1.

Acquisition/Learning
Adquisicin: de una lengua distinta a la L1 en un entorno natural. Por ejemplo, adquirir japons en
Japn o alemn en Alemania. Puede no llevarse a cabo en un aula (no restriccion).
Aprendizaje: de una L distinta a la L1 en un entorno donde no se hable esa lengua. Ms relacionada
con el aprendizaje en un aula con una profesora. Ejemplo: aprender alemn en Espaa.
2. European multilingual policies
Polticas sobre lenguas en Europa
Recomendaciones generales sobre la educacin y el aprendizaje: garantizar la formula 2+1.
(facilitar la movilidad estudiantil) y lograr que el dominio de ms de una lengua no quede relegado
a las lites.
Desde la reforma > enseanza de una L2 en secundaria. Inicio de aprendizaje de L2 en edades ms
tempranas: 8, 6 y 4 (resultados no favorables debido a: misma cantidad de hs distribuidas en + aos)
3. Input
Caudal lingstico o aducto
Muestras de lengua meta, escritas u orales, que recibe el "alumno" en el proceso de aprendizaje.
A partir de un estudio de Corder se realiza la diferenciacin entre Input e intake: El primero es toda
muestra de lengua meta a la que est expuesta la persona y el segundo es la parte del input que el
hablante interioriza de alguna manera, la que comprende y es capaz de guardar en su memoria a
corto plazo. Parte de esos datos en la memoria a corto plazo son susceptibles a pasar a la memoria a
largo plazo.
Ferguson en un estudio sobre la simplicidad del lenguaje, remarca que el habla dirigida a nios y a
hablantes no nativos > cambios en aspectos gramaticales, lxicos, fonolgicos e incluso discursivos
y comunicacionales.
Krashen defini el concepto de input comprensible en su hiptesis: esta hiptesis dice que el
hablante aprender solo cuando el input contenga elementos o estructuras ligeramente superiores a
su nivel de competencia gramatical. Las muestras de lengua que solo contengan estructuras que el
hablante domina, no lo llevarn a aprender. As como, muestras que contengan estructuras mucho
ms complicadas que el nivel que domine el hablante, tampoco servirn. La hiptesis se resume a la
formula i+1, donde i es el input comprensible y +1 hace referencia a esas estructuras de nivel
superior.

4. Output
Salida de datos o educto
Es la realizacin de lo que el hablante produce. Este se ha visto generalmente como la forma de
practicar conocimientos adquiridos y llevar estos a la prctica.
La concepcin del educto como parte de la adquisicin fue contemplada por primera vez en un
estudio de Swain en 1985. Aqu se introduce la nocin de "educto comprensible"> Aprendientes
estn obligados de cierta manera producir habla comprensible, este proceso puede conllevar la
reformulacin de muestras de habla previas o la implementacin de nuevas formas que el hablante
quiere poner en prctica.
Se consideran bsicamente 4 funciones importantes a la produccin de educto:
-Retroalimentacin o feedback q verifique los usos lingsticos.
-Prueba de determinadas estructuras y significados en la lengua meta.
-Desarrollo de fluidez del interlenguaje
-Proceso basado en el significado cada vez ms dirigido al modo sintctico.
5. Interaction
Interaccin: Tal como lo dice la palabra es el intercambio comunicativo en el que los hablantes se
influyen mutuamente.
Segn Gass (2003), asume que el aprendizaje est estimulado por la presin comunicativa y que
examina la relacin entre la comunicacin y la adquisicin de mecanismos. La interaccin incluye
componentes como la negociacin de significado, las reformulaciones y la retroalimentacin o
feedback.
6. Interlanguage
Interlengua: Es el trmino que se usa para referirse al sistema que un aprendiente desarrolla sobre la
lengua meta, en su aproximacin a esta.
Las caractersticas bsicas de este son: su individualidad, contenido de interferencias de la lengua
materna u otras lenguas, autonoma (tiene sus propias reglas), es variante y sistemtico,
permeabilidad y, constante capacidad de evolucin.
7. The Monitor Model
Hipotesis del monitor: plantea que el conocimiento adquirido de forma consciente solo sirve para
propsitos de produccin de output > jams este puede ser la fuente de el discurso espontaneo.

8. Formal instruction
Esta ocurre en las aulas cuando los maestros intentan ensear generando consciencia sobre las
reglas de uso. Se usa un programa diseado que contiene la temtica del curso.
8. Instruccin formal. La Instruccin Formal o Formal instruction (IF/FI) es la adquisicin de una
de una lengua por interaccin con los hablantes de la L2 y la observacin de estos en diferentes
situaciones comunicativas, donde el estudiante recibe instruccin sobre las reglas de la lengua.
Normalmente, el aprendizaje de una L2 se da en contextos formales, en otras palabras, en el aula.
Krashen (1983) resalta los beneficios de la instruccin en el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua (L2)
ya que esta facilita la propiedad y eficacia de la comunicacin en el aula. Adems, sirve de monitor
del habla. Otra gran ventaja de la instruccin formal, sobre todo en un contexto de aprendizaje
natural, es que se evita una la fosilizacin de errores que quedan latentes en la interlengua del
estudiante.

9. Errors
Errores: El significado de los errores cobra un sentido distinto a partir de un articulo de Corder en
1967. Estos no son algo que debe ser erradicado, sino estudiados, ya que dan informacin sobre el
interlenguaje que usa el aprendiente y evidencia el punto en el que se encuentra dentro del
aprendizaje de la L2. En el mismo artculo se diferencia entre error y falta > faltas son errores que el
hablante comete y es capaz de corregir. En cambio, el hablante no es consciente de los errores, estos
son errores solo desde un punto de vista externo, internamente pertenecen al sistema.
10. Learner differences (general)
Diferencias entre aprendientes: Por la edad, aptitud, motivacin, actitud e influencias sociopsicolgicas. Entre los ltimos encontramos la afectividad (relacin que tiene el hablante con la
lengua, con la gente que a habla o con la cultura que la rodea); la ansiedad (puede afectar el
aprendizaje: nivel bajo ayuda, nivel alto imposibilita el aprendizaje); distancia social (puede ser a la
lengua o a la comunidad de habla. Tiene que ver con la aculturacin: proceso de adquisicin de una
nueva cultura)

11. Age and ultimate attainment

Edad: Esta se refleja en la hipotesis del periodo crtico (CPH). La capacidad de adquirir una lengua
es mejor hasta la pubertad, despus el cerebro pierde plasticidad lo cual implica la disminucin para
aprender una lengua con competencia de hablante nativo.

Los nios adquieren ms fcilmente la fontica, el vocabulario concreto o la fluidez, mientras que
los adultos aprenden mejor la sintaxis compleja, el vocabulario abstracto, etc.
Logro definitivo: nios y adultos alcanzan distintos niveles. Los nios son mas propensos a llegar
completamente a un nivel nativo. En la adquisicin de segundas lenguas en adeultos el logro es
mayormente parcial. Se refiere al punto final de la adquisicin.

----------------------------------12. Attitude and motivation

Actitud: uno de los factores personales que influyen en el aprendizaje de una lengua. Consiste en la
disposicin psicolgica del aprendiente ante los procesos de enseanza-aprendizaje; afecta a muy
diversos aspectos de estos procesos y experimenta variaciones a lo largo de su desarrollo.
Motivacin consiste en el conjunto de razones que impulsan a una persona a aprender una nueva
lengua. Estas razones, de tipo tanto personal como ambiental, son muy diversas y han sido
agrupadas por la investigacin en categorasdiferentes.

13. Aptitude
Aptitud: Consiste en el conjunto de habilidades y capacidades que hace posible el proceso por parte
del aprendiente. Los temas de estudio ms comunes en relacin con la aptitud giran en torno a su
propia existencia, a la posibilidad de incrementarla mediante la enseanza y a la conveniencia de
adecuar los programas, los materiales didcticos y la metodologa a las diferentes aptitudes de los
aprendientes.

14. The communicative approach to language teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Which is an approach to the teaching of second and
foreign languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a
language. It is also referred to as Communicative Approach. Historically, CLT has been seen as a
response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as an extension or development of the NotionalFunctional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained
considerably in popularity.
(Chapter 5)

15. Focus-on-Form
Hace referencia al hecho de que los aprendientes y el profesor, sin dejar de prestar atencin al
contenido de los enunciados y textos que producen o interpretan, atienden tambin a rasgos
formales (gramaticales, lxicos, fonticos, etc.), con el fin de favorecer el progreso en el
aprendizaje.

16. Focus-on-Forms
It is clear that one cannot use focus on form instruction with all grammatical constructions. For
example, some structures are so complex, involving movement, that it is not at all clear as to what
could be focused on.
Williams and Evans investigated the effect of focus on form on two structures: (a) participial
adjectives of emotive verbs (I am boring vs. I am bored) and (b) passives (The dog was chased by
the cat). Participial adjectives were used by the learners in this study incorrectly (e.g., My trip to
Niagara Falls was really excited). Passives were used only rarely. Three groups of learners took part
in this study: one group had explicit instruction and feedback, the second group received input only,
and the third group served as the control. For the participial adjectives, the group that had explicit
instruction and feedback outperformed the other two groups. For the passives, the results were more
complex, showing only partial support for the hypothesis that the two experimental groups would
outperform the control group and that there would be a difference between the two experimental
groups. The overall results of this study suggest that learners readiness contributes to their ability
to focus on and take in new information. A second finding is that not all structures are created equal
with regard to input type. For the participial adjectives, the learners had already noticed the form in
the input, as is evidenced by their use of the form, albeit incorrectly. Here explicit instruction was
more beneficial than providing input alone. For the passives, there was little difference between the
two experimental groups. Any means of highlighting the form (input flood or instruction) serves
equally to induce noticing. In general, then, one needs to carefully consider what is being targeted
to focus on and how best to relate that information to a learners individual knowledge state and to
the means by which a form is focused on.
17. Implicit and explicit learning
Another distinction frequently made is between implicit and explicit knowledge, a distinction which
has its roots in psychology. Explicit and implicit knowledge are not unrelated to the distinction
discussed in the previous section. Declarative memory can be seen as forming the basis of explicit
knowledge and procedural knowledge underlies implicit knowledge. Where there is a difference,

however, is that in the case of explicit versus implicit knowledge, awareness is a key issue. Even
though there may be a general relationship between declarative/procedural and explicit/implicit, the
relationship cannot be considered rigid since there may be instances when declarative memory
contains information that is not explicit.
A related distinction is between implicit and explicit learning. The latter, as Hulstijn notes, is input
processing with the conscious intention to find out whether the input information contains
regularities and, if so, to work out the concepts and rules with which these regularities can be
captured. On the other hand, implicit learning is input processing without such an intention. Ellis
defines the concept of implicit learning without reference to input processing. In his words, implicit
learning is acquisition of knowledge about the underlying structure of a complex stimulus
environment by a process which takes place naturally, simply and without conscious operations.
Explicit learning is a more conscious operation where the individual makes and tests hypotheses in
a search for structure. Both types of knowledge can be used in generating utterances by native and
nonnative speakers, although native speakers presumably rely much less on explicit knowledge than
on implicit knowledge. The use of explicit knowledge may be relegated to particular difficulties,
such as the lielay distinction in English. Viewing knowledge as a continuum, it is easier to
conceptualize explicit knowledge becoming implicit (through practice, exposure, drills, etc.) and
vice versa.
18. Attention and noticing
According to the American Heritage Dictionary, attention refers to the concentration of the mental
powers upon an object. It has come to be one of the most important constructs in second language
research. In fact, Schmidt claims that it appears necessary for understanding nearly every aspect of
second and foreign language learning. There are a number of approaches to attention and
particularly to its relationship to awareness. One of the early treatments of attention in the SLA
literature came from Tomlin and Villa. They proposed three components to attention: alertness
(readiness to receive incoming stimuli), orientation (direction of resources to stimulus), and
detection (registration of stimulus). Detection is the major component and is what drives learning.
The other two are in a sense support, since they contribute to the likelihood that detection will
occur. In this model, detection does not entail awareness and, consequently, learning can take place
without awareness.
Schmidt proposed the noticing hypothesis. Awareness (through attention) is necessary for noticing
which in turn is essential for learning. Underlying this hypothesis is the idea of noticing a gap.
Schmidt and Frota suggested that a second language learner will begin to acquire the target like
form if and only if it is present in comprehended input and noticed in the normal sense of the

word, that is consciously. The idea presented here is that learning requires that a learner be actively
involved or attending to L2 forms in order for learning to take place.
19. BICS and CALPS
BICS: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills: Experts such as Jim Cummins differentiate
between social and academic language acquisition. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS) are language skills needed in social situations. It is the day-to-day language needed to
interact socially with other people. English language learners (ELLs) employ BIC skills when they
are on the playground, in the lunch room,on the school bus, at parties, playing sports and talking on
the telephone. Social interactions are usually context embedded. They occur in a meaningful social
context. They are not very demanding cognitively. The language required is not specialized. These
language skills usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in the U.S. Problems
arise when teachers and administrators think that a child is proficient in a language when they
demonstrate good social English.
CALP: Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency refers to formal academic learning. This
includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content material. This level of
language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time and support to
become proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to seven years. Recent research
(Thomas & Collier, 1995) has shown that if a child has no prior schooling or has no support in
native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up to their peers.
Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding of content area vocabulary. It includes
skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language
tasks are context reduced. Information is read from a textbook or presented by the teacher. As a
student gets older the context of academic tasks becomes more and more reduced. The language
also becomes more cognitively demanding. New ideas, concepts and language are presented to the
students at the same time.

Jim Cummins also advances the theory that there is a common

underlying proficiency (CUP) between two languages. Skills, ideas and concepts students learn in
their first language will be transferred to the second language.
20. Negotiation of meaning.
This refers to those instances in conversation when participants need to interrupt the flow of the
conversation in order for both parties to understand what the conversation is about. In conversations
involving NNSs, negotiations are frequent, at times occupying a major portion of the conversation.