Excommunication

may be manifested through public recantation, sometimes through the Sacrament of Confession, piety, and/or
through mortication of the esh.

1 Christianity
In Matthew 18:15-17 Jesus says that an oended person
should rst draw the oenders fault to the oenders attention privately; then, if the oender refuses to listen,
bring one or two others, that there may be more than a
single witness to the charge; next, if the oender still refuses to listen, bring the matter before the church, and
if the oender refuses to listen to the church, treat the
oender as a Gentile and a tax collector.
1 Corinthians 5:1-8 directs the church at Corinth to excommunicate a man for sexual immorality (incest). In
2 Corinthians 2:5-11, the man, having repented and suffered the punishment by the majority is restored to the
church. Fornication is not the only ground for excommunication, according to the apostle: in 5:11, Paul says, I
am writing to you not to associate with anyone who bears
the name of brother if he is guilty of sexual immorality
or greed, or is an idolater, reviler, drunkard, or swindler
- not even to eat with such a one.

An imaginative depiction of Pope Gregory VII excommunicating

Emperor Henry IV.

In Romans 16:17, Paul writes to mark those who cause

divisions contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned
and avoid them. Also, in 2 John 1:10-11, the writer advises believers that whosoever transgresseth, and abideth
not in the doctrine of Christ, hath not God. He that
abideth in the doctrine of Christ, he hath both the Father
Details of the excommunication penalty at the foundling wheel. and the Son. If there come any unto you, and bring not
this doctrine, receive him not into your house [,
Venice, Italy.
residence or abode, or inmates of the house (family)],
Excommunication is an institutional act of religious neither bid him God speed: for he that biddeth him God
censure used to deprive, suspend, or limit membership speed is partaker of his evil deeds.
in a religious community or to restrict certain rights
within it, in particular reception of the sacraments. Some
Protestants use the term disfellowship instead.

1.1 Catholic Church

The word excommunication means putting a specic individual or group out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation
of the member or group. Excommunication may involve
banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the religion, the oense that caused excommunication, or the
rules or norms of the religious community. The grave act
is often revoked in response to sincere penance, which

See also: List of people excommunicated by the Roman

Catholic Church
Within the Catholic Church, there are dierences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic
Churches.
1

Former German Catholic priest Martin Luther was excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520.

1.1.1

Latin Church

In Catholic canon law, excommunication is a rarely

applied[1] censure and thus a medicinal penalty intended to invite the person to change behaviour or attitude, repent, and return to full communion.[2] It is not
an expiatory penalty designed to make satisfaction for
the wrong done, much less a vindictive penalty designed solely to punish: excommunication, which is the
gravest penalty of all and the most frequent, is always
medicinal,[3] and is not at all vindictive.[4]

CHRISTIANITY

Plaque on exterior of the Chiesa della Piet in Venice, the church

of the orphanage. This is where the foundling wheel once stood.
The inscription declares, citing a 12 November 1548 papal bull
of Pope Paul III, that God inicts maledictions and excommunications on all who abandon a child of theirs whom they have
the means to rear, and that they cannot be absolved unless they
rst refund all expenses incurred.

them to repent and return to active participation in its life.

All excommunicated persons are barred from participating in the liturgy in a ministerial capacity (e.g., as a reader
if a layperson or as a deacon or priest if a clergyman) and
from receiving the Eucharist or other sacraments, but they
are not barred from attending these (e.g., an excommunicated person may not receive the Eucharist but is not
barred from attending Mass). They are also forbidden to
exercise any ecclesiastical oce or the like.[9]

Excommunication can be either latae sententiae (automatic, incurred at the moment of committing the oense
for which canon law imposes that penalty) or ferendae
sententiae (incurred only when imposed by a legitimate
superior or declared as the sentence of an ecclesiastical These are the only eects for those who have incurred a
court).[5]
latae sententiae excommunication. For instance, a priest
The Code of Canon Law of 1917 stated that excommu- may not refuse Communion publicly to those who are unnication excluded a person from the communion of the der an automatic excommunication, as long as it has not
faithful.[6] The 1983 revision of the Code of Canon Law been ocially declared to have been incurred by them,
removed this statement from the account of the eects even if the priest knows that they have incurred it.[10]
of excommunication in the Catholic Church.[7] Excom- On the other hand, if the priest knows that excommumunicated persons are cut o from the Church, barred nication has been imposed on someone or that an aufrom receiving the Eucharist and from taking an active tomatic excommunication has been declared (and is no
part in the liturgy (reading, bringing the oerings, etc.), longer merely an undeclared automatic excommunicabut they remain Catholics.[8] They are urged to retain a tion), he is forbidden to administer Holy Communion to
relationship with the Church, as the goal is to encourage that person.[11] (see canon 915).

1.2

Eastern Orthodox churches

Other eects of an excommunication that has been im- Those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed or declared are:
posed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can
also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy.
They can even be excluded from entering a church when
1. an obligation on others to prevent the excommunidivine worship is being celebrated there. The decree of
cated person from acting in a ministerial capacity in
excommunication must indicate the precise eect of the
the liturgy or, if this proves impossible, to suspend
excommunication and, if required, its duration.[15]
the liturgical service;
Those under major excommunication are in addition for2. invalidity of acts of ecclesiastical governance by the bidden to receive not only the Eucharist but also the other
excommunicated person.[12]
sacraments, to administer sacraments or sacramentals, to
exercise any ecclesiastical oces, ministries, or functions
whatsoever, and any such exercise by them is null and
In the Catholic Church, excommunication is normally
void. They are to be removed from participation in the
resolved by a declaration of repentance, profession of
Divine Liturgy and any public celebrations of divine worthe Creed (if the oense involved heresy), or renewal
ship. They are forbidden to make use of any privileges
of obedience (if that was a relevant part of the oendgranted to them and cannot be given any dignity, oce,
ing act) by the excommunicated person and the lifting of
ministry, or function in the Church, they cannot receive
the censure (absolution) by a priest or bishop empowered
any pension or emoluments associated with these dignito do this. The absolution can be in the internal (prities etc., and they are deprived of the right to vote or to
vate) forum only, or also in the external (public) forum,
be elected.[16]
depending on whether scandal would be given if a person were privately absolved and yet publicly considered
unrepentant.[13] Since excommunication excludes from
1.2 Eastern Orthodox churches
reception of the sacraments, absolution from excommunication is required before absolution can be given from
the sin that led to the censure. In many cases, the whole In the Eastern Orthodox churches, excommunication is
process takes place on a single occasion in the privacy of the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist. It is not
the confessional. For some more serious wrongdoings, expulsion from the churches. This can happen for such
absolution from excommunication is reserved to a bishop, reasons as not having confessed within that year; excomanother ordinary, or even the Pope. These can delegate a munication can also be imposed as part of a penitential
period. It is generally done with the goal of restoring the
priest to act on their behalf.
member to full communion. Before an excommunication
Before the 1983 Code of Canon Law, there were two de- of signicant duration is imposed, the bishop is usually
grees of excommunication: The excommunicate was ei- consulted. The Orthodox churches do have a means of
ther a vitandus (shunned, literally to be avoided by other expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved
Catholics), or a toleratus (tolerated, allowing Catholics to only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. As an
continue to have business and social relationships with example of this, the Second Council of Constantinople
the excommunicated person). This distinction no longer in 553, in its eleventh capitula, declared: If anyone does
applies.
not anathematize Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, ApolIn the Middle Ages, formal acts of public excommu- linarius Nestorius, Eutyches and Origen, as well as their
nication were sometimes accompanied by a ceremony heretical books, and also all other heretics who have alwherein a bell was tolled (as for the dead), the Book of ready been condemned and anathematized by the holy,
the Gospels was closed, and a candle snued out hence catholic and apostolic church and by the four holy synods
the idiom to condemn with bell, book, and candle. Such which have already been mentioned, and also all those
who have thought or now think in the same way as the
ceremonies are not held today.
aforesaid heretics and who persist in their error even to
Interdict is a censure similar to excommunication. It too death: let him be anathema.[17]
excludes from ministerial functions in public worship and
from reception of the sacraments, but not from the exercise of governance.[14]
1.3 Lutheranism
Although Lutheranism technically has an excommunication process, some denominations and congregations do
not use it. The Lutheran denition, in its earliest and
In the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunications is most technical form, would be found in Martin Luther's
imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by Small Catechism, dened beginning at Questions No.
latae sententiae excommunication.
277-283, in The Oce of Keys. Luther endeavored to
A distinction is made between minor and major excom- follow the process that Jesus laid out in the 18th chapter
munication.
of the Gospel of Matthew. According to Luther, excom1.1.2

Eastern Catholic Churches

munication requires:
1. The confrontation between the
subject and the individual against
whom he has sinned.
2. If this fails, the confrontation between the subject, the harmed individual, and two or three witnesses
to such acts of sin.
3. The informing of the pastor of
the subjects congregation.
4. A confrontation between the
pastor and the subject.

CHRISTIANITY

which is one of the three marks of the Church. The

Westminster Confession of Faith sees it as the third step
after admonition and suspension from the sacrament
of the Lords Supper for a season.[21] Yet, John Calvin
argues in his Institutes of the Christian Religion that church
censures do not consign those who are excommunicated
to perpetual ruin and damnation, but are designed to induce repentance, reconciliation and restoration to communion. Calvin notes, though ecclesiastical discipline
does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms
with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by
all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church.[22]
At least one modern Reformed theologian argues that excommunication is not the nal step in the disciplinary
process. Jay E. Adams argues that in excommunication,
the oender is still seen as a brother, but in the nal step
they become as the heathen and tax collector (Matthew
18:17). Adams writes, Nowhere in the Bible is excommunication (removal from the fellowship of the Lords
Table, according to Adams) equated with what happens in
step 5; rather, step 5 is called removing from the midst,
handing over to Satan, and the like.[23]

Beyond this, there is little agreement. Many Lutheran

denominations operate under the premise that the entire congregation (as opposed to the pastor alone) must
take appropriate steps for excommunication, and there
are not always precise rules, to the point where individual congregations often set out rules for excommunicating laymen (as opposed to clergy). For example, churches
may sometimes require that a vote must be taken at Sunday services; some congregations require that this vote be
Former Yale president and theologian, Jonathan Edunanimous.[18]
wards, addresses the notion of excommunication as reThe Lutheran process, though rarely used, has cremoval from the fellowship of the Lords Table in his treaated unusual situations in recent years due to its sometise entitled The Nature and End of Excommunication.
what democratic excommunication process. One examEdwards argues that Particularly, we are forbidden such
ple was an eort to get serial killer Dennis Rader exa degree of associating ourselves with (excommunicants),
communicated from his denomination (the Evangelical
as there is in making them our guests at our tables, or
Lutheran Church in America) by individuals who tried to
in being their guests at their tables; as is manifest in the
lobby Raders fellow church members into voting for
text, where we are commanded to have no company with
his excommunication.[19]
them, no not to eat. Edwards insists, That this respects
not eating with them at the Lords supper, but a common
eating, is evident by the words, that the eating here for1.4 Anglican Communion
bidden, is one of the lowest degrees of keeping company,
which are forbidden. Keep no company with such a one,
1.4.1 Church of England
saith the apostle, no not to eat as much as to say, no
The Church of England does not have any specic canons not in so low a degree as to eat with him. But eating with
regarding how or why a member can be excommunicated, him at the Lords supper, is the very highest degree of
although it has a canon according to which ecclesiastical visible Christian communion. Who can suppose that the
burial may be refused to someone declared excommuni- apostle meant this: Take heed and have no company with
cate for some grievous and notorious crime and no man a man, no not so much as in the highest degree of communion that you can have? Besides, the apostle mentions
to testify to his repentance.[20]
this eating as a way of keeping company which, however,
they might hold with the heathen. He tells them, not to
1.4.2 Episcopal Church of the United States of keep company with fornicators. Then he informs them,
America
he means not with fornicators of this world, that is, the
heathens; but, saith he, if any man that is called a brother
The ECUSA is in the Anglican Communion, and shares be a fornicator, etc. with such a one keep no company, no
many canons with the Church of England which would not to eat. This makes it most apparent, that the apostle
determine its policy on excommunication.
doth not mean eating at the Lords table; for so, they might
not keep company with the heathens, any more than with
an excommunicated person.

1.5

Reformed view

In the Reformed churches, excommunication has generally been seen as the culmination of church discipline,

1.6

1.6

Anabaptist tradition

Anabaptist tradition

When believers were baptized and taken into membership of the church by Anabaptists, it was not only done
as symbol of cleansing of sin but was also done as a public commitment to identify with Jesus Christ and to conform ones life to the teaching and example of Jesus as
understood by the church. Practically, that meant membership in the church entailed a commitment to try to live
according to norms of Christian behavior widely held by
the Anabaptist tradition.
In the ideal, discipline in the Anabaptist tradition requires
the church to confront a notoriously erring and unrepentant church member, rst directly in a very small circle
and, if no resolution is forthcoming, expanding the circle in steps eventually to include the entire church congregation. If the errant member persists without repentance and rejects even the admonition of the congregation, that person is excommunicated or excluded from
church membership. Exclusion from the church is recognition by the congregation that this person has separated
himself or herself from the church by way of his or her
visible and unrepentant sin. This is done ostensibly as a
nal resort to protect the integrity of the church. When
this occurs, the church is expected to continue to pray for
the excluded member and to seek to restore him or her to
its fellowship. There was originally no inherent expectation to shun (completely sever all ties with) an excluded
member, however dierences regarding this very issue
led to early schisms between dierent Anabaptist leaders
and those who followed them.
1.6.1

Amish

Jakob Ammann, founder of the Amish sect, believed that

the shunning of those under the ban should be systematically practiced among the Swiss Anabaptists as it was
in the north and as was outlined in the Dordrecht Confession. Ammanns uncompromising zeal regarding this
practice was one of the main disputes that led to the
schism between the Anabaptist groups that became the
Amish and those that eventually would be called Mennonite. Recently more moderate Amish groups have become
less strict in their application of excommunication as a
discipline. This has led to splits in several communities,
an example of which is the Swartzetruber Amish who
split from the main body of Old Order Amish because
of the latters practice of lifting the ban from members
who later join other churches. In general, the Amish will
excommunicate baptized members for failure to abide by
their Ordnung (church rules) as it is interpreted by the
local Bishop if certain repeat violations of the Ordnung
occur.
Excommunication among the Old Order Amish results in
shunning or the Meidung, the severity of which depends
on many factors, such as the family, the local community as well as the type of Amish. Some Amish commu-

5
nities cease shunning after one year if the person joins
another church later on, especially if it is another Mennonite church. At the most severe, other members of the
congregation are prohibited almost all contact with an excommunicated member including social and business ties
between the excommunicant and the congregation, sometimes even marital contact between the excommunicant
and spouse remaining in the congregation or family contact between adult children and parents.
1.6.2 Mennonites
In the Mennonite Church excommunication is rare and
is carried out only after many attempts at reconciliation
and on someone who is agrantly and repeatedly violating standards of behavior that the church expects. Occasionally excommunication is also carried against those
who repeatedly question the churchs behavior and/or
who genuinely dier with the churchs theology as well,
although in almost all cases the dissenter will leave the
church before any discipline need be invoked. In either case, the church will attempt reconciliation with the
member in private, rst one on one and then with a few
church leaders. Only if the churchs reconciliation attempts are unsuccessful, the congregation formally revokes church membership. Members of the church generally pray for the excluded member.
Some regional conferences (the Mennonite counterpart
to dioceses of other denominations) of the Mennonite Church have acted to expel member congregations
that have openly welcomed non-celibate homosexuals as
members. This internal conict regarding homosexuality
has also been an issue for other moderate denominations,
such as the American Baptists and Methodists.
The practice among Old Order Mennonite congregations
is more along the lines of Amish, but perhaps less severe typically. An Old Order member who disobeys the
Ordnung (church regulations) must meet with the leaders
of the church. If a church regulation is broken a second
time there is a confession in the church. Those who refuse
to confess are excommunicated. However upon later confession, the church member will be reinstated. An excommunicated member is placed under the ban. This
person is not banned from eating with their own family.
Excommunicated persons can still have business dealings
with church members and can maintain marital relations
with a marriage partner, who remains a church member.
1.6.3 Hutterites
The separatist, communal, and self-contained Hutterites
also use excommunication and shunning as form of
church discipline. Since Hutterites have communal ownership of goods, the eects of excommunication could
impose a hardship upon the excluded member and family leaving them without employment income and mate-

6
rial assets such as a home. However, often arrangements
are made to provide material benets to the family leaving the colony such as an automobile and some transition funds for rent, etc. One Hutterite colony in Manitoba (Canada) had a protracted dispute when leaders attempted to force the departure of a group that had been
excommunicated but would not leave. About a dozen
lawsuits in both Canada and the United States were led
between the various Hutterite factions and colonies concerning excommunication, shunning, the legitimacy of
leadership, communal property rights, and fair division
of communal property when factions have separated.

CHRISTIANITY

disciplinary council.[24] Formerly called a church court,

the councils were renamed to avoid focusing on guilt and
instead to emphasize the availability of repentance.

The decision to excommunicate a Melchizedek priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership
of a stake. In such a disciplinary council, the stake presidency and stake high council attend. The twelve members
of the high council are split in half: one group represents
the member in question and is charged with prevent[ing]
insult or injustice"; the other group represents the church
as a whole. The member under scrutiny is invited to attend the disciplinary proceedings, but the council can go
forward without him. In making a decision, the leaders of
the high council consult with the stake presidency, but the
1.7 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- decision about which discipline is necessary is the stake
day Saints
presidents alone. It is possible to appeal a decision of
a stake disciplinary council to the churchs First Presidency.
Main article: Disciplinary council
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS
Church) practices excommunication as penalty for those
who commit serious sins, i.e., actions that signicantly
impair the name or moral inuence of the church or pose
a threat to other people. According to the church leadership Handbook, the purposes of church discipline are (1)
to save the souls of transgressors, (2) to protect the innocent, and (3) to safeguard the purity, integrity, and good
name of the church.

For females and for male members not initiated into the
Melchizedek priesthood, a ward disciplinary council is
held. In such cases, a bishop determines whether excommunication or a lesser sanction is warranted. He does this
in consultation with his two counselors, with the bishop
making the nal determination after prayer. The decision of a ward disciplinary council can be appealed to the
stake president.

The following list of variables serves as a general set of

guidelines for when excommunication or lesser action
The LDS Church also practices the lesser sanctions of may be warranted, beginning with those more likely to
private counsel and caution, informal probation, formal result in severe sanction:
probation, and disfellowshipment.
Disfellowshipped is used for serious sins that do not rise
to the level of excommunication. Disfellowshipment denies some privileges but does not include a loss of church
membership. Once disfellowshipped, persons may not
take the sacrament or enter church temples, nor may they
oer public prayers or sermons. Disfellowshipped persons may continue to attend most church functions and
are permitted to wear temple garments, pay tithes and offerings, and participate in church classes if their conduct
is orderly. Disfellowshipment typically lasts for one year,
after which one may be reinstated as a member in good
standing.

1. Violation of covenants: Covenants are made in

conjunction with specic ordinances in the LDS
Church. Violated covenants that might result in excommunication are usually those surrounding marriage covenants, temple covenants, and priesthood
covenants.

In the more grievous or recalcitrant cases, excommunication becomes a disciplinary option. Excommunication is
generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious
sins, including committing serious crimes such as murder,
child abuse, and incest; committing adultery; involvement
in or teaching of polygamy; involvement in homosexual
conduct; apostasy; participation in an abortion; teaching
false doctrine; or openly criticizing church leaders. A
2006 revision to the Handbook states that formally joining another church constitutes apostasy and is an excommunicable oense; however, merely attending another
church does not constitute apostasy.

3. Repetition: Repetition of a sin is more serious than

a single instance.

An excommunication can occur only after a formal

2. Position of trust or authority: The persons position

in the church hierarchy factors into the decision. It
is considered more serious when a sin is committed
by an area seventy; a stake, mission, or temple president; a bishop; a patriarch; or a full-time missionary.

4. Magnitude: How often, how many individuals were

impacted, and who is aware of the sin factor into the
decision.
5. Age, maturity, and experience: Those who are
young in age, or immature in their understanding,
are typically aorded leniency.
6. Interests of the innocent: How the discipline will
impact innocent family members may be considered.

1.8

Jehovahs Witnesses

7. Time between transgression and confession: If the brother that is a fornicator or greedy person or an idolsin was committed in the distant past, and there has ater or a reviler or a drunkard or an extortioner, not even
not been repetition, leniency may be considered.
eating with such a man....remove the wicked man from
your midst) and 2 John 10 (never receive him in your
8. Voluntary confession: If a person voluntarily con- home or say a greeting to him). They interpret these
fesses the sin, leniency is suggested.
verses to mean that any baptized believer who engages in
gross sins is to be expelled from the congregation and
9. Evidence of repentance: Sorrow for sin, and demonshunned.
strated commitment to repentance, as well as faith in
Jesus Christ all play a role in determining the sever- When a member confesses to, or is accused of, a serious
sin, a judicial committee of at least three elders is formed.
ity of discipline.
This committee investigates the case and determines the
magnitude of the sin committed. If the person is deemed
Notices of excommunication may be made public, esguilty of a disfellowshipping oense, the committee then
pecially in cases of apostasy, where members could be
decides, on the basis of the persons attitude and works
misled; however, the specic reasons for individual exbetting repentance (Acts 26:20), whether the person
communications are typically kept condential and are
is to be considered repentant. The works may include
seldom made public by church leadership.
trying to correct the wrong, making apologies to any ofThose who are excommunicated lose their church mem- fended individuals, and compliance with earlier counsel.
bership and the right to partake of the sacrament. Such If deemed guilty but repentant, the person is not disfelpersons are usually allowed to attend church meetings but lowshipped but is formally reproved and has restrictions
participation is limited: they cannot oer public prayers imposed, which preclude the individual from various acor preach sermons and cannot enter temples. Excommu- tivities such as presenting talks, oering public prayers or
nicated members are also barred from wearing or pur- making comments at religious meetings. If the person is
chasing temple garments and from paying tithes. Excom- deemed guilty and unrepentant, he or she will be disfelmunicated members may be re-baptized after a waiting lowshipped. Unless an appeal is made within seven days,
period and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of the disfellowshipping is made formal by an announceinterviews with church leaders.[25]
ment at the congregations next Service Meeting. Appeals
Some critics have charged that LDS Church leaders have are granted to determine if procedural errors are felt to
used the threat of excommunication to silence or pun- have occurred that may have aected the outcome.
ish church members and researchers who disagree with
established policy and doctrine, who study or discuss
controversial subjects, or who may be involved in disputes
with local, stake leaders or general authorities; see, e.g.,
Brian Evenson, a former BYU professor and writer whose
ction came under criticism from BYU ocials and LDS
Leadership.[26][27][28] Another notable case of excommunication from the LDS Church was the "September Six,
a group of intellectuals and professors, ve of whom were
excommunicated and the sixth disfellowshipped.

Disfellowshipping is a severing of friendly relationships

between all Jehovahs Witnesses and the disfellowshipped
person. Interaction with extended family is typically restricted to a minimum, such as presence at the reading of
wills and providing essential care for the elderly. Within a
household, typical family contact may continue, but without spiritual fellowship such as family Bible study and
religious discussions. Parents of disfellowshipped minors living in the family home may continue to attempt
to convince the child about the religions teachings. Jehovahs Witnesses believe that this form of discipline encourages the disfellowshipped individual to conform to
biblical standards and prevents the person from inuencing other members of the congregation.[30]

However, church policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for excommunication, without inuence from
church headquarters. The church thus argues that this
policy is evidence against any systematic persecution of
scholars.
Along with breaches of the Witnesses moral code, openly
disagreeing with the teachings Jehovahs Witnesses is
considered grounds for shunning.[30] These persons are
1.8 Jehovahs Witnesses
labeled as apostates,[31] and are described in Watch
Tower Society literature as mentally diseased.[31][32]
Main article: Jehovahs Witnesses and congregational Descriptions of apostates appearing in the Witnesses
discipline
literature have been the subject of investigation in the
UK to determine if they violate religious hatred laws.[33]
Jehovahs Witnesses practice a form of excommunica- Sociologist Andrew Holden claims many Witnesses who
tion, using the term disfellowshipping, in cases where would otherwise defect because of disillusionment with
a member is believed to have unrepentantly committed the organization and its teachings, remain aliated out of
and losing contact with friends and
one or more of several documented serious sins.[29] The fear of being shunned
[34]
Shunning
employs what is known as
family
members.
practice is based on their interpretation of 1 Corinthians
relational
aggression
in
psychological
literature. When
5:11-13 (quit mixing in company with anyone called a

CHRISTIANITY

used by church members and member-spouse parents

against excommunicant parents it contains elements of
what psychologists call parental alienation. Extreme
shunning may cause trauma to the shunned (and to their
dependents) similar to what is studied in the psychology
of torture.[34]
Disassociation is a form of shunning where a member expresses verbally or in writing that they do not wish to
be associated with Jehovahs Witnesses, rather than for
having committed any specic 'sin'.[35] Elders may also
decide that an individual has disassociated, without any
formal statement by the individual, by actions such as
accepting a blood transfusion,[36] or for joining another
religion[37] or military organization.[38] Individuals who
are deemed by the elders to have disassociated are given
no right of appeal.[39][40]
Each year, congregation elders are instructed to consider
meeting with disfellowshipped individuals to determine
changed circumstances and encourage them to pursue
reinstatement.[41] Reinstatement is not automatic after a
certain time period, nor is there a minimum duration; disfellowshipped persons may talk to elders at any time but
must apply in writing to be considered for reinstatement
into the congregation.[42][43] Elders consider each case individually, and are instructed to ensure that sucient
time has passed for the disfellowshipped person to prove
that his profession of repentance is genuine.[44] A judicial committee meets with the individual to determine
their repentance, and if this is established, the person is
reinstated into the congregation and may participate with
the congregation in their formal ministry (such as houseto-house preaching),[45] but is prohibited from commenting at meetings or holding any privileges for a period set
by the judicial committee. If possible, the same judicial
committee members who disfellowshipped the individual
are selected for the reinstatement hearing. If the applicant is in a dierent area, the person will meet with a
local judicial committee that will communicate with either the original judicial committee if available or a new
one in the original congregation.

Isabelo de los Reyes, founder of the Aglipayan Church was excommunicated by Pope Leo XIII in 1903 as a schismatic apostate.

occur for moral reasons, changing beliefs, or (in some ecclesias) for not attending communion (referred to as the
emblems or the breaking of bread).[48]

In such cases, the person involved is usually required to

discuss the issues.[49] If they do not conform, the church
('meeting' or 'ecclesia') is recommended by the management committee (Arranging Brethren) to vote on disfellowshipping the person. These procedures were formulated 1863 onwards by early Christadelphians, and then
in 1883 codied by Robert Roberts in A Guide to the Formation and Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias (colloquially The Ecclesial Guide).[50] However Christadelphians justify and apply their practice not only from this
document but also from passages such as the exclusion in
A Witness who has been formally reproved or reinstated 1Co.5 and recovery in 2Co.2.[51]
cannot be appointed to any special privilege of service
for at least one year. Serious sins involving child sex Christadelphians typically avoid the term excommunicaabuse permanently disqualify the sinner from appoint- tion which many associate with the Catholic Church; and
ment to any congregational privilege of service, regard- may feel the word carries implications they do not agree
less of whether the sinner was convicted of any secular with, such as undue condemnation and punishment, as
well as failing to recognise the remedial intention of the
crime.[46]
measure.[52]
See also: Jehovahs Witnesses and child sex abuse

1.9

Christadelphians

Similarly to many groups having their origins in the 1830s

Restoration Movement,[47] Christadelphians call their
form of excommunication disfellowshipping, though
they do not practice shunning. Disfellowshipping can

Behavioural cases. Many cases regarding moral

issues tend to involve relational matters such as
marriage outside the faith, divorce and remarriage
(which is considered adultery in some circumstances
by some ecclesias), or homosexuality.[53] Reinstatement for moral issues is determined by the ecclesias
assessment of whether the individual has turned
away from (ceased) the course of action consid-

9
ered immoral by the church. This can be complex
when dealing with cases of divorce and subsequent
remarriage, with dierent positions adopted by different ecclesias, but generally within the main Central grouping, such cases can be accommodated.[54]
Some minority fellowships do not accommodate
this under any circumstances.
Doctrinal cases. Changes of belief on what Christadelphians call rst principle doctrines are dicult to accommodate unless the individual agrees to
not teach or spread them, since the body has a documented Statement of Faith which informally serves
as a basis of ecclesial membership and interecclesial
fellowship. Those who are disfellowshipped for reasons of diering belief rarely return, because they
are expected to conform to an understanding with
which they do not agree. Holding diering beliefs
on fundamental matters is considered as error and
apostasy, which can limit a persons salvation. However in practice disfellowship for doctrinal reasons is
now unusual.[55]

convince their coreligionists of the evils of slavery were

read out of meeting. Benjamin Lay was read out of
the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting for this.[59] During the
American Revolution over 400 Friends were read out of
meeting for their military participation or support.[60]

2 Buddhism
There is no direct equivalent to excommunication in
Buddhism. However, in the Theravadan monastic community monks can be expelled from monasteries for
heresy and/or other acts. In addition, the monks have four
vows, called the four defeats, which are abstaining from
sexual intercourse, stealing, murder, and refraining from
lying about spiritual gains (e.g., having special power or
ability to perform miracles). If even one is broken, the
monk is automatically a layman again and can never become a monk in his or her current life.

Most Japanese Buddhist sects hold ecclesiastical authority over its followers and have their own rules for expelling members of the sangha, lay or bishopric. The
In the case of adultery and divorce, the passage of time lay Japanese Buddhist organization Ska Gakkai was exusually means a member can be restored if he or she wants pelled from the Nichiren Shoshu sect in 1991 (1997).
to be. In the case of ongoing behaviour, cohabitation, homosexual activity, then the terms of the suspension have
not been met.
3 Hinduism
The mechanics of refellowship follow the reverse of the
original process; the individual makes an application to
the ecclesia, and the Arranging Brethren give a recommendation to the members who vote.[56] If the Arranging Brethren judge that a vote may divide the ecclesia, or personally upset some members, they may seek
to nd a third party ecclesia which is willing to refellowship the member instead. According to the Ecclesial
Guide a third party ecclesia may also take the initiative
to refellowship another meetings member. However
this cannot be done unilaterally, as this would constitute
heteronomy over the autonomy of the original ecclesias
members.[57]

1.10 Society of Friends (Quakers)

Among many of the Society of Friends groups (Quakers)
one is read out of meeting for behaviour inconsistent with
the sense of the meeting.[58] However it is the responsibility of each meeting, quarterly meeting, and yearly
meeting, to act with respect to their own members. For
example, during the Vietnam War many Friends were
concerned about Friend Richard Nixon's position on war
which seemed at odds with their beliefs; however, it was
the responsibility of Nixons own meeting, the East Whittier Meeting of Whittier, California, to act if indeed that
meeting felt the leaning.[59] They did not.[60]

Hinduism has been too diverse to be seen as a monolithic religion, and with a conspicuous absence of any
listed dogma or ecclesia (organised church), has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be
ousted from the Hindu religion, although a person may
easily lose caste status for a very wide variety of infringements of caste prohibitions. This may or may not be recoverable. However, some of the modern organized sects
within Hinduism may practice something equivalent to
excommunication today, by ousting a person from their
own sect.
In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even
now) in South Asia, excommunication from ones caste
(jati or varna) used to be practiced (by the caste-councils)
and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the persons caste status and even throwing him
into the sphere of the untouchables or bhangi. In the
19th century, a Hindu faced excommunication for going
abroad, since it was presumed he would be forced to break
caste restrictions and, as a result, become polluted.[61]

After excommunication, it would depend upon the castecouncil whether they would accept any form of repentance (ritual or otherwise) or not. Such current examples
of excommunication in Hinduism are often more political
or social rather than religious, for example the excommunication of lower castes for refusing to work as scavengers
[62]
In the 17th century, before the founding of abolitionist in Tamil Nadu.
societies, Avant-garde Friends who too forcefully tried to An earlier example of excommunication in Hinduism

10

7 NOTES

is that of Shastri Yagnapurushdas, who voluntarily left

and was later expelled from the Vadtal Gadi of the
Swaminarayan Sampraday by the then Vadtal acharya in
1906. He went on to form his own institution, Bochasanwasi Swaminarayan Sanstha or BSS (now BAPS) claiming Gunatitanand Swami was the rightful spiritual successor to Swaminarayan.[63][64]

6 See also
Excommunication of actors by the Catholic Church
Banishment in the Bible
Disconnection
Interdict

Islam

Main article: Takr

Excommunication as it exists in Christian faiths does not
exist in Islam. The nearest approximation is takr, a declaration that an individual or group is kar (or kuar in
plural), a non-believer. This does not prevent an individual from taking part in any Islamic rite or ritual, and since
the matter of whether a person is kar is a rather subjective matter, a declaration of takr is generally considered
null and void if the target refutes it or if the Islamic community in which he or she lives refuses to accept it.
Takr has usually been practiced through the courts.
More recently, cases have taken place where individuals
have been considered kuar. These decisions followed
lawsuits against individuals, mainly in response to their
writings that some have viewed as anti-Islamic. The most
famous cases are of Salman Rushdie, Nasr Abu Zayd,
and Nawal El-Saadawi. The repercussions of such cases
have included divorce, since under traditional interpretations of Islamic law, Muslim women are not permitted to
marry non-Muslim men.
However, takr remains a highly contentious issue in Islam, primarily because there is no universally accepted
authority in Islamic law. Indeed, according to classical commentators, the reverse seems to hold true, in
that Muhammad reportedly equated the act of declaring
someone a kar itself to blasphemy if the accused individual maintained that he was a Muslim.

Judaism

Main article: Herem (censure)

7 Notes
[1] Campbell, Francis (2013-07-12). Father Alexander
Lucie-Smith, Getting excommunicated is much harder
than you think in ''Catholic Herald'' (12 July 2013)".
Catholicherald.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-07-29.
[2] Code of Canon Law, canon 1312. Vatican.va. Retrieved 2012-04-03.
[3] Karl Rahner (editor), Encyclopedia of Theology (A&C
Black 1975 ISBN 978-0-86012006-3), p. 413
[4] Edward Peters, Excommunication and the Catholic Church
(Ascension Press 2014)
[5] Code of Canon Law, canon 1314. Vatican.va. Retrieved 2012-04-03.
[6] 1917 Code of Canon Law, canon 2257 1. Intratext.com. 2007-05-04. Retrieved 2014-07-29.
[7] 1<983 Code of Canon Law, canon 1331 1. Vatican.va.
Retrieved 2014-07-29.
[8] Even those who have joined another religion, have become atheists or agnostics, or have been excommunicated
remain Catholics. Excommunicates lose rights, such as
the right to the sacraments, but they are still bound to the
obligations of the law; their rights are restored when they
are reconciled through the remission of the penalty. New
Commentary on the Code of Canon Law, ed. by John P.
Beal, James A. Coriden, Thomas J. Green, Paulist Press,
2000, p. 63 (commentary on canon 11).
[9] Code of Canon Law, canon 1331 1. Vatican.va. Retrieved 2012-04-03.
[10] Edward McNamara, Denying Communion to Someone"". Zenit.org. 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2013-02-02.
[11] 1983 Code of Canon Law, canon 915. Intratext.com.
2007-05-04. Retrieved 2013-02-02.
[12] Code of Canon Law, canon 1331 2. Vatican.va. Re-

Cherem is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism.

trieved 2012-04-03.
It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Except for cases in the Charedi community, [13] John Hardon, ''Modern Catholic Dictionary'' Absolution
from censure"". Catholicreference.net. Retrieved 2012cherem stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when
04-03.
local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy,
and Jews were integrated into the gentile nations in which
[14] Code of Canon Law, canon 1332. Vatican.va. Rethey lived. A siruv order, equivalent to a contempt of
trieved 2012-04-03.
court, issued by a Rabbinical court may also limit religious participation.
[15] Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, canon 1431

11

[16] Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, canon 1434

[17] NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils - Christian
Classics Ethereal Library. Ccel.org. 2005-06-01. Retrieved 2014-07-29.
[18] Risen Savior Lutheran Church, Orlando, FL Constitution. Lutheransonline.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03.
[19] http://www.dakotavoice.com/200508/20050816_5.asp
[20] Canon B 38 (PDF). Retrieved 2012-04-03.
[21] Westminster Confession of Faith, xxx.4.

[37] Questions From Readers. The Watchtower: 31. October 15, 1986. the person no longer wants to have anything to do with Jehovahs people and is determined to
remain in a false religion? They would then simply announce to the congregation that such one has disassociated
himself and thus is no longer one of Jehovahs Witnesses.
[38] The Watchtower: 31 title=Questions From Readers. January 15, 1982. The second situation involves a person
who renounces his standing in the congregation by joining a secular organization whose purpose is contrary to
counsel such as that found at Isaiah 2:4, neither will
they learn war anymore. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[22] John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, IV.12.10.

[23] Jay E. Adams, Handbook of Church Discipline (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 74.
[24] The procedure followed by a church disciplinary council
is described in church handbooks and the Doctrine and
Covenants 102:9-18
[25] Burton, Theodore M. (May 1983). To Forgive is Divine.
Ensign: 70.
[26] "BYU Professor Under Fire for Violent Book", Sunstone,
August 1995.
[27] Evenson wrote: I had a strong defense for my position [in
writing ction], but as I met with administrators, including
[BYU] President Rex Lee and Provost (now General Authority) Bruce Hafen, it became clear that they weren't interested in hearing why I was writing; they were interested
in getting me to stop writing. Evenson, Brian. "When Religion Encourages Abuse: Writing Father of Lies. First
published in The Event, 8 October 1998, p. 5., accessed
15 November 2012
[28] "Report: Academic Freedom and Tenure: Brigham
Young University", Academe, SeptemberOctober 1997
[29] Discipline That Can Yield Peaceable Fruit. The Watchtower (Watch Tower Society): 26. 15 April 1988.
[30] Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped. Our Kingdom Ministry: 34. August 2002.
[31] The Watchtower: 2125. January 15, 2006. Missing or
empty |title= (help)
[32] The Watchtower, 7/11
[33] Hart, Benjamin (28 September 2011). Jehovahs Witness Magazine Brands Defectors 'Mentally Diseased'".
Hungton Post.
[34] Pratt, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1:192.
[35] Questions From Readers. The Watchtower: 31. January
15, 1982. It would be best if he did this in a brief letter to
the elders, but even if he unequivocally states orally that
he is renouncing his standing as a Witness, the elders can
deal with the matter.
[36] Jehovahs Witnesses drop transfusion ban. transfusions
have been relegated to 'non-disfellowshipping events ...
If a member has a transfusion, they will, by their actions
disassociate themselves from the religion.

[39] Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped. Our Kingdom Ministry: 3. August 2002.
[40] Discipline That Can Yield Peaceable Fruit. The Watchtower: 27. April 15, 1988.
[41] A Step on the Way Back. The Watchtower: 31. August
15, 1992.
[42] Always Accept Jehovahs Discipline. The Watchtower:
2728. November 15, 2006.
[43] Imitate Gods Mercy Today. The Watchtower: 21. April
15, 1991.
[44] Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock. Watch
Tower Society. p. 129.
[45] Question Box. Our Kingdom Ministry (Watch Tower
Society). December 1974.
[46] Let Us Abhor What Is Wicked. The Watchtower: 29.
January 1, 1997. For the protection of our children, a
man known to have been a child molester does not qualify
for a responsible position in the congregation.
[47] In fact, the earliest use of the term in their literature refers
to the disfellowship of their founder, John Thomas, by
Alexander Campbell: The Christadelphian 10:103 (January 1873). 32.
[48] A distinction can be detected between these three reasons
in that which of the three applies is usually made clear
in the notice which the ecclesia will post in the Ecclesial
News section of The Christadelphian. This is since one
purpose is to make other ecclesias aware lest the member try to circumvent the suspension by simply going to
another ecclesia. See Christadelphians, fellowship in
Bryan R. Wilson, Sects and Society, University of California, 1961
[49] The expected practice is to discuss rst with 2 or 3 witnesses, as per Matt.18:15-20. See Wilson, op.cit.
[50] Roberts, Robert (1883). A Guide to the Formation and
Conduct of Christadelphian Ecclesias. Birmingham.
[51] See discussion of 1Co.5 in Ashton, M. The challenge of
Corinthians, Birmingham, 2006; previously serialised in
The Christadelphian 2002-2003

12

[52] The term withdraw from is frequently found as a synonym for disfellowship in older Christadelphian ecclesial news entries, but this usage is less common today since
it is now more widely realised that the term withdraw
from in 2Th.3:6, 1Tim.6:5 is not describing the full turn
over to Satan 1Co5:5,1Tim.1:20. See Booker G. 1 & 2
Thessalonians, Nicholls A.H.Letters to Timothy and Titus,
Birmingham
[53] Generally Christadelphians do not consider remarriage as
adultery, but adultery is often at the root of a marriage
breakup. See Reections on Marriage and Divorce, The
Christadelphian, Birmingham.
[54] Carter, J. Marriage and Divorce, CMPA Birmingham
1955
[55] e.g. News from the Ecclesias, in The Christadelphian, in a
typical year (Jan.-Dec. 2006) contained only two suspensions for doctrinal reasons in the UK, both indicating that
the member had already left of his/her own choice.
[56] Christadelphians interpret the epitimia of the majority
2Co.2:6 in dierent ways; some consider it the majority of
all members, some the majority of elders. See Whittaker
H.A., Second Corinthians, Biblia
[57] An exception noted in Roberts Ecclesial Guide is where
the original meeting is known for having a position out of
step with other ecclesias. In practice however such cases
are extremely unusual and the attempt to refellowship another ecclesias member when the original ecclesia considers that they have not mended their ways may cause
an interecclesial breach. The original ecclesia may notify
the Christadelphian Magazine that the third party ecclesia
is interfering in their own discipline of their own member, and news of refellowship will be blocked from News
From the Ecclesias, and consequently the community as
a whole will not recognise the refellowship. See Booker,
G. Biblical Fellowship Biblia, Perry, A. Fellowship Matters
Willow Books.
[58] Free Quaker Meeting House. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Independence Hall Association.
[59] Blood-Paterson, Peter (1998). Holy Obedience: Corporate Discipline and Individual Leading. New York
Yearly Meeting.
[60] Mayer, Milton Sanford (1975). The Nature of the Beast.
University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 310315. ISBN
978-0-87023-176-6.
[61] Outcaste, Encyclopdia Britannica
[62] Imprisoned for life, The Hindu (Chennai, India), 9 January 2011
[63] The camphor ame: popular Hinduism and society in India. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 2004. p.
172. ISBN 0-691-12048-X.
[64] Raymond Brady Williams (2001). Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-65422-X. Retrieved 26 March 2011. Page 54

EXTERNAL LINKS

8 References
Encyclopedia of American Religions, by J. Gordon
Melton ISBN 0-8103-6904-4
Ludlow, Daniel H. ed, Encyclopedia of Mormonism,
Macmillan Publishing, 1992.
Esau, Alvin J., The Courts and the Colonies: The
Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes, Univ of
British Columbia Press, 2004.
Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, Ostracism:
A Social and Biological Phenomenon, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights,
Gruter Institute, 1984.
Beck, Martha N., Leaving the Saints: How I Lost the
Mormons and Found My Faith, Crown, 2005.
Stammer, Larry B., Mormon Author Says Hes
Facing Excommunication, Los Angeles Times, Los
Angeles, CA.: 9 December 2004. pg. A.34.
D'anna, Lynnette, Post-Mennonite Women Congregate to Address Abuse, Herizons, 3/1/93.
Anonymous, Atlanta Mennonite congregation penalized over gays, The Atlanta Journal the Atlanta
Constitution, Atlanta, GA: 2 January 1999. pg.
F.01.
Garrett, Ottie, Garrett Irene, True Stories of the XAmish: Banned, Excommunicated, Shunned, Horse
Cave KY: Nue Leben, Inc., 1998.
Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, Crossing Over: One
Womans Escape from Amish Life, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003.
Hostetler, John A. (1993), Amish Society, The Johns
Hopkins University Pres: Baltimore.
MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities
in America 1683-1790, Herald Press: Kitchener &
Scottdale.
Scott, Stephen (1996), An Introduction to Old Order
and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books:
Intercourse, Pennsylvania.
Juhnke, James, Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890
1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3),
Scottdale, PA, Herald Press, Pp 393, 1989.

9 External links
Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and
Avoidance (from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online)

13
Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights
(Amish)
Catholic Encyclopaedia on excommunication
The two sides of excommunication
Episcopal Church of America excommunication
Jehovahs Witnesses press release regarding expulsion of child molesters

14

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Excommunication Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication?oldid=648316511 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Wesley, Zundark, RK, Amillar, Zunbot, Roadrunner, Montrealais, Modemac, Someone else, Rickyrab, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot, Michael Hardy, Pit,
IZAK, Reboot, Whkoh, Andres, Kaihsu, Evercat, Efghij, JASpencer, IKWOWE, Smith03, Visorstu, Tedius Zanarukando, DJ Clayworth, Dogface, Paul-L, Gaidheal, Lord Emsworth, Pakaran, JorgeGG, Modulatum, Sam Spade, COGDEN, Kesuari, Blainster, LGagnon,
Wereon, Naelphin, Andries, Tom harrison, Aphaia, Herbee, Marcika, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Jgritz, Iceberg3k, Pne, Sesel, Gugganij, Quadell, Antandrus, Jesster79, Mozzerati, Jeremykemp, El-Ahrairah, Gary D, Joyous!, Fermion, Didactohedron, Mennonot, Flex,
Mormegil, Pmadrid, Metron, Mjuarez, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Ebelular, Qutezuce, Cnyborg, Freestylefrappe, Ivan
Bajlo, Cyclopia, Sunborn, Hayabusa future, Summer Song, Lima, Bookofjude, Perfecto, Bobo192, Robotje, Rbj, Adrian, Netparrot,
Moogle, C Hanna, HasharBot, DannyMuse, ADM, Storm Rider, Supine, Cjthellama, Lee S. Svoboda, Wtmitchell, Evil Monkey, RJFJR,
DodgerOfZion, Scott Gall, Alai, Dr Gangrene, Sesmith, John Hamer, Pol098, Je3000, Trdel, Schzmo, Essjay, Lawrence King, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Kyle.Mullaney, SchuminWeb, Margosbot, Throbert McGee, Gurch, RasputinAXP, AxelDC, Konrad West, Diamantina, Colenso, DaGizza, Bgwhite, ColdRedRain, Mike5904, YurikBot, Huw Powell, RussBot, Hede2000, Pvasiliadis,
Foxxygirltamara, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Cunado19, Ergzay, SEWilcoBot, Pterodactyler, Joel7687, Taco325i, Irishguy, Jpbowen, PhilipC,
Lockesdonkey, Bota47, KateH, Perspicacious, Deville, Lt-wiki-bot, E Wing, Reyk, Orthografer, Paul D. Anderson, Paul Pieniezny, Tom
Morris, Attilios, RupertMillard, SmackBot, Stettlerj, Gregory j, DominusTecum, Betacommand, Skizzik, ERcheck, Jero77, Woofboy,
Sam steiner, Darth Panda, Mladilozof, Innitelink, Racklever, JonHarder, Simonmatt1100, Midnightcomm, Mistico, Ipernar, Makemi,
Clamzo, Discomver, Bejnar, Kukini, TenPoundHammer, William conway bcc, SashatoBot, Wildtornado, Mouse Nightshirt, Valfontis,
J. Finkelstein, BBtokpsoiWo, LebanonChild, Anacapa, EdK, Sxeptomaniac, Dl2000, Levineps, Joseph Solis in Australia, Skapur, Johanneum, Jbolden1517, Briancua, Thepreacher, CmdrObot, Dycedarg, Dynzmoar, Neelix, Cydebot, Smintsaredelicious, SyntaxError55,
Palmleaf, Michael C Price, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, AroundTheGlobe, Optimist on the run, Cykotik freek, Lo2u, Mamalujo, Thijs!bot,
Chrisandlisad, Anon166, Smee, Merkurix, EdJohnston, Escarbot, HarvardOxon, Lostcaesar, Masamage, ARTEST4ECHO, BenC7, JAnDbot, Husond, Davewho2, Downstrike, Bakasuprman, Adjwilley, .anacondabot, Je Dahl, Lucyin, Cat Whisperer, Kutu su, WhatamIdoing, Cgingold, Lridol, JoergenB, BYF, R'n'B, J.delanoy, 72Dino, Javawizard, Dkendr, Johnbod, Maninthebox777, Lizzie Harrison,
Tsuzuki26, Robertgreer, Cluten, Parneix, RJASE1, 28bytes, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Brotherlawrence, Dandoering, TXiKiBoT, ANB,
Room429, Rpdant767, Cuddlyable3, StAnselm, Jauerback, Winchelsea, Tamartim, Tefalstar, Ptolemy Caesarion, Gregory.j.decker, Lightmouse, Sanya3, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Anchor Link Bot, UB65, Pinkadelica, Benkenobi18, Mr. Granger,
ClueBot, 47of74, Marino-slo, EoGuy, Erfmufn, Kathleen.wright5, A B Pepper, Mike0001, Wikitumnus, Lessthanideal, Elizium23, Europe22, Biblioq, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Richard-of-Earth, Mahmudss, NellieBly, Good Olfactory, Jafeluv, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek
Jaczuk, Peaceful5, AndersBot, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mcdennis13, BlueSalo, Farsight001, AnomieBOT,
Mugginsx, Acts17:6, Obersachsebot, 613kpiggy, AuthorityTam, Wogiftm, Neil Clancy, Eugene-elgato, Tktru, FrescoBot, Ionutzmovie,
Doremo, Citation bot 1, Scarfac3, Pinethicket, Enesmelihp, Slb1900, MastiBot, Bugsguy, Surfeit of palfreys, TobeBot, DixonDBot,
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10.2

Images

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