Mecánica de Fluidos

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
1
Chapters 3 & 4: Integral Relations for a Control Volume

and Differential Relations for Fluid Flow
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
2
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
3
Fall 2006
Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

Need relationship between
Bcv dm d .
CV
d
Bsys and changes in
dt
CV
dBcv d
d
1 = time rate of change of B in CV =
dt dt
CV
2 = net outflux of B from CV across CS =
n dA
CS
dBSYS
d
d CS V R n dA
dt
dt CV
General form RTT for moving deforming control volume

Special Cases:
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
4
Fall 2006
1) Non-deforming CV moving at constant velocity

dBSYS
d V R n dA

dt
t
CV
CS
2) Fixed CV
dBSYS
d V n dA

dt
t
CV
CS
Greens Theorem:
b d b n dA
CV
CS
dBSYS

V d

dt
t
CV
Since CV fixed and arbitrary

3) Steady Flow:
lim gives
d 0
differential eq.
0
t
4) Uniform flow across discrete CS (steady or unsteady)

V n dA V n dA
CS
CS
(- inlet, + outlet)
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Chapters 3 & 4
5
Fall 2006
Continuity Equation:
B = M = mass of system
=1
dM
0
dt
by definition, system = fixed amount of mass
Integral Form:
dM
d
0
d CS V R n dA
dt
dt CV
d
dt
d V
CV
n dA
CS
Rate of decrease of mass in CV = net rate of mass outflow across CS
Note simplifications for non-deforming CV, fixed CV,

steady flow, and uniform flow across discrete CS
Incompressible Fluid: = constant
d
d CS V R n dA
dt CV
conservation of volume
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Chapters 3 & 4
6
Fall 2006
Special case CV form continuity equation:

Fixed CV
CV t d CS V n dA 0
and uniform flow over discrete inlet/outlet
CV t d V nA 0
and steady flow

or
V nA
VA in VA out 0
and incompressible flow
Q m& m& in m& out
Qin Qout 0
if non-uniform flow over discrete inlet/outlet

QCSi V n dA Vav A CS
CS
Vav
1
V n dA
A CS
Differential Form:
V 0
t
V V 0
t
D
V 0
Dt
M
dM d d 0
d d
1 D
1 D
Dt
Dt
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1 D
Dt
Chapters 3 & 4
7
Fall 2006
rate of change
per unit
u v w

x y z

rate of change
per unit
Called the continuity equation since the implication is that

and V are continuous functions of x.
Incompressible Fluid: = constant
V 0
u
v
w
0
x
y
z
P3.15 Water, assumed incompressible, flows steadily

through the round pipe in Fig. P3.15. The entrance
velocity is constant, u U 0 , and the exit velocity
17
approximates turbulent flow, u umax 1 r R . Determine
the ratio U umax for this flow.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
8
Fall 2006
Steady flow, non-deforming or moving CV, one inlet

uniform flow and one outlet non-uniform flow
R
0 U 0 R 2 umax 1 r R
0
0 U 0 R 2 umax
17
2 rdr
49 2
R
60
U0
49
umax 60
1
1
15 7
87
2 umax rdr 2 umax
1 r R
1 r R
0
1
1
R 2
2
R 2
1
7
7
7 7
2 umax R 2 0

15 8
49
2 umax R 2
60
R
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Chapters 3 & 4
9
Fall 2006
P3.12 The pipe flow in Fig. P3.12 fills a cylindrical tank

as shown. At time t=0, the water depth in the tank is
30cm. Estimate the time required to fill the remainder of
the tank.
Unsteady flow, deforming CV, one inlet one outlet

uniform flow
0
d
d Q1 Q2
dt CV
d
d2
d2
0
d V1
V2
dt CV
4
4
D2
t h t
4
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Chapters 3 & 4
10
Fall 2006
D 2 dh
d2
0
V2 V1
4 dt
4
2
dh d
V2 V1 0.0153
dt D
dh
0.7
dt
46 s
0.0153 0.0153
Steady flow, one inlet and two exits with uniform flow
0 Q1 Q2 Q3
d 2
Q3 Q1 Q2
V1 V2
4
D2
dh
4
dt
2
Q d
V1 V2
4
2
D
dh
d

V1 V2
Q V n dA
A
L3
s
Volume of fluid per unit time through A
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Chapters 3 & 4
11
Fall 2006
P4.17 A reasonable approximation for the twodimensional incompressible laminar boundary layer on
2 y y 2
2 for y ,
the flat surface in Fig.P4.17 is u U
where Cx1 2 , C const

(a) Assuming a no-slip condition at the wall, find an
expression for the velocity component v x, y for y .
(b) The find the maximum value of v at the station x 1m ,
for the particular case of flow, when U 3 m s and
1.1cm .
u v
0
x y
v
u
U 2 y 2 2 y 2 3
y
x
x
v 2U x
y 2 3 dy
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Chapters 3 & 4
12
Fall 2006
y2
y3
3
(a) v 2U x
2
3
2
(b) Since v y 0 at y
Cx1 2 x
vmax v y
C 1 2
x
2
2x
2U 1 1

2 x 2 3
U 3 1.1
0.0055 m s
6x
6
Momentum Equation:
B = MV = momentum, = V
Integral Form:
d ( MV ) d
F
V d CS V V R n dA
{
dt
dt CV
1 4 2 4 3 1 44 2 4 43
3
1
2
F
FB =
Fs =
=
=
vector sum of all forces acting on CV

FB + Fs
Body forces, which act on entire CV of fluid due
to external force field such as gravity or
electrostatic or magnetic forces. Force per unit
volume.
Surface forces, which act on entire CS due to
normal (pressure and viscous stress) and
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
13
tangential (viscous stresses) stresses. Force per

unit area.
When CS cuts through solids Fs may also include FR =
reaction forces, e.g., reaction force required to hold nozzle
or bend when CS cuts through bolts holding nozzle/bend
in place.
1 = rate of change of momentum in CV
2 = rate of outflux of momentum across CS
3 = vector sum of all body forces acting on entire CV
and surface forces acting on entire CS.
Many interesting applications of CV form of momentum
equation: vanes, nozzles, bends, rockets, forces on bodies,
water hammer, etc.
Differential Form:

CV t
d F
V
V
Where
t
t
t
wk V is a tensor
and V V VV ui V vjV
(V V ) ( VV ) ( uV ) ( vV ) ( wV )
x
y
z
V ( V ) V V
= 0 , continuity
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Chapters 3 & 4
14
Fall 2006
V

V
V d F
CV t
t
Since
V
DV
V V
t
Dt
CV
DV
d F
Dt
DV
f
Dt
a f b f s
f
f
=
=
per elemental fluid volume
body force per unit volume

surface force per unit volume
Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity or

magnetic fields. Here we only consider a gravitational
field; that is,
F
body
dF
grav
and g gk
g dxdydz
z
for
i.e. f body gk
Surface Forces are due to the stresses that act on the sides
of the control surfaces
Symmetric ij ji
2nd order tensor
p
ij
ij
ij
Normal pressure
p

yx
zx
xx
xy
zy
Viscous stress
xz
yy
yz
zz
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Chapters 3 & 4
15
Fall 2006
As shown before, for p alone it is not the stresses

themselves that cause a net force but their gradients.
Symmetry condition from requirement that for elemental
fluid volume, stresses themselves cause no rotation.
f f f
s
Recall f p based on 1st order TS. f is more complex

since is a 2nd order tensor, but similarly as for p, the
force is due to stress gradients and are derived based on
1st order TS.
ij
i j k
x
xx
xy
xz
Resultant stress
on each face
i j k
y
yx
yy
yz
i j k
z
zx
zy
zz
Fs
( x ) ( y ) ( z ) dxdydz
y
z
x
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Chapters 3 & 4
16
Fall 2006
fs
( x ) ( y ) ( z )
x
y
z
yx
dy dxdz
yx
xx dydz
yx dxdz
xx
dx dydz
x
xx
and similarly for z
fs
( xx ) ( yx ) ( zx ) i
y
z
x
( xy ) ( yy ) ( zy ) j
x
y
z
( xz ) ( yz ) ( zz ) k
y
z
x
f s ij ij
x j
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Chapters 3 & 4
17
Fall 2006
( xx ) ( xy ) ( xz )
x
y
z
f sy ( yx ) ( yy ) ( yz )
x
y
z
f sz ( zx ) ( zy ) ( zz )
x
y
z
f sx
Putting together the above results,

DV
a
gk ij
Dt body force duesurface force = p + viscous terms
motion
to gravity
(due to stress gradients)
Next, we need to relate the stresses ij to the fluid motion,

i.e. the velocity field. To this end, we examine the
relative motion between two neighboring fluid particles.
B
@ B:
V dV V dr V
dr
(u,v,w) = V
1st order Taylor Series
ux
dV dr V v x
wx
relative motion
uy
vy
wy
uz
vz
wz
deformation rate
tensor = e
ij
dx
dy e dx
ij
j

dz
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eij
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
18
1 ui u j
ui
1 ui u j

ij ij
x j
2 x j xi
2 x j xi
1
1 44 2 4 43
44 2 4 43
symmetric part anit symmetric part

ij ji
ij
ji
ij
where
48
6 47
1
1
0
(u y vx )
(u z wx )
2
2
1
1
(v x u y )
0
(vz wy ) rigid body rotation
2 4 2 43
2
of fluid element
1
1
1
( wx uz )
( wy v z )
0
2
2
1 4 2 43
= rotation about x axis

= rotation about y axis
= rotation about z axis
Note that the components of ij are related to the vorticity

vector define by:
V ( wy vz ) i (u z wx ) j (vx u y ) k
14 2 43
14 2 43
14 2 43
2
2
2
= 2 angular velocity of fluid element
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
19
Fall 2006
ij rate of strain tensor
1
(u y vx )
2
ux
1
(v x u y )
2
1
( wx u z )
2
vy
1
( wy v z )
2
(uz wx )
2
1
(vz wy )
wz
u x v y wz V = elongation (or volumetric dilatation)

of fluid element
1
(u v )
2
1
(u w )
2
1
(v w )
2
= distortion wrt (x,y) plane

= distortion wrt (x,z) plane
= distortion wrt (y,z) plane
Thus, general motion consists of:
y
1)
2)
3)
4)
1 D
Dt
pure translation described by V

rigid-body rotation described by
volumetric dilatation described by V
distortion in shape described by ij
i j
It is now necessary to make certain postulates concerning

the relationship between the fluid stress tensor ( ij) and
rate-of-deformation tensor (eij). These postulates are
based on physical reasoning and experimental
observations and have been verified experimentally even
for extreme conditions. For a Newtonian fluid:
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
20
1) When the fluid is at rest the stress is hydrostatic and

the pressure is the thermodynamic pressure
2) ij is linearly related to eij and only depends on eij.
3) Since there is no shearing action in rigid body
rotation, it causes no shear stress.
4) There is no preferred direction in the fluid, so that
the fluid properties are point functions (condition of
isotropy).
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
21
Fall 2006
Using statements 1-3

p k
ij
ij
ijmn
ij
kijmn = 4th order tensor with 81 components such that each

stress is linearly related to all nine components of ij.
However, statement (4) requires that the fluid has no
directional preference, i.e. ij is independent of rotation of
coordinate system, which means kijmn is an isotropic tensor
= even order tensor made up of products of ij.
kijmn ij mn im jn in jm
( , , ) scalars
Lastly, the symmetry condition ij = ji requires:

kijmn = kjimn
= = viscosity
ij p ij 2 ij mm ij
{
V
and can be further related if one considers mean
normal stress vs. thermodynamic p.
ii 3 p (2 3 ) V
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
22
Fall 2006
1
2
ii
V
3
3
123
p mean
normal stress
V
3
p p
Incompressible flow: p p and absolute pressure is

indeterminant since there is no equation of state for p.
Equations of motion determine p .
Compressible flow: p p and = bulk viscosity must be
determined; however, it is a very difficult measurement
requiring large
1 D 1 D
V
Dt Dt ,
e.g., within shock
waves.
Stokes Hypothesis also supported kinetic theory
monotonic gas.
2
3
p p
ij p V ij 2 ij
3
du
Generalization dy for 3D flow.
u u
ij
i j
relates shear stress to strain rate
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
23
Fall 2006
ui
u
2
1
ii p V 2
i
p 2 V
3
3
x
xi
1 4 44 2 4 4 43i
normal viscous stress
Where the normal viscous stress is the difference between

the extension rate in the xi direction and average
expansion at a point. Only differences from the average =
1 u v w
generate normal viscous stresses.

For
3 x y z
incompressible fluids, average = 0 i.e. V 0 .
Non-Newtonian fluids:
for small strain rates , which works well for

air, water, etc. Newtonian fluids

ij
ij
ij
ijn
ij
{
t
{
nonlinear history effect
Non-Newtonian
Viscoeslastic materials
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
24
Fall 2006
Non-Newtonian fluids include:

(1) Polymers molecules with large molecular
weights and form long chains coiled together
in spongy ball shapes that deform under shear.
(2) Emulsions and slurries containing suspended
particles such as blood and water/clay
Navier Stokes Equations:
DV
gk ij
Dt
DV
gk p
Dt
x j
2
2
V
ij
ij
Recall = (T) increases with gases, decreases with

liquids, but if its assumed that = constant:
DV
2
gk p 2
ij
V
Dt
x j
3 x j
2
g k p V
V
3 x j
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
25
Fall 2006
2
ij
x j
x j
ui u j
2ui

2ui 2 V
x x
j
j
x j xi
For incompressible flow
DV
Dt
V 0
gk p
2 V
1 4 2 43
p where p p z
piezometric pressure
For = 0
DV
g k p
Dt
Euler Equation
NS equations for , constant
DV
p 2V
Dt
DV
V V
Dt
p 2V
Non-linear 2nd order PDE, as is the case for , not constant
Combine with V for 4 equations for 4 unknowns V , p

and can be, albeit difficult, solved subject to initial and
boundary conditions for V , p at t = t0 and on all
boundaries i.e. well posed IBVP.
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Chapters 3 & 4
26
Fall 2006
Application of CV Momentum Equation:

d
F dt V d V V
CV
F F F
B
n dA
CS
(includes reaction forces)
Note:
1. Vector equation
2. n = outward unit normal:
V R n
< 0 inlet, > 0 outlet
3. 1D Momentum flux
V V n dA m&V
i
CS
i out
m&i V i in
Where V i , i are assumed uniform over discrete inlets

and outlets
m&i iVni Ai
d
F
m&i V i in
m&V
V d
{
1 42 43
1 4 2i 4i 3out
dt CV
14243
net force
outlet momentum inlet momentum
time rate of change
on CV
flux
flux
of momentum in CV
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
27
Fall 2006
4. Momentum flux correlation factors
u V n dA
u 2 dA
AVav2
14 2 43
axial flow with
nonuniform
velocity profile
1 u
dA
A CS Vav
Where
1
Q
u
dA
A
A CS
Vav
Laminar pipe flow:

1
r 2
r 2
u U 0 1 2 U 0 1
R
R
Vav .53U 0
Turbulent pipe flow:

r
u U 1
R
Vav U 0
1 m 1
9
5
2
1 m (2 m)
m 1
Vav =.82U0
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Fall 2006
1 m 2 m
2
Chapters 3 & 4
28
2
m=1/7 = 1.02
2(1 2m)(2 2m)
5. Constant p causes no force; Therefore,

Use pgage = patm-pabsolute
F p pn dA p d 0
CS
CV
for p = constant
6. At jet exit to atmosphere pgage = 0.

7. Choose CV carefully with CS normal to flow and
indicating coordinate system and F on CV similar
as free body diagram used in dynamics.
8. Many applications, usually with continuity and
energy equations. Careful practice is needed for
mastery.
a. Steady and unsteady developing and fully
developed pipe flow
b. Emptying or filling tanks
c. Forces on transitions
d. Forces on fixed and moving vanes
e. Hydraulic jump
f. Boundary Layer and bluff body drag
g. Rocket or jet propulsion
h. Nozzle
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Chapters 3 & 4
29
Fall 2006
i. Propeller
j. Water-hammer
First relate umax to U0 using continuity equation

R
0 U R u 1 r 2r dr
R
2
max
1
U0
u
1 r
2 max
R
R 0
2 r dr Vav
058:0160
Vav umax
m = 1/2
m = 1/7
Chapters 3 & 4
30
Fall 2006
2
(1 m)(2 m)
U0 = .53umax
U0 = .82umax
m = 1/2
Vav = .53umax
m = 1/7
Vav = .82umax
umax = U0/.53
umax = U0/.82
pg. 150 text
Second, calculate F using momentum equation:

F = wall drag force = 2Rx (force fluid on wall)
-F = force wall on fluid
w
F p p R F u ( u 2r dr ) U ( R U )
R
F p1 p2 R U R u22 2 r dr
0
1
44 2 4 43
AV 2
av
2
2
0
F p1 p2 R 2 U 02 R 2 2 AVav2
= U02 from
continuity
1 u
dA
A Vav
1 4 44 2
4 4 43
momentum flux correction
factor , page 163 text
=
F ( p p )R
2
lam
1
U R
3
2
4/3 laminar flow
1.02 turbulent flow
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
31
Fall 2006
Complete analysis
using CFD!
Reconsider the problem for fully developed flow:
F ( p p )R .02 U R
2
turb
Continuity:
m&in m&out 0
m& m&in m&out
or
Q, V = constant
Momentum:
( p1 p2 ) R 2 F uV A
u1 (u1 A) u2 (u2 A)
Q (u2 u1 )
0
14p12 4p32 R 2 w 2 Rx 0
p
R dp

2 dx
or for smaller CV r < R, 2
dp
dx
(valid for laminar or turbulent flow, but assume laminar)

du
du r dp

dy
dr 2 dx
du
r dp
dr
2 dx
y = R-r (wall coord.)
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u
Chapters 3 & 4
32
Fall 2006
r dp
c
4 dx
2
u (r R) 0
R dp

4 dx
2
R r dp
u (r )

4 dx
2
max
r
u (r ) u 1
R
R dp

4 dx
2
max
R dp
Q u (r )2r dr

8 dx
4
Vave
Q R 2 dp
umax

2
A 8 dx
4 Vave
R dp
R 8Vave
2 dx
2 R2
R
8 w
32
64
64
f
2
Vave
RVave Vave D Re
Vave D
Re
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
33
Exact solution of NS for laminar fully developed pipe

flow
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
34
Fall 2006
Taking moving CV at speed Vs= R enclosing jet and

bucket:
Continuity: m&in m&out 0
m& m&in m&out V R n dA
CS
Inlet
Outlet
VR V j R
n i
VR (V j R)
^
ni
Momentum:
& out mu
& in
Fbucket mu
Fbucket m& (V j R ) (V j R )
2 m(V j R)
2 Aj (V j R ) 2
m A j (V j R )
P RFbucket 2 A j R (V j R ) 2
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
35
Fall 2006
dP
0
d
for
Vj
Pmax
8
A jV j3
27
If infinite number of buckets: m& AjV j

all jet mass flow
result in work.
Fbucket 2 A jV j (V j R )
P 2 A jV j R (V j R )
dP
0
d
for R
Vj
2
Pmax
1
AjV j3
2
CV continuity equation for steady incompressible flow

one inlet and outlet A = constant
V ndA V ndA m& Q
in
out
Qin Qout
Vave A in Vave A out

Vave in Vave out
For A = constant
F V V n dA V V n dA
in
Pipe:
out
u V n dA u V n dA
in
out
2
AVave
AVave2
in
QVave out in
out
change in shape u
058:0160
Vane:
Chapters 3 & 4
36
Fall 2006
F m& V V V V
F m& u u m& 2u
out
in
out
out
in
in
in
change in direction u
Application of differential momentum equation:

1. NS valid both laminar and turbulent flow; however,
many order of magnitude difference in temporal and
spatial resolution, i.e. turbulent flow requires very
small time and spatial scales
2. Laminar flow Recrit =
U
1000
Re > Recrit instability

3. Turbulent flow Retransition > 10 or 20 Recrit
Random motion superimposed on mean coherent
structures.
Cascade: energy from large scale dissipates at
smallest scales due to viscosity.
Kolmogorov hypothesis for smallest scales
4. No exact solutions for turbulent flow: RANS, DES,
LES, DNS (all CFD)
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
37
Fall 2006
5. 80 exact solutions for simple laminar flows are

mostly linear V V 0
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Couette flow = shear driven

Steady duct flow = Poiseuille flow
Unsteady duct flow
Unsteady moving walls
Asymptotic suction
Wind-driven flows
Similarity solutions. etc.
6. Also many exact solutions for low Re Stokes and

high Re BL approximations
7. Can also use CFD for non simple laminar flows
8. AFD or CFD requires well posed IBVP; therefore,
exact solutions are useful for setup of IBVP, physics,
and verification CFD since modeling errors yield
USM = 0 and only errors are numerical errors USN,
i.e., assume analytical solution = truth, called
analytical benchmark
LT(T)=LM(M)=LA(A)=0 similarly for IC&BC
S = S T = SN + SM
US2 = USN2 + USM2
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
38
Fall 2006
Energy Equation:
B = E = energy
= e = dE/dm = energy per unit mass
Integral Form (fixed CV):
dE
dt
t (e ) d e V n dA
Q& W&
CS
1 44 2 4 43
1 44 2 4 43
rate of change rate of outflux
E in CV
E across CS
CV
Rate of change
E
Rate of heat
added CV
1
e u v gz internal + KE + PE
2
^
Q& = conduction + convection + radiation

W&
W&shaft
W&p W&
{
{
{
pump / turbine pressure viscous
dW&p p ndA V
W&p
p V n dA
CS
- pressure force velocity
Rate work done

by CV
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
39
Fall 2006
dW&v dAV
- viscous force velocity
W&v V dA
CS
Q& W&s W&

CV t (e ) d CS e p / V n dA
For our purposes, we are interested in steady flow one

inlet and outlet. Also W& : 0 in most cases; since, V = 0 at
solid surface; on inlet and outlet only n ~ 0; or for V 0
and streamline ~ 0 if outside BL.
Q& W&S
1 2
gz
p
/
V n dA
inlet & outlet
Assume parallel flow with

inlet and outlet.
Q& W&S u p / gz
p / gz
14 2 43
and u constant over

= constant ie hydrostatic
pressure variation
n
dA
V
(V n) dA
2
inlet & outlet
inlet &outlet
Q& W&S u p / gz in (m&in ) Vin 3 dAin

2 in
u p / gz out ( m&out ) Vout 3 dAout

2 out
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
40
Fall 2006
Define kinetic energy correction factor

3
1 V

dA
A A Vave
2
Vave
2
V (V n) dA
m
2 A
2
r
u U 1
R
Laminar flow:
Vave=0.5
Turbulent flow:
= 4/3
r
u U 1
R
1 m 2 m
3
=2
4(1 3m)(2 3m)
m=1/7
=1.058
as with , ~1 for
turbulent flow
2
2
Vave
Vave
Q& W&s
(u p / gz
) out (u p / gz
)in
&
&
m m
2
2
Let in = 1, out = 2, V = Vave, and divide by g
p1 1 2
p
V1 z1 hp 2 2 V22 z2 ht hL
g 2g
g 2g
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
41
W&s W&t W&p
ht hp
gm& gm& gm&
1
Q&
hL (u2 u1 )
&
g
mg
hL = thermal energy (other terms represent mechanical energy
m& AV
1 1 A2V2
Assuming no heat transfer mechanical energy converted
to thermal energy through viscosity and can not be
recovered; therefore, it is referred to as head loss > 0,
which can be shown from 2nd law of thermodynamics.
1D energy equation can be considered as modified
Bernoulli equation for hp,ht, and hL.
Application of 1D Energy equation fully developed pipe
flow without hp or ht.
058:0160
hL
Chapters 3 & 4
42
Fall 2006
p1 p2
L d
( z1 z 2 )
(
p
z
)
L dx
g
g dx
w
L 2 w
1
g R
2
Vave
8
2
L Vave
hL f
D 2g
For laminar flow,
f
hL
Darcy-Weisbach Equation (valid for laminar or

Turbulent flow)
8 w
32
2
Vave
RVave
32 LVave
D2
For turbulent flow,

f=f (Re, k/D)
Vave
Recrit ~ 2000, Retrans ~ 3000

Re = VaveD/, k = roughness
2
hL Vave
In this case hL = hf = friction loss

more generally,
exact solution!
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
43
Fall 2006
hL = hf + hm
where
V2
hm K
2g
K loss coefficient
hm = so called minor losses, e.g. entrance/exit,

expansion/contraction, bends, elbows, tees, other
fitting, and valves.
(a) First suppose 2D problem: D1 and D2 denotes width in

y instead of diameter and we take unit in z direction
& 2 .79
F mV
989
1 V22 425 N
14 2
43 0.02
123
A2
V2 5.22 m / s, m& 81.6 kg / s
x
Continuity equation between points 1 and 2

V1 A1 V2 A2 V1 V2
D2
2.09m / s
D1
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
44
Fall 2006
Bernoulli neglect g, p2=pa

p1
1
1
V12 p2 V22
2
2
p1 p2
1
V22 V12
2
hL=0, z=constant
p1 101, 000
p1 110, 020 Pa
Note:
.79 998
(5.222 2.09 2 )
2
V2 p3 V32 p4 V42
2
2
2
p2
p2 p3 p4 pa V2 V3 V4
0 V A A2V2 A3V3 A4V4
CS
A A A
2
0 VV A V3V3 A3 ( V4 )V4 A4
CS
2
3
3
V A V42 A4
A A
3
(b) For the round jet given in the problem statement
2
2
&
F
mV
.79
989
x
2
14 2 43 4 .02 V2 425 N
12 3
A2
V2 41.4 m / s, m 10.3 kg / s
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
45
Fall 2006
Continuity equation between points 1 and 2

D
V1 A1 V2 A2 V1 V2 2
D1
2
V1 41.4
5
V1 6.63 m / s
Bernoulli neglect g, p2=pa

p1
1
1
V12 p2 V22
2
2
p1 p2
1
V22 V12
2
p 760,000 Pa
1
hL=0, z=constant
p1 101, 000
.79 998
(41.42 6.632 )
2
058:0160
(a)
Torricellis
expression
for speed of
efflux from
reservoir
Fall 2006
V22
z1
z2
2g
1, h 0, z 11, z 0
2
V2 2 g ( z1 z2 ) 2 * 9.81 * 11
Q2 A2V2
Re
(b)
Chapters 3 & 4
46
14.7 m / s
(.01) 2 *14.7 *3600 4.16 m3 / h

4
VD 14.7 0.01
1.5 105
6
10
z1 2
V22
z2 hL
2g
2 2, hL
32VL
6
2
,
10
m
/s
2
D g
V22 3.2V2 107.8 0
V2 = 8.9 m/s
Q= 2.516 m3/s
Re 89, 000 8.9 10 4 ? 2000
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
47
Fall 2006
V22
L V22
z2 f
(c) z1 2
2g
D 2g
2=1
V22
z1 z2
1 fL / D
2g
V2 2 g ( z1 z2 ) /(1 fL / D )
V2 216 /(1 f *1000)
f f (Re), Re
guess f = 0.015
V2 3.7 m / s Re 3.7 x10 4 ,
V2 2.94 m / s Re 2.9 x104 ,
f .024
f .025
V2 2.88 m / s Re 2.9 x104
(d) Re
VD
2000
V22
32 LV2
( z 1 z2 ) 2
20002 2
2g
g
V22
V22 32 LV23
( z 1 z2 ) 2
2 g 20002 g
2000
V
VD
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
48
Fall 2006
32 LV23 V22
11 0
2
2000 g g
V2 1.1 m / s
D 0.00182 m
Low U and small D to actually here laminar flow

Differential Form of Energy Equation:
dE

(e ) (eV ) d Q& W&

dt CV 1
t
4 44 2 4 4 43
De
e
e
e (eV ) V
e

V
e
t
t
Dt
t
1
1
e u V 2 gz u V 2 g r
2
2
De
DV
Du
(Q& W&) / q& w&

V
g V
Dt
Dt
Dt
q& q (k
T)
Fouriers Law
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
49
Fall 2006
u
w& (V
ij ) V ij ij i
14 2 43
x j
DV
g
Dt
Where
momentum equation
DV
V
ij
V
g V
Dt
u
Du
(k T ) ij i
Dt
x
1 2 3j
u
ij i pV
x j
continuity equation
p D
D
Dp

( p / )
Dt
Dt
Dt
u
D
Dp
(u p / ) ( k T )
ij i
Dt
Dt
x
123 j
0 dissipation function
Dh
Dp
( kT )
Dt
Dt
Summary GDE for compressible non-constant property

fluid flow
Cont.
( V ) 0
t
Mom.
DV
g p ij '
Dt
ij ' ij V ij
g gk
058:0160
Energy
Chapters 3 & 4
50
Fall 2006
Dh Dp
( k T )
Dt
Dt
Primary variables:
p, V, T
Auxiliary relations:
= (p,T)
h = h (p,T)
= (p,T)
k = k (p,T)
Restrictive Assumptions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Continuum
Newtonian fluids
Thermodynamic equilibrium
f = -g k
heat conduction follows Fouriers law
no internal heat sources
For incompressible constant property fluid flow

du cv dT
cv, , k , ~ constant
c
DT
k T
Dt
2
For static fluid or V small

c
T
k T
t
2
heat conduction equation (also valid for solids)
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
51
Fall 2006
Summary GDE for incompressible constant property fluid

flow (cv ~ cp)
V 0
DV
gk p 2 V
Dt
DT
k T
Dt
2
where
elliptic

ij
u
x
i
j
Continuity and momentum uncoupled from energy;

therefore, solve separately and use solution post facto to
get T.
For compressible flow, solved from continuity equation,
T from energy equation, and p = (,T) from equation of
state (eg, ideal gas law). For incompressible flow, =
constant and T uncoupled from continuity and momentum
equations, the latter of which contains p such that
reference p is arbitrary and specified post facto (i.e. for
incompressible flow, there is no connection between p and
). The connection is between p and V 0 , i.e. a
solution for p requires V 0 .
NS
DV
1
p 2 V
Dt
p p z
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
52
(See derivation details on p.81)
(NS )
ui u j
1 2
D
2
V p
x j xi
Dt
For V
0 :
p
2
u u
x x
i
Poisson equation determines pressure up to additive

constant.
Approximate Models:
1) Stokes Flow
For low Re
UL
1, V V ~ 0
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
53
Fall 2006
Linear, elliptic
Most exact solutions NS; and for steady flow
superposition, elemental solutions and
separation of variables
V 0
V
1
p 2 V
t
( NS ) p 0
2
2) Boundary Layer Equations

For high Re >> 1 and attached boundary layers or
fully developed free shear flows (wakes, jets, mixing
layers), v U , x y , p 0 , and for free shear flows px

= 0.
y
u v 0
x
ut uu x vu y p x u yy
non-linear, parabolic
p y 0 p x U t UU x
Many exact solutions; similarity methods
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
54
Fall 2006
3) Inviscid Flow
V 0
t
DV
g p
Euler Equation, nonlinear ," hyperbolic "
Dt
Dh Dp
(k T ) p, V , T unknowns and , h, k f ( p, T )
Dt Dt
4) Inviscid, Incompressible, Irrotational

V 0 V
V 0 2 0
linear ," elliptic "
Euler Equation Bernoulli Equation:

p
2
V gz const
2
Many elegant solutions: Laplace equation using

superposition elementary solutions, separation of
variables, complex variables for 2D, and Boundary
Element methods.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
55
Fall 2006
Couette Shear Flows: 1-D shear flow between surfaces of

like geometry (parallel plates or rotating cylinders).
Steady Flow Between Parallel Plates: Combined Couette
and Poiseuille Flow.
V 0
u x v y wz 0
ux 0
DV
p 2 V
Dt
u
uu vu wu 0
t
x
0 p x u yy
c
DT
k T
Dt
2
0 kT u
yy
T
uTx vTy wTz 0
t
2
y
2u x2 2v y2 2 wz2
(vx u y ) 2 ( wy vz ) 2 (u z wx ) 2
(u x v y wz )
u y2
(note: inertia terms vanish inherently and is absent
from equations)
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
56
Fall 2006
Non-dimensionalize equations, but drop *

T
u u /U
T T
T T
y* y / h
(1)
u 0
x
h2
u yy
p x B cons.
U
U
T
u
k (T T )

2
yy
2
y
(2)
(3)
Pr Ec
B.C.
y=1
u=1
T=1
y = -1 u = 0
T=0
(1) is consistent with 1-D flow assumption. Simple
form of (2) and (3) allow for solution to be
obtained by double integration.
u
1
1
(1 y ) B (1 y 2 )
24 2 43 1
2 4 2 43
1
Linear flow
due to U
y=y/h
Parabolic flow
due to px
Note: linear
superposition since
V V 0
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
57
Fall 2006
Solution depends on
h2
B
p x :
U
p x is opposite to U
backflow occurs near lower wall
flow approaches parabolic profile
B<0
B < -0.5
|B| >> 1
Pressure gradient effect

G55555555555555555555555H
Pr Ec
Pr Ec B
Pr Ec B 2
1
2
3
T (1 y )
(1 y )
(y y )
(1 y 4 )
2
8
6
12
Pure
conduction
n
T rises due to
viscous dissipation
Dominant term
for B
Note: usually PrEc is quite small

Substance
Air
PrEc
0.001
Water
0.02
Crude oil
20
dissipation
very small
Br Pr E
Brinkman #
large
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
58
Fall 2006
Shear Stress
1) p x 0
i.e. pure Couette Flow
Cf
1
U 2
2
Uh Re
u y
1
U 2
2
u *y* 1/ 2
(u / U )
1/ 2
( y / h)
P0 = CfRe = 1: Better for non-accelerating flows

since is not in equations and P0 = pure constant
2) U = 0
i.e. pure Poiseuille Flow
058:0160
u*
Fall 2006
1
B(1 y*2 )
2
B
Where
Chapters 3 & 4
59
u *y* By *
U u
BU
upper
h
BU

lower
h
BU
2u

3u
h
h
h
y y h
BU
y
h
1 h2
y
u
p 1
Q u dy 4 hu
h
2
14 2 43
3
umax
u
w
2u
h
p x max
U
U
Dimensional form
Q
2
u
2h 3
max
max
max
C
f
1
U
2
lam.
2
6
or P C
Re
6
u
uh
0
turb.
Except for numerical constants same as for circular pipe.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
60
Fall 2006
Rate of heat transfer at the walls:

q kT
w
y yh
k
U
(T T )
2h
4h
2
+ = upper, - = lower
Heat transfer coefficient:

qw
Nu
T1 T0
2 h
1 Br
2
k
For Br >> 2, both upper & lower walls must be cooled to

maintain T1 and T0
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
61
Fall 2006
Conservation of Angular Momentum: moment form of

momentum equation (not new conservation law!)
B H0
r V dm angular momentum of system about
sys
inertial coordinate system 0.

r V
dH0 d
r V d r V V n dA
dt
dt CV
CS
M
0
vector sum all external moments applied CV

due to both FB and FS.
For uniform flow across discrete inlet/outlet:
(r V ) V n dA (r
CS
M
0
dA r

CS
surface force moment
M
R
V ) out m&out (r V )in m&in

g d r M

CV
body force moment
moment of reaction forces
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
62
Fall 2006
Take inertial frame 0 as fixed to earth such that CS

moving at Vs= -R i
V 2 V0i Ri
r 2 Rj
V 1 V0 k
Retarding torque due to
bearing friction
V0
T
0 2
R QR
V0 Q
Apipe
T0 k (r 2 V 2 )m&out (r 1 V 1 )m&in
m&out m&in Q
r1 0 j
To k R (V0 R )( k) Q
interestingly, even for T0=0, max=V0/R
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
63
Fall 2006
Differential Equation of Conservation of Angular

Momentum:
Apply CV form for fixed CV:
&z = angular acceleration

I = moment of inertia
I &z a dy
dx
dx
dy
dy
b dy c dx d dx
2
2
2
2
I &z xy yx dxdy
Since I
dxdy 3 dydx 3 dxdy

dx 2 dy
2
12
12
dx 2 dy 2 &z xy yx
12
lim
dx 0, dy 0
i.e

ij
ji
xy
yx
, similarly
xz
zx
yz
zy
stress tensor is symmetric (stresses

themselves cause no rotation)
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
64
Boundary Conditions for Viscous-Flow Problem

The GDE to be discussed next constitute an IBVP for
a system of 2nd order nonlinear PDE, which require
BC for their solution, depending on physical problem
and appropriate approximations.
Types of Boundaries:
1. Solid Surface
2. Interface
3. Inlet/exit/outer
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
65
Fall 2006
1. Solid Surface
a. Liquid
= mean free path << fluid motion; therefore,
maroscopic view is no slip condition, i.e. no
relative motion or temperature difference between
liquid and solid.
V liquid V solid
liquid
solid
Exception is for contact line for which analysis is

similar to that for gas.
b. Gas
Specular reflection
Conservation of
tangential momentum
uw=0=fluid velocity at
wall
Smooth wall
Diffuse reflection.
Lack of reflected
tangential momentum
balanced by uw
Rough wall
u l
w
du
dy
058:0160

w
du
dy
Fall 2006
l
w
3
u
2 a
w
2 a
3
Ma U
u / U .75Ma C
Chapters 3 & 4
66
low density limit

Cf
1
U 2
2
High Re:
Cf ~ 0.005
Say Ma ~ 20
Low Re:
Cf ~ .6Rex-1/2
u
0.01
U
w
Rex=Ux/
u .4 Ma
U Re
w
1
2
x
Significant slip possible at low Re, high Ma:

Hypersonic LE Problem
Similar for T:
High Re:
Tgas = Tw
Tgas Tw
Low Re
.87 MaC f
Tr Tw = driving T
Ref. T
air
058:0160
Where
Chapters 3 & 4
67
Fall 2006
q
C 2C 2
C U (T T )

w
Reynolds Analogy
Ch = Stanton number, i.e. wall

heat transfer coefficient
2. Idealized gas/liquid interface (free surface problems

since interface is unknown and part of the solution, but
effect goes on liquid idealized.).
Kinematic FSBC: free surface is stream surface
F ( x, y ) z surface function
n F / F ( , , 1) / D
x
D 1
2
1
2
DF
F
0
V F
Dt
t
1 F
V n 0
F t
Dynamic FSBC:
stress continuous across free surface (similarly for mass
and heat flux)
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
68
Fall 2006
ij n j ij* n j p ij
Fluid 1 stress
Fluid 2 stress
Surface tension
pres.
(vector whose components are stress in direction of coordinate axes on surface with normal nj)
p Re (U U )
1
ij
ij
i, j
j ,i
ij* p ij Re 1 (U i , j U j ,i )
fluid 2
eg
neglecting air
ij
for
air
Atmospheric pressure
p We 1 K SN K tN
eS
K SN n
s
et
K tN n
t
Curvature F for two mutually perp. directions.

Note: eS and et normal to n = en
We U L / Weber Number
2
Surface tension
(2) x 11n1 12 n2 13 n3 ( pa p ) n1
(3) y 21n1 22 n2 23 n3 ( pa p )n2

(4) z 31n1 32 n2 33n3 ( pa p )n3
(5) v 0 U x Vy Wz
incompressible flow
1+3+1=5 conditions for 5 unknowns = (V, p, )

The first 4 conditions nonlinear
-Also need conditions for turbulence variables
if
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
69
Fall 2006
Many approximations, eg, inviscid approximation:
pa p 0
small slope: x ~ y ~ 0
small normal velocity gradient: Wx ~ Wy ~ Wz = 0
(U ,V ) 0
z
W U V
z
or
W 0
z
p gz
p = piezometric pres.
a) inlet: V, p, T specified
b) outer: V, p, T specified
eg. constant Temp.,

uniform stream:
V = U , p = 0 , T = Ti,o
p=0
or
3) Inlet/exit/outer
c) exit: depends on the problem, but often use U 0 ,

(i.e. zero stream wise diffusion for external
flow and periodic for fully developed
internal flow).
XX
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
70
Fall 2006
Interface Velocity Condition

Just as with solid surface, there can be no relative
velocity across interface (i.e. exact condition for
liquid/liquid and gas/gas or gas/liquid non-mixing fluids).
V1 V 2
Vn1 Vn 2
required by KFSBC
1 F
V 1 n V 2 n
F t
Tangential should also match, but usually due to

different approximations used in fluid 1 or 2, (eg fluid 1
liquid and fluid 2 gas do not). Often, in fact, motions in
gas are neglected and therefore V is not continuous.
Also liquid/liquid interfaces are not stable for large
Re and one must consider turbulent interface.
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
71
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
72
Vorticity Theorems
The incompressible flow momentum equations focus
attention on V and p and explain the flow pattern in terms
of inertia, pressure, gravity, and viscous forces.
Alternatively, one can focus attention on and explain
the flow pattern in terms of the rate of change, deforming,
and diffusion of by way of the vorticity equation. As
will be shown, the existence of generally indicates the
viscous effects are important since fluid particles can only
be set into rotation by viscous forces. Thus, the
importance of this topic is to demonstrate that under most
circumstances, an inviscid flow can also be considered
irrotational.
1. Vorticity Kinematics
V ( wy vz )i (u z wx ) j (vx u y ) k
i ijk
u j
xk
uk u j
x j xk
123 321 231 1

213 321 132 1
ijk 0 otherwise
1 4 4 4 2 4 4 43
alternating tensor
= 2 the angular velocity of the fluid element
(i, j, k cyclic)
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
73
Fall 2006
A quantity intimately tied with vorticity is the circulation:
V dx
Stokes Theorem:
a dx a dA
A
V dx V dA ndA
A
Which shows that if =0 (i.e., if the flow is

irrotational, then = 0 also.
Vortex line = lines which are everywhere tangent to the
vorticity vector.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
74
Fall 2006
Next, we shall see that vorticity and vortex lines must

obey certain properties known as the Helmholtz vorticity
theorems, which have great physical significance.
The first is the result of its very definition:
V
( V
) 0
Vector identity
i.e. the vorticity is divergence-free, which means that

there can be no sources or sinks of vorticity within the
fluid itself.
Helmholtz Theorem #1: a vortex line cannot end in the
fluid. It must form a closed path (smoke ring), end at a
boundary, solid or free surface, or go to infinity.
Propeller vortex is
known to drift up
towards the free surface
The second follows from the first and using the

divergence theorem:
n dA 0
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
75
Fall 2006
Application to a vortex tube results in the following
n dA
Minus sign due to

outward normal
A1
14
2 43
1
n dA 0
A2
14
2 43
2
Or 1= 2
Helmholtz Theorem #2:
The circulation around a given vortex line (i.e., the
strength of the vortex tube) is constant along its length.
This result can be put in the form of a simple onedimensional incompressible continuity equation. Define
1 and 2 as the average vorticity across A1 and A2,
respectively
1A1 = 2A2
which relates the vorticity strength to the cross sectional
area changes of the tube.
2. Vortex dynamics
Consider the substantial derivative of the circulation
assuming incompressible flow and conservative body
forces
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
76
Fall 2006
D D
V dx
Dt Dt
DV
D
dx
Dt
Dt dx
From the N-S equations we have

DV 1
p
f
2 V
Dt
F p
Also,
V
2
Define f F for the

gravitational body force
F=gz.
D
Dx
dx d
dV
Dt
Dt
D
2
p
/
d
x
4 4 44 2 4 4 4 43
V
Dt 1
dp
dF
d x
4V2 dV
1
43
1
d (V V )
dp 1
2
dF
dV

2 V d x
2
1 4 4 44 2 4 4 4 43
=0 since integration is around a closed contour

and F,p, & V are single valued!
D

2 V dx
dx
Dt
V V 2V
14 2 43 14 2 43
0
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
77
Implication: The circulation around a material loop of

particles changes only if the net viscous force on those
particles gives a nonzero integral.
If 0 or 0 (i.e., inviscid or irrotational flow,
respectively) then
D
0
Dt
The circulation of a
material loop never
changes
Kelvins Circulation Theorem: for an ideal fluid (i.e.

inviscid and incompressible) acted upon by conservative
forces (eg, gravity) the circulation is constant about any
closed material contour moving with the fluid.
Which leads to:
Helmholtz Theorem #3: No fluid particle can have
rotation if it did not originally rotate. Or, equivalently, in
the absence of rotational forces, a fluid that is initially
irrotational remains irrotational. In general, we can
conclude that vortices are preserved as time passes. Only
through the action of viscosity can they decay or
disappear.
Kelvins Circulation Theorem and Helmholtz
Theorem #3 are very important in the study of inviscid
flow. The important conclusion is reached that a fluid that
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
78
Fall 2006
is initially irrotational remains irrotational, which is the

justification for ideal-flow theory.
In a real viscous fluid, vorticity is generated by
viscous forces. Viscous forces are large near solid
surfaces as a result of the no-slip condition. On the
surface there is a direct relationship between the viscous
shear stress and the vorticity.
Consider a 1-D flow near a wall:
The viscous stresses are given by:
ij n j
where ij
ij
11n1 12 n2 13n3 x
21n1 22 n2 23 n3 y
u v
u

y
y x
12 12
22 22 2
v
0
y
w v
0
y
z
32 32
Which shows that

x
u
dy
31n1 32 n2 33n3 z
NOTE: the only component of
is z. Actually, this is a
general result in that it can be
shown that surface is
perpendicular to the limiting
streamline.
0
y
However from the definition vorticity we also see that
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
79
Fall 2006
u
z
y
i.e., the wall vorticity is directly proportional to the wall

shear stress. This analysis can be easily extended for
general 3-d flow.
Rotation tensor
ij n j ij n j at a fixed solid wall

True since at a wall with coordinate x2,
from continuity
0
x1 x3
and
v
0
x2
Once vorticity is generated, its subsequent behavior is

governed by the vorticity equation.
N-S
V
V V p / 2 V
t
Or
V
1
V V V p / 2 V
t
2
neglect f
The vorticity equation is obtained by taking the curl of

this equation. (Note 0 ).
V 2
t 1 4 2 43
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
80
Fall 2006
V ( ) ( V
) (V
) (
Rate of change of
)V
Rate of deforming
vortex lines
(V )
V 2
Rate of viscous
Or 1t44 2 4 43
diffuision of
D
Dt
Transport Eq. for
u v w x y
z V 2
t x
y
z
x
y
u
u
u
u x v x w x x
y
z
2 x
t
x
y
z
y
z
{ x 1 44
2
4
4
3
Stretching
turning
v
v
v
y
z
2 y
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
z
w
w
w
u z v z w z x
y
z
2z
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
u
Note:
(1) Equation does not involve p explicitly

(2) for 2-D flow ( )V 0 since is perp. to V
and there can be no deformation of , ie
D
2
Dt
In order to determine the pressure field in terms of the

vorticity, the divergence of the N-S equation is taken.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
81
Fall 2006
V
2

V
V p /

V
t
2 ( p / ) V
V
Poisson Eq. for p
1
2
2 V V V
V
2
does not depend explicitly on

Derivation of pressure Poisson equation:
Three vector identities to be used:
1
2
(1) V V V V V V
(2) a b b a a b
2
(3) a a a
Pressure Poisson equation in vector form:
p
V
V

V V V V
2
1
2 V V V
2
1
2 V V
V V
2
1
2 V V
V V
2
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
82
Fall 2006
1
2
2 V V
V V
2
1
2
2 V V V
V
2
Pressure Poisson equation in tensor form:

p
1 2
2
V V V V
2

1 2
u j e j uk ek
2 xi xi
ui ei
2 uk ek
V V
x j x j
2uk
uk
u
1 2
u
u
ei lmn n
ijk
j k jk
i ik
2 xi xi
x j x j
x j
xm

2
2ui
u u
1 u ju j
ui
ijk lmn k n ei el
2 xi xi
x j x j
x j xm
2ui
uk un
1
u
u
j j i x x ijk lmn x x il
2 xi xi
j
j
j
m
2 xi

xi
u j
2ui
u u
jm kn jn km k n
2u j
ui
xi
x j x j
x j xm
u j
2ui
u u
u u
uj
jm kn k n jn km k n
ui
xi
x j x j
x j xm
x j xm
u j u j
x x
i
i
el
uk u j
x j xk
uj
2u j
xi xi
2ui
u u u u j
ui
k k k
x j x j x j x j x j xk
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
83
Fall 2006
3. Kinematic Decomposition of flow fields

Previously, we discussed the decomposition of fluid
motion into translation, rotation, and deformation. This
was done locally for a fluid element. Now we shall see
that a global decomposition is possible.
Helmholtzs Decomposition: any continuous and finite
vector field can be expressed as the sum of the gradient of
a scalar function plus the curl of a zero-divergence
vector A. The vector A vanishes identically if the original
vector field is irrotational.
V V V
V
Where
0 V
If
V V
Then
2 0
And
V A
The irrotational part of

the velocity field can be
expressed as the gradient
of a scalar
The G.d.e. for is the Laplace Eq.
Since
A 0
V A
2 A ( A)
Again, by vector identity
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
84
Fall 2006
i.e
A
2
The solution of this equation is

A
Thus
1
d
4 R
1
4
R
R
Which is known as the Biot-Savart law.

The Biot-Savart law can be used to compute the velocity
field induced by a known vorticity field. It has many
useful applications, including in ideal flow theory (e.g.,
when applied to line vortices and vortex sheets it forms
the basis of computing the velocity field in vortex-lattice
and vortex-sheet lifting-surface methods).
The important conclusion from the Helmholtz
decomposition is that any incompressible flow can be
thought of as the vector sum of rotational and irrotational
components. Thus, a solution for irrotational part V
represents at least part of an exact solution. Under certain
conditions, high Re flow about slender bodies with
attached thin boundary layer and wake, V is small over
much of the flow field such that V is a good
approximation to v . This is probably the strongest
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
85
Fall 2006
justification for ideal-flow theory. (incompressible,

inviscid, and irrotational flow).
Non-inertial Reference Frame
Thus far we have assumed use of an inertial reference
frame (i.e. fixed with respect to the distant stars in
deriving the CV and differential form of the momentum
equation). However, in many cases non-inertial reference
frames are useful (e.g. rotational machinery, vehicle
dynamics, geophysical applications, etc).
ai
dV
a rel
dt
dV
a rel
dt
F mai m
F 1ma
23
rel
S Rr
i
dV
dt
i.e Newtons law

applies to noninertial frame with
addition of known
inertial force terms
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
86
Fall 2006
dR
3rd term from fact that
r
dt
(x,y,z) rotating at (t).
2
dV d R d
ai
2
r 2 V ( r )
dt
dt
dt
dV
a rel
dt
Vi V
d R
dt
2
= acceleration (x,y,z)
d
r
dt
= angular acceleration (x,y,z)
2 V
= Coriolis acceleration
( r )
= centripetal acceleration (=-2L, where L = normal

distance from r to axis of rotation ).
Since R and assumed known, although more

complicated, we are simply adding known
inhomogeneities to the momentum equation.
CV form of Momentum equation for non-inertial
coordinates:
F a
CV
rel
d
V d vV R n dA
dt CV
CS
Differential form of Momentum equation for noninertial

coordinates:
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
87
Fall 2006
2
DV
a rel gk p 2 ji V ij
x j
3
Dt
a R r r 2 v
rel
All terms in
flows):
R ~0
~0
2 v
ai
rel
seldom act in unison (e.g. geophysical
earth not accelerating relative to distant stars

for earth
~ 0 g nearly constant with latitude
most important!
dV
R0 1 (2 V )
dt
V02 L V0
R0 Rossby #
V0 L
tV
V
,t 0
V0
L
if L is large, i.e., comparable to the

order of magnitude of the earth
radius, R0<1, then Coriolis term is
larger than the inertia terms and is
important.
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
88
Example of Non-inertial Coordinates:

Geophysical fluids dynamics
Atmosphere and oceans are naturally studied using noninertial coordinate system rotating with the earth. Two
primary forces are Coriolis force and buoyancy force due
to density stratification = (T). Both are studied using
Boussinesq
approximations ( = constant, except
T gk term; and , k, Cp = constant) and thin layer on
W H
rotating surface assumption U ~ L .
Differences between atmospherical oceans: lateral
boundaries (continents) in oceans; currents in ocean (gulf
and Kuroshio stream) along western boundaries; clouds
and latent heat release in atmosphere due to moisture
condensation; Vocean = 0.1~1 or 2 m/s and Vatmosphere 10~20
m/s
H << L = 0 (radius of earth = 6371 km)
Therefore, one can neglect curvature of earth and replace
spherical coordinates by local Cartesian tangent plane
coordinates.
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
89
Fall 2006
Coriolis force =
2 V
^
i
=
u
0 since w << v
^ ^ ^
= 2 iwcos vsin jusin kucos
Person
spins at
f>0
f<0
f =
^ ^
fvi fu j 2cos u k
f 2 sin
northern hemisphere
southern hemisphere
at poles
= planetary
vorticity
= 2 * vertical
component
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
90
Fall 2006
f=0
at equator
Person translates with inertial

2
period T f
i
Equations of Motion
V 0
Du
1 p
fv
u
Dt
x
2
Dv
1 p
fu
v
Dt
y
2
Only vertical component

due to thin layer assumption
Dw
1 p g
w
Dt
z
2
1 (T T )
0
p, = perturbation from hydrostatic

condition
Geostrophic Flow: quasi-steady, large-scale motions in

atmosphere or ocean far from boundaries
fv
1 p
x
fu
U 2
DV
~0
Dt
L
f V ~ 0 ( fU )
U,L = horizontal scales
Rossby number =
Atmosphere:
Ocean:
1 p
y
U
fL
U ~ 10 m/s; f = 10-4 Hz; L ~ 1000 km;

and R0 = 0.1
U ~ 0.1 m/s; f = 10-4 Hz; L ~ 1000 km;
and R0 = 0.01
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
91
Fall 2006
Therefore, neglect
DV
Dt
and since there are no boundaries,
neglect 2 V .
Z momentum
p
g
z
baroclinic (i.e. p = p(T))
and can be used to eliminate p in above equations

whereby (u,v) = f(T(z)), which is called thermal wind but
not considered here.
If we neglect =(T) effects, (u,v) = f(p) and can be
determined from measured p(x,y). Not valid near the
equator (+ 3o) where f is small.
u i v j p
1 p p p p
i j i j
0 f y
x x
y
=0
i.e V is perpendicular to p horizontal velocity is
along (and not across) lines of constant horizontal
pressure, which is reason isobars and stream lines
coincide on a weather map!
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
92
Fall 2006
Ekman Layer on Free Surface: effects of friction near

boundaries
Viscous layers:
Sudden acceleration flat plate: ut u yy
3.64 t
Oscillating flat plate:
u u
t
yy
u (0, t ) U
u (, t ) 0
u (0, t ) U cos t
6.5 /
Flat plate boundary layer:
u ( y , 0) 0
u (, t ) 0
u v 0
x
uu vu u
x
yy
u ( x,0) 0
4.9 x / U
u ( x, ) U
For Ekman layer viscous effects due to wind shear (x).

Assume horizontal uniformity (i.e px = py = 0), which is
justified for L ~ 100 km and H ~ 50 m. However, can be
included easily if assume p = p(z) such that geostropic
solution is additive and combined solution recovers
former for large depths z .
fv uZZ
fu uZZ
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
93
Fall 2006
at z = 0
u
z
i
.002 (v
at z = 0
v 0
z
air
Multiply v-equation by i
and add to u-equation:

V u iv
d 2V i f
V
dt 2
complex velocity
V Ae (1i ) z / Be (1i ) z /
2
Ekman layer thickness
B = 0 for u(-), v(-) = 0

p
dV
dt
i.e.
at z = 0
(1 i )
2
/
z
e cos
f
4
/
z
e sin
f
4
z /
z /
u (0))
at z =-
(u , v ) 0
wind
and
058:0160
Fall 2006
Chapters 3 & 4
94
F. Nansen (1902) observed drifting arctic ice drifted 20400 to the right of the wind, which he attributed to
Coriolis acceleration. His student Ekman (1905) derived
the solution.
Recall f < 0 in southern hemisphere, so the drift is to the
left of .
058:0160
Chapters 3 & 4
95
Fall 2006
Similar solution for impulsive wind:

u u , u
t
zz
z 0, u 0 z , u ( z ,0) 0
u
0
laminar solution:
u0 (Vwind 6 m / s , T 200 C ) 0.6
m/s after one min., 2.3 m/s

after one hour
turbulent VT solution:(more realistic)

u0=0.2 m/s after 1 hr (3 % vwind)
For Ekman layer similar conditions = 400 N ,
Laminar solution u0 = 2.7 m/s at D = 45 cm, which are too
high/low; however, using turbulent t, u0 = 2 cm/s and D =
100 m, which is more realistic.

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058:0160

Professor Fred Stern

Chapters 3 & 4: Integral Relations for a Control Volume

Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

2 = net outflux of B from CV across CS =

General form RTT for moving deforming control volume

1) Non-deforming CV moving at constant velocity

Since CV fixed and arbitrary

4) Uniform flow across discrete CS (steady or unsteady)

by definition, system = fixed amount of mass

Rate of decrease of mass in CV = net rate of mass outflow across CS

Note simplifications for non-deforming CV, fixed CV,

Special case CV form continuity equation:

and uniform flow over discrete inlet/outlet

and steady flow

and incompressible flow

Q m& m& in m& out

if non-uniform flow over discrete inlet/outlet

Called the continuity equation since the implication is that

P3.15 Water, assumed incompressible, flows steadily

Steady flow, non-deforming or moving CV, one inlet

P3.12 The pipe flow in Fig. P3.12 fills a cylindrical tank

Unsteady flow, deforming CV, one inlet one outlet

Volume of fluid per unit time through A

where Cx1 2 , C const

vector sum of all forces acting on CV

tangential (viscous stresses) stresses. Force per

per elemental fluid volume

body force per unit volume

Body forces are due to external fields such as gravity or

As shown before, for p alone it is not the stresses

Recall f p based on 1st order TS. f is more complex

and similarly for z

Putting together the above results,

(due to stress gradients)

Next, we need to relate the stresses ij to the fluid motion,

1st order Taylor Series

= rotation about x axis

Note that the components of ij are related to the vorticity

= 2 angular velocity of fluid element

ij rate of strain tensor

u x v y wz V = elongation (or volumetric dilatation)

= distortion wrt (x,y) plane

pure translation described by V

It is now necessary to make certain postulates concerning

1) When the fluid is at rest the stress is hydrostatic and

Using statements 1-3

kijmn = 4th order tensor with 81 components such that each

Lastly, the symmetry condition ij = ji requires:

Incompressible flow: p p and absolute pressure is

e.g., within shock

relates shear stress to strain rate

Where the normal viscous stress is the difference between

generate normal viscous stresses.

for small strain rates , which works well for

Non-Newtonian fluids include:

Recall = (T) increases with gases, decreases with

For incompressible flow

NS equations for , constant

Non-linear 2nd order PDE, as is the case for , not constant

Combine with V for 4 equations for 4 unknowns V , p

Application of CV Momentum Equation:

(includes reaction forces)

< 0 inlet, > 0 outlet

(.01) 2 14.7 3600 4.16 m3 / h