ETM 584 ERGONOMICS IN MANAGEMENT

Dr. Mahmut Ekiolu

Lecture 5

Copyright Mahmut Ekiolu

ETM 584/BU/Ekiolu

CH 4 - MANUAL WORK DESIGN

Part 2. Principles of Energy Economy
(Conservation of Energy)

Copyright Mahmut Ekiolu

ETM 584/BU/Ekiolu

Ergonomics is an multidisciplinary applied science and engineering..

Management
Economics
Industrial Law

Psychology
Sociology

Engineering

Biomechanics
Physiology
Medicine

Ergonomics & HF Engineering

Microergonomics
Principles for the technical
design of
work
machines/equipment/tools
workplaces

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Macroergonomics
Principles for the design of
organization
production
working groups

Anthropometry

Energy Expenditure Estimation of a Job

Overview

Energy is described as capacity or ability to perform work.

Types of energy we are interested in are:
Mechanical
Potential
Kinetic
Chemical (a source of potential energy)
Chemical energy released due to chemical reactions is used by skeletal
muscles in performing mechanical work.
Mechanical work or energy: Work is done or energy is consumed when
a force is applied over a distance: W = F x d
1 N acting over a distance of 1m requires 1 Joule of energy or does 1 Joule of
work.

Power: P = W/t (work per unit time); 1hp =736 Watt (W); 1 W = 1 J/s

Calorie: the most common unit of measure of energy. It is the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1 0C (at sea level).

1 kcal =1000 cal = 1 Cal =4.1868 kJ

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Muscle Metabolism

Energy is required for a muscle to contract.

Energy for muscle action is provided by the foods we eat and digest,
primarily the carbohydrates and fats.

Carbohydrates are converted into glucose (or glycogen). This

occurs primarily in the liver.

In the muscle , glucose is broken down to liberate energy for use in

contracting muscle

Energy is stored in molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

ATP breaks down into adenosine diphospahate (ADP) plus a

phosphate radical and, in so doing, releases the energy for the cell
to use.

ATP and CP (creatine phosphate) are the sources of immediate

energy

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Energy sources

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Energy sources
ATP
CP

several seconds
< 1 minute

Modes of metabolism of basic foods:

Anaerobic
requires no O2
inefficient but quicker
produces lactic acid
Aerobic
requires O2
efficient but slower
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Basal Metabolism

Metabolism is the chemical process by which foodstuffs are

converted into heat or mechanical energy.
The body requires a certain amount of energy just to stay alive
even if no physical work is being performed, that is, lying down
without moving a muscle.
The amount of energy needed per unit of time to sustain life is
called the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
BMR (Grandjean, 1988):
for a 70-kg male: 1.2 kcal/min;
for a 60-kg female: 1 kcal/min

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Expected Resting Physiological Values

Heart Rate: Normal 70 to 80 beats per minute (bpm)

Oxygen consumption: Typical resting 0.2 to 0.3
liters per minute (L/min)
Blood pressure: normal 120/80 mmHg
(systolic/diastolic)

Body (core) temperature: Normal 37 oC (98.6 oF )

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Factors Affecting Energy Expenditure

Work Methods
Work Posture
Work Rate
Tool Design
Environmental Factors

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Decrease in work capacity due to poor

posture
po

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Different Posture - Different Energy Consumption

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Forced working posture due to the poor design

of machine

Design of machines may force operators

to work in awkward postures which can lead
to physical disabilities.

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CASHIER

1 Nm/s = 1 watt
3.6 ton/hr
29 ton/8 hr

Task is
Acceptable

Energy expenditure of a cashier during the package transfer task from one cart to another
(due to the packages only).

Now task
becomes
unacceptable
When the worker has to reach the bottom of the cart, he/she expends significant power due to
the h distance moved by upper body.
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Same work - different energy expenditure

Energy expenditure as a function of symmetrical vs.

asymmetrical load carriage

O2 Expenditure

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Same work - different energy expenditure

Energy expenditure vs. work method

Energy expenditure of a worker (with 70 kg body weight)

carrying a 50 kg-load up one time or at 5 times.
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Same work different energy expenditure

Energy expenditure vs. work method/design of

equipment
Load carrying with
two different buckets

Carrying a 50 kg-load with

two different methods

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HR and Energy Expenditure

vs. Work Conditions

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Tool Design, Productivity and Energy Consumption

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Tool Design, Productivity and Energy Consumption

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Grocery packing task

Performance and energy consumption as a function of

arm posture (Tichauer, 1968)

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Methods to estimate energy requirement of a job

VO2 measurement
Heart rate (HR)
Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
Job energy expenditure tables

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Oxygen measurement method

Measuring the amount of O2 consumed by the worker.

1.

2.

Assumption: most of the energy is produced through aerobic

metabolism.

Measure the volume of inspired air by flow meter (contains 21 %

of O2 in normal conditions)
Measure the % of O2 expired by oxygen meter

Given: 1 liter of O2 produces 4.9 kcal

Energy expenditure, E, is calculated as:

E(kcal/min) = 4.9 V (IO2 - EO2)

V = Volume of air inspired (liters/min) = Volume of air expired
IO2 = Fraction of O2 in inspired air (=.21 in normal conditions)
EO2 = Fraction of O2 in expired air
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Metabolic Measurement System. This system allows

us to determine the energy cost (expenditure) of the
tasks and other physical activities

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Maximum Energy Expenditure=

Physical Work Capacity (PWC) =
Maximum Aerobic Power =
Maximum Aerobic Capacity = VO2max

PWC is the maximal ability to supply oxygen to the working muscles

during physical activity.
That is PWC is the maximal O2 consumption (VO2max).
VO2max: it is a measure of the maximal amount of O2 that can be
used by a person during exhaustive exercise.
Two methods to measure: maximal and submaximal

Maximal: The subject performs the exercise under a specific protocol

until he or she reaches exhaustion. While the subject is exercising,
expired gases are monitored with a gas analysis system. VO2max is
achieved when the work rate is increased, but the O2 consumption
(VO2max) does not increase or has reached a plateau.
It carries some risk and should only be performed under the supervision
of a physician or other qualified clinician.

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Submaximal Method

Submaximal estimates of VO2max are based on the linear

relationship among heart rate and VO2. With such
knowledge PWC can be estimated by extrapolating a submaximal O2 consumption to a level expected at the HRmax.

Submaximal: Submaximal techniques place only a

moderate amount of stress upon the cardio-pulmonary
system. Therefore, it is safe to perform by healthy
individuals and preferred by ergonomists.

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Estimated HRmax
True HRmax varies for each person; however, it can be
reasonably estimated by:
HRmax = 205 - (Age/2) (Males)
= 220 Age (Females)
Note: both age variables are in years.

Source: Hellerstein, et. Al (1973)

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Determining PWC by Submaximal Method

Methods:
Estimate HRmax and determine three submaximal workloads (e.g.,
35%, 50%, 65% of HR range)

HRrange = HRmax- HRrest

Perform the exercise task for three minute workload durations and
record HR and VO2 every 30 seconds.

Results: Calculate average HR and VO2 for steady state

workloads.

Estimate PWC by extrapolation using the regression

approach
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Workload Determination

% Target HR (bpm) = % HRrange+ HRrest

Workload levels:

WL1: 35% Target HR = .35* HRrange+ HRrest

WL2: 50% Target HR = .50* HRrange+ HRrest
WL3: 65% Target HR = .65* HRrange+ HRrest

Required conditions:

WL1: HR > 90 bpm

WL2: HR > 0.5 HRmax
WL3: HR > 0.65 HRmax
And the HR difference between workloads must be greater than
10 bpm

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Graphical illustration of VO2 and HR as functions

of workloads
VO2

HR

WL3

C
WL2

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F
WL2

WL1

T1

WL3

T2

T3 Time

WL1

T1

T2

T3 Time
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Graphical Estimation of PWC

VO2
PWC

(F, C)

x (E, B)
x (D, A)
Max HR
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HR
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Mathematical Estimation of PWC:

Linear regression model

y
b1

b0

x
1
n xi yi

xi

n xi 2 (

yi
0

yi

xi )2
1

xi

where:
y = volume of oxygen uptake (VO2)
x = heart rate
i = 1 ...n; n = number of workloads
x = estimated HRmax

PWCabs

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(in absolute unitsnot normalized for body composition)

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Mathematical Estimation of PWC (contd)

PWC BW

PWC LBW

PWC abs * 1000

Weight ( Kg )

PWC abs * 1000

LBW ( Kg )

where: LBW = (1 - % body fat)*BW or BW-(%body fat*BW)

For example: For 12% body fat: LBW=(1-0.12)*BW=0.88*BW

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Endurance Time (ET) and PWC

ET: Time duration that individuals are able to sustain

physical work until they are forced to give up due to
fatigue.
If a person works at 1/3 of his/her PWC, the person
can work for 8 hrs (480 min); at his/her PWC level,
he/she can work for only 4 minutes before fatigue.
ET follows an exponential function between the
durations of 480 min and 4 min.
ET can be found using semi-logarithmic paper, or
numerically.

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Graphical Estimation of ET
y

X PWC

Energy Cost L/min or Kcal/min

Setting
x=log10x

1/3 PWC

X
4

PWC

Energy Cost

Time (min)

480

Energy cost
of task

1/3 PWC
0

100

0.602

101

ET

102

2.68

480

log x
x

Time
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Mathematical Estimation of ET
Time x (min)
Energy cost y (l/min)

480

PWC

1/3 PWC

y = m logx + c
m = (y2-y1) / (logx2-logx1)
c = y - m logx

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Average maximum energy expenditure

capacity (PWC) of US males and females

Male: 16 kcal/min
Female: 12 kcal/min

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Acceptable energy expenditure levels

for 8-hr workday
Male: 1/3 (16) = 5.33 kcal/min
Female: 1/3 (12) = 4 kcal /min

Over the limiting level lactic acid builds up

and fatigue results

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Heart Rate Guidelines

Since the heart pumps the blood carrying oxygen to the
working muscles, the higher the required energy
expenditure, the higher the corresponding heart rate.
70 beats/min = typical resting heart rate
Acceptable increase in HR:
HR = HR work avg. HR rest

40 beats/min

Heart rate is related to energy expenditure. An increase

of 10 beats/min = 1.0 kcal/min energy increase, thus 5.33
kcal/min workload produces a 40 beat/min increase in
heart rate.
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Linear increase in HR with physical workload, as

measured by energy expenditure

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Energy expenditure (KJ/min)

Scheme of energy liberation, energy

expenditure, and heart rate during work
Recovery

Adjustment

(payback)

O2 dept > O2 deficit

Start of work

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End of work

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HR vs. Static Effort

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HR for two different work rates

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How do we measure HR increase on a job?

(Brouhas Guideline, 1967)

The average HR is measured in two time periods during
recovery after the cessation of the work:

At 0.5 - 1 minute after the work period, and

At 2.5 - 3 minutes after the work period.

An acceptable heart rate recovery occurs if

the first reading does not exceed 110 beats/min, and
the difference between the two readings is

20 beats.

It is very important to observe the heart rate several times during

the work day. As the day goes on, the recovery period will be
longer due to fatigue.

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Classification of Physical Work

WORKLOAD
Very low (resting)
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Extremely high (sport)

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O2 CONSUMPTION HEART RATE

(L/min)
(bpm)
0.25 0.3
0.5 1.0
1.0 1.5
1.5 - 2.0
2.0 2.5
2.5 4.0

60 70
75 - 100
100 - 125
125 - 150
150 - 175
over 175

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Subjective Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Borg RPE Scale (1998)

Rating

Verbal Anchor

6 ...
7 ...
8 ...
9 ...
10
11 ..
12
13 .
14
15 .
16
17 ..
18
19 ..
20 ..

No exertion at all

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Extremely light
Very light
Light
Somewhat hard
Hard (heavy)
Very hard
Extremely hard
Maximal exertion
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Examples of energy costs of various types

of human activity (kcal/min)

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Work - Rest Cycles

Rest times are needed to help prevent the accumulation of

excessive fatigue during a work cycle.
The more intense a work period, the longer the rest period
needed to recover from it.
People work more efficiently if high percentages of their work
capacity are not routinely required on the job.

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Rest Allocation
If the job requires the worker to expend energy higher than
the recommended limits, then allowances are necessary.
One guideline by Murrell (1965):
R = (W - 5.33) / (W - 1.33)

Where:
R = time required for rest as a percent of total time
W = average energy expenditure during work (kcal/min)
1.33 = energy expended during rest

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Energy Economy Guidelines

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Warm-up and start heavy work slowly

Hold the load closer to the center of gravity of body
Keep the load symmetrical and balanced
Maintain supported and neutral postures
Apply as minimum force as possible
Provide short (0.5 - 1 min) but frequent
rest periods as well as micropauses (1 - 3 sec)
7. Keep the workpace and duration within the limit of
workforce. If feasible, prefer self-paced work
instead of machine-paced work.
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