cultures.25 Here, Ken is the new-age wuxia hero, who in his wanderings
has found himself in a land devoid of the ethics of jianghu. Yet, it is also in this world that
Ken chooses to stay, while holding on to his notion of a cultural identity. When Ken finally
points the gun at the mobster and tells him sek le hum gar chan, we can read the scene as
the bridging of a cultural divide; in part through the knowledge delivered in Kens soliloquy,
and in part facilitated by a gun (See fig. 6). Even without a translation of the phrase, any
audience would know that Ken is adamant in wanting the mobster to eat the rice, the visuals
of the scene say it clearly enough. If Ken here is the new-age wuxia hero, then the enemy
here is the cultural ignorance of the West.

Fig. 6. The cultural divide is bridged. From A Better Tomorrow 2.

Perf. Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti Lung. 2001.
DVD.

Yet despite the setting of the majority of the movie in America and the sheer
quantities of Caucasians killed, the film is not set to undermine a notion of the West. For at
least two individuals in the movie, the West exists as a place of salvation where one can
escape the past. However, in A Better Tomorrow 2, it is not the journey to the West which is

25

Li, Jinhui. "Rice Culture of China." China.org. 2 Oct. 2002. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Oct/44854.htm>.

SAVAGE 11

fraught with dangers, but rather being in the West itself.26 In the film, Lung Sing, played by
Dean Shek, escapes to New York after being framed for a murder. In New York, he meets up
with an old friend who has turned away from his past life of crime and is now a priest. After
working in the garden, the friends wash their hands, as the priest mentions about his forearm
tattoos and how they have scared some parishioners away. The washing of hands is always
symbolic and always carries numerous undertones; for example, when one washes ones
hands of something. In this instance, while the priest can wash his hands of his past ways of
living, he is unable to eliminate his past per se; his past being represented by the tattoos
which remain on his forearms (see fig. 7). It seems almost inevitable that he is killed by this
past when he dies in a violent gunfight while trying to aide in Lung Sings escape from
assassins dispatched by his subordinate.

Fig. 7 The priest washes his hands. From A Better Tomorrow 2. Perf.
Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti Lung. 2001. DVD.

The culmination of personal tragedies leaves Lung Sing struggling for his sanity as he
remains pursued by a seemingly endless supply of hired guns. Now under the care of Ken, he
is brought to a dilapidated hotel, after the drive-by shooting of his earlier place of domicile.

26

I am referring to the Chinese fable Journey to the West where the holy monk Tripitaka faces numerous
perils in his journey to collect the holy scriptures.

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As Ken grows increasingly frustrated with Lung Sings state, Ken delivers yet another
soliloquy on the futility of self-pity and dwelling in the past as he loads guns in preparation
for the impending gunfight. As the attackers charge into the building, Ken shouts FUCK
YOU! as he unloads a round from his shotgun into the first attacker (see fig. 8). If indeed the
goal of translation is to be seen as transmission, or as Rey Chow asserts, the light going
through an arcade, the light in this scene would surely be the visuals which accompany the
speech, for one would be hard-pressed to find a cuss word in any other language that did not
fit in this scenario.27

Fig. 8 Ken unloads a round into an assassin. From A Better

Tomorrow 2. Perf. Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti
Lung. 2001. DVD.

In the context of the plot, the Caucasian aggressors in this scene are no longer the
symbols of an oppressive West, but rather the oppressive past. When Ken is shot in the events
that unfold, Lung Sing immediately re-gathers his wits. Lung Sings reawakening is more
than the awareness of his friend being shot, it is also about the realisation that the symbol of
hope for the future (Ken) is about to be gunned down by agents of the past. If one's identity is
written in the past, then one must kill that past for the possibility of a future. John Woo

27

Chow 198-201

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delivers on this hope for a desired future when Ken and Lung Sing return to Hong Kong to
team up with Ti Leung to kill everyone associated with this undesired past.
In Looking at A Better Tomorrow 2 from a cultural and identity-making perspective,
one can see why the English title of the film is just as apt, even though the original Chinese
title Ying Xiong Ben Se translates better as Traits of a Hero. Even though a film in which
Chow Yung Fat kills 76 people with an unlimited supply of bullets in the course of an hour
and forty minutes may seem an unlikely resource for a deeper understanding of culture, John
Woo has in fact presented the dilemma of numerous diasporic Chinese the persistence of an
undesired past identity which haunts the future.
4. Subjective Origins
If Chows text, Film as Ethnography, can be summarised in short, it is that the works
of filmmakers offer personal introspectives into the cultural background of their countries,
which through the mediation of mass media, may serve the purpose of a new ethnography.28
If it is true, in Chows own words, that It is in translations faithlessness that China
survives and thrives, then all that this new-ethnography would achieve is to perpetuate the
violent active force to which cultures members continue to be subjugated.29 I find this
problematic, even if not so for all cultures, still especially so for China. If I did not make it
explicit in addressing the difficulties of isolating Chinese filmmakers Fuck Chineseness;
Allen Chun provides an adequate elaboration to the stance which I take.30 The word
Chinese is dead insofar as it exists only as a politicised notion of return, unification, and a
representation of a cultural hegemony commencing from the 1949 social revolution. Herein
lays the key problem with regard to the subjective origins of self-ethnography. The focus on
28

Chow 176-202
Ibid. 198
30
Chun, Allen. "Fuck Chineseness: On the Ambiguities of Ethnicity as Culture as Identity." Boundary 2 23.2
(1996): 111-38. JSTOR. Duke University Press. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/303809?uid=3738176&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21105400224353>.
29

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origins, or more explicitly Chinese in this case, may demolish the Wests long held
prejudicial views of the East, but would re-establish in its place an inherent cultural tyranny.31
Yet the concept of Chineseness remains a strongly clung-to notion amongst
numerous individuals and communities in what has been come to be known as the Sinophone
World. If this notion of Chineseness does not lie in the origin, where then may it be found?
I would propose that the concept of an origin necessitates journeys, and therefore implicitly
proposes destinations.
Gayatri Spivak, writing on hegemonic structures as spaces one cannot want to inhabit
but which one tries to change is contextualised well for use in this scenario by Xiaodong Liu.
Liu writes, For the post-colonial, culture is an indispensable element of a desired future, and
it is also an embarrassed sign of ones former and later colonisation.32 I would therefore
assert that this future is the destination in which the cultures of displaced others may be found.
A culture which is maintained only by individuals and communities who should choose to
desire it as a part of their future. Because it is only in the future where there can be truly no
need for sympathy, no need for regrets, and a solid Fuck You! can be said to agents of
cultural hegemonies in whatever form they may take.
Based on the issues presented, I find it difficult to believe in the subjective origin of
self-ethnography. I would however propose that a new-ethnography might perhaps be
reached by turning our attention to the desired futures of self-ethnographers instead.

31

Mullaney, Thomas S. "Seeing for the State: The Role of Social Scientists in China's Ethnic Classification
Project." Asian Ethnicity 11.3 (2010): 325-42. Taylor & Francis. Routledge. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14631369.2010.510874#.VITRtzGUdqU>.
32
Liu, Xiaodong. "COLLABORATIVE ORIENTALISM: FROM HOLLYWOODS YELLOW PERILS TO ZHANG
YIMOUS RED TRILOGY." Thesis. Graduate College of Bowling Green State University, 2010.
COLLABORATIVE ORIENTALISM: FROM HOLLYWOODS YELLOW PERILS TO ZHANG YIMOUS RED
TRILOGY. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap/0?0:APPLICATION_PROCESS%3DDOWNLOAD_ETD_SUB_DOC_ACCNUM:::F1501_
ID:bgsu1269018727%2Cinline>.

SAVAGE 15

Works Cited
A Better Tomorrow 2. Perf. Chow Yung Fat, Leslie Cheung, Dean Shek, Ti Lung. 2001.
DVD.
Chun, Allen. "Fuck Chineseness: On the Ambiguities of Ethnicity as Culture as Identity."
Boundary 2 23.2 (1996): 111-38. JSTOR. Duke University Press. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/303809?uid=3738176&uid=2&uid=4&sid=
21105400224353>.
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. Print.
Canby, Vincent. "Red Sorghum (1987) Film Festival; Social Realist Fable of 1930's China."
The New York Times. The New York Times, 9 Oct. 1988. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=940DE6DC1F30F93AA35753C1A96
E948260>.
Chow, Rey. Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary
Chinese Cinema. New York: Columbia UP, 1995. Print.
Driesen, C.V. "When Language Dances: The Subversive Poer of Roys Text in The God of
Small Things.." Arundhati Roy: The Novelist Extraordinary. New Delhi: Prestige,
1999. 365-376. Print.
Ebert, Roger. "Hero Movie Review & Film Summary (2004)." Roger Ebert. 26 Aug. 2004.
Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
Ebert, Roger. "Red Sorghum Movie Review & Film Summary (1989)." Roger Ebert. 28 Feb.
1989. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
Fabian, Johannes. Time and the Other. Columbia UP, 1983. Print.

SAVAGE 16

Miyao, Daisuke. The Aesthetics of Shadow: Lighting and Japanese Cinema. Durham and
London: Duke UP, 2013. Print.
Mullaney, Thomas S. "Seeing for the State: The Role of Social Scientists in China's Ethnic
Classification Project." Asian Ethnicity 11.3 (2010): 325-42. Taylor & Francis.
Routledge. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14631369.2010.510874#.VITRtzGU
dqU>.
"New Ethnography, Sociology Guide." New Ethnography, Sociology Guide. Web. 7 Dec.
2014. <http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/New-Ethnography.php>.
"Prizes & Honours 1988." | Berlinale. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1988/03_preistr_ger_1988/03_Prei
straeger_1988.html>.
Red Sorghum. Perf. Gong Li, Jiang Wen. Xi'an Film Studio, 1988. Film.
"Red Sorghum: The Transformation of Chinese Society Reflected in Film." Red
Sorghum: The Transformation of Chinese Society Reflected in Film--Electronic
Lesson Plans--The Film and The Life in China after 1949. Shaanxi Normal
University. Web. 7 Dec. 2014. <http://jpkc.snnu.edu.cn/en/ShowArticle.asp?ID=6>.
Van Pragg, Walt, and Michael Van. "The Legal Status of Tibet." Cultural Survival. 1 Jan.
1988. Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/the-legal-status-tibet>.

SAVAGE 17

Liu, Xiaodong. "COLLABORATIVE ORIENTALISM: FROM

HOLLYWOODS YELLOW PERILS TO ZHANG YIMOUS RED
TRILOGY." Thesis. Graduate College of Bowling Green State University, 2010.
Web. 7 Dec. 2014.
<https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap/0?0:APPLICATION_PROCESS%3DDOWNLOAD_E
TD_SUB_DOC_ACCNUM:::F1501_ID:bgsu1269018727%2Cinline>.