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Emotionalintelligence
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Emotionalintelligence(EI)istheabilitytomonitorone'sownandotherpeople'semotions,to
discriminatebetweendifferentemotionsandlabelthemappropriately,andtouseemotionalinformation
toguidethinkingandbehavior.[1]TherearethreemodelsofEI.Theabilitymodel,developedbyPeter
SaloveyandJohnMayer,focusesontheindividual'sabilitytoprocessemotionalinformationanduseit
tonavigatethesocialenvironment.[2]ThetraitmodelasdevelopedbyKonstantinVasilyPetrides,
"encompassesbehavioraldispositionsandselfperceivedabilitiesandismeasuredthroughselfreport".[3]
Thefinalmodel,themixedmodelisacombinationofbothabilityandtraitEI.ItdefinesEIasanarray
ofskillsandcharacteristicsthatdriveleadershipperformance,asproposedbyDanielGoleman.[4]
StudieshaveshownthatpeoplewithhighEIhavegreatermentalhealth,exemplaryjobperformance,
andmorepotentleadershipskills.MarkersofEIandmethodsofdevelopingithavebecomemorewidely
covetedinthepastfewdecades.Inaddition,studieshavebeguntoprovideevidencetohelpcharacterize
theneuralmechanismsofemotionalintelligence.[5][6][7]
CriticismshavecenteredonwhetherEIisarealintelligenceandwhetherithasincrementalvalidityover
IQandtheBigFivepersonalitytraits.[8]

Contents
1History
2Definitions
3Abilitymodel
3.1Measurement
4Mixedmodel
4.1Measurement
5Traitmodel
5.1Measurement
6Criticismsoftheoreticalfoundation
6.1Cannotberecognizedasformofintelligence
6.2Confusingskillswithmoralqualities
6.3Haslittlepredictivevalue
7Criticismsofmeasurement
7.1Abilitymodel
7.1.1Measuresconformity,notability
7.1.2Measuresknowledge,notability
7.1.3Measurespersonalityandgeneralintelligence
7.2Selfreportmeasuressusceptibletofaking
7.3Predictivepowerunsubstantiated
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7.4NICHDpushesforconsensus
8Interactionswithotherphenomena
8.1Bullying
8.2Jobperformance
8.3Religiosity
8.4Selfesteemanddruguse
9Seealso
10Furtherreading
11Externallinks
12References

History
In1983,HowardGardner'sFramesofMind:TheTheoryofMultipleIntelligences[9]introducedtheidea
thattraditionaltypesofintelligence,suchasIQ,failtofullyexplaincognitiveability.Heintroducedthe
ideaofmultipleintelligenceswhichincludedbothinterpersonalintelligence(thecapacitytounderstand
theintentions,motivationsanddesiresofotherpeople)andintrapersonalintelligence(thecapacityto
understandoneself,toappreciateone'sfeelings,fearsandmotivations).[10]
Thefirstuseoftheterm"emotionalintelligence"isusuallyattributedtoWaynePayne'sdoctoralthesis,
AStudyofEmotion:DevelopingEmotionalIntelligencefrom1985.[11]Thefirstpublisheduseof'EQ'
(EmotionalQuotient)seemstobebyKeithBeasleyin1987inanarticleintheBritishMensa
magazine.[12]However,priortothis,theterm"emotionalintelligence"hadappearedinBeldoch
(1964),[13]Leuner(1966).[14]StanleyGreenspan(1989)alsoputforwardanEImodel,followedbyPeter
SaloveyandJohnMayer(1989).[15]Thedistinctionbetweentraitemotionalintelligenceandability
emotionalintelligencewasintroducedin2000.[16]
However,thetermbecamewidelyknownwiththepublicationofGoleman'sEmotionalIntelligence
WhyitcanmattermorethanIQ[17](1995).Itistothisbook'sbestsellingstatusthatthetermcan
attributeitspopularity.[18][19]Golemanhasfollowedupwithseveralfurtherpopularpublicationsofa
similarthemethatreinforceuseoftheterm.[20][21][22][23][24]Todate,testsmeasuringEIhavenot
replacedIQtestsasastandardmetricofintelligence.EmotionalIntelligencehasalsoreceivedcriticism
onitsroleinleadershipandbusinesssuccess.[25]

Definitions
Emotionalintelligencecanbedefinedastheabilitytomonitorone'sownandotherpeople'semotions,to
discriminatebetweendifferentemotionsandlabelthemappropriatelyandtouseemotionalinformation
toguidethinkingandbehavior.[1]However,substantialdisagreementexistsregardingthedefinitionof
EI,withrespecttobothterminologyandoperationalizations.Currently,therearethreemainmodelsof
EI:
1. Abilitymodel
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2. Mixedmodel(usuallysubsumedundertraitEI)[26][27]
3. Traitmodel
DifferentmodelsofEIhaveledtothedevelopmentofvariousinstrumentsfortheassessmentofthe
construct.Whilesomeofthesemeasuresmayoverlap,mostresearchersagreethattheytapdifferent
constructs.

Abilitymodel
SaloveyandMayer'sconceptionofEIstrivestodefineEIwithintheconfinesofthestandardcriteriafor
anewintelligence.[28]Followingtheircontinuingresearch,theirinitialdefinitionofEIwasrevisedto
"Theabilitytoperceiveemotion,integrateemotiontofacilitatethought,understandemotionsandto
regulateemotionstopromotepersonalgrowth."However,afterpursuingfurtherresearch,their
definitionofEIevolvedinto"thecapacitytoreasonaboutemotions,andofemotions,toenhance
thinking.Itincludestheabilitiestoaccuratelyperceiveemotions,toaccessandgenerateemotionssoas
toassistthought,tounderstandemotionsandemotionalknowledge,andtoreflectivelyregulate
emotionssoastopromoteemotionalandintellectualgrowth."[2]
Theabilitybasedmodelviewsemotionsasusefulsourcesofinformationthathelponetomakesenseof
andnavigatethesocialenvironment.[29][30]Themodelproposesthatindividualsvaryintheirabilityto
processinformationofanemotionalnatureandintheirabilitytorelateemotionalprocessingtoawider
cognition.Thisabilityisseentomanifestitselfincertainadaptivebehaviors.ThemodelclaimsthatEI
includesfourtypesofabilities:
1. Perceivingemotionstheabilitytodetectanddecipheremotionsinfaces,pictures,voices,and
culturalartifactsincludingtheabilitytoidentifyone'sownemotions.Perceivingemotions
representsabasicaspectofemotionalintelligence,asitmakesallotherprocessingofemotional
informationpossible.
2. Usingemotionstheabilitytoharnessemotionstofacilitatevariouscognitiveactivities,suchas
thinkingandproblemsolving.Theemotionallyintelligentpersoncancapitalizefullyuponhisor
herchangingmoodsinordertobestfitthetaskathand.
3. Understandingemotionstheabilitytocomprehendemotionlanguageandtoappreciate
complicatedrelationshipsamongemotions.Forexample,understandingemotionsencompasses
theabilitytobesensitivetoslightvariationsbetweenemotions,andtheabilitytorecognizeand
describehowemotionsevolveovertime.
4. Managingemotionstheabilitytoregulateemotionsinbothourselvesandinothers.Therefore,
theemotionallyintelligentpersoncanharnessemotions,evennegativeones,andmanagethemto
achieveintendedgoals.
TheabilityEImodelhasbeencriticizedintheresearchforlackingfaceandpredictivevalidityinthe
workplace.[31]

Measurement

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ThecurrentmeasureofMayerandSalovey'smodelofEI,theMayerSaloveyCarusoEmotional
IntelligenceTest(MSCEIT)isbasedonaseriesofemotionbasedproblemsolvingitems.[30][32]
Consistentwiththemodel'sclaimofEIasatypeofintelligence,thetestismodeledonabilitybasedIQ
tests.Bytestingaperson'sabilitiesoneachofthefourbranchesofemotionalintelligence,itgenerates
scoresforeachofthebranchesaswellasatotalscore.
CentraltothefourbranchmodelistheideathatEIrequiresattunementtosocialnorms.Therefore,the
MSCEITisscoredinaconsensusfashion,withhigherscoresindicatinghigheroverlapbetweenan
individual'sanswersandthoseprovidedbyaworldwidesampleofrespondents.TheMSCEITcanalso
beexpertscored,sothattheamountofoverlapiscalculatedbetweenanindividual'sanswersandthose
providedbyagroupof21emotionresearchers.[30]
Althoughpromotedasanabilitytest,theMSCEITisunlikestandardIQtestsinthatitsitemsdonot
haveobjectivelycorrectresponses.Amongotherchallenges,theconsensusscoringcriterionmeansthat
itisimpossibletocreateitems(questions)thatonlyaminorityofrespondentscansolve,because,by
definition,responsesaredeemedemotionally"intelligent"onlyifthemajorityofthesamplehas
endorsedthem.Thisandothersimilarproblemshaveledsomecognitiveabilityexpertstoquestionthe
definitionofEIasagenuineintelligence.
InastudybyFllesdal,[33]theMSCEITtestresultsof111businessleaderswerecomparedwithhow
theiremployeesdescribedtheirleader.Itwasfoundthattherewerenocorrelationsbetweenaleader's
testresultsandhowheorshewasratedbytheemployees,withregardtoempathy,abilitytomotivate,
andleadereffectiveness.FllesdalalsocriticizedtheCanadiancompanyMultiHealthSystems,which
administerstheMSCEITtest.Thetestcontains141questionsbutitwasfoundafterpublishingthetest
that19ofthesedidnotgivetheexpectedanswers.ThishasledMultiHealthSystemstoremoveanswers
tothese19questionsbeforescoring,butwithoutstatingthisofficially.

Mixedmodel
ThemodelintroducedbyDanielGoleman[34]focusesonEIasawidearrayofcompetenciesandskills
thatdriveleadershipperformance.Goleman'smodeloutlinesfivemainEIconstructs(formoredetails
see"WhatMakesALeader"byDanielGoleman,bestofHarvardBusinessReview1998):
1. Selfawarenesstheabilitytoknowone'semotions,strengths,weaknesses,drives,valuesand
goalsandrecognizetheirimpactonotherswhileusinggutfeelingstoguidedecisions.
2. Selfregulationinvolvescontrollingorredirectingone'sdisruptiveemotionsandimpulsesand
adaptingtochangingcircumstances.
3. Socialskillmanagingrelationshipstomovepeopleinthedesireddirection
4. Empathyconsideringotherpeople'sfeelingsespeciallywhenmakingdecision
5. Motivationbeingdriventoachieveforthesakeofachievement.
GolemanincludesasetofemotionalcompetencieswithineachconstructofEI.Emotionalcompetencies
arenotinnatetalents,butratherlearnedcapabilitiesthatmustbeworkedonandcanbedevelopedto
achieveoutstandingperformance.Golemanpositsthatindividualsarebornwithageneralemotional
intelligencethatdeterminestheirpotentialforlearningemotionalcompetencies.[35]Goleman'smodelof
EIhasbeencriticizedintheresearchliteratureasmere"poppsychology"(Mayer,Roberts,&Barsade,
2008).
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Measurement
TwomeasurementtoolsarebasedontheGolemanmodel:
1. TheEmotionalCompetencyInventory(ECI),whichwascreatedin1999,andtheEmotionaland
SocialCompetencyInventory(ESCI),anewereditionoftheECIwasdevelopedin2007.The
EmotionalandSocialCompetencyUniversityEdition(ESCIU)isalsoavailable.Thesetools
developedbyGolemanandBoyatzisprovideabehavioralmeasureoftheEmotionalandSocial
competencies.
2. TheEmotionalIntelligenceAppraisal,whichwascreatedin2001andwhichcanbetakenasa
selfreportor360degreeassessment.[36]

Traitmodel
KonstantinosVasilisPetrides("K.V.Petrides")proposedaconceptualdistinctionbetweentheability
basedmodelandatraitbasedmodelofEIandhasbeendevelopingthelatterovermanyyearsin
numerouspublications.[16][37]TraitEIis"aconstellationofemotionalselfperceptionslocatedatthe
lowerlevelsofpersonality."[37]Inlayterms,traitEIreferstoanindividual'sselfperceptionsoftheir
emotionalabilities.ThisdefinitionofEIencompassesbehavioraldispositionsandselfperceived
abilitiesandismeasuredbyselfreport,asopposedtotheabilitybasedmodelwhichreferstoactual
abilities,whichhaveprovenhighlyresistanttoscientificmeasurement.TraitEIshouldbeinvestigated
withinapersonalityframework.[38]Analternativelabelforthesameconstructistraitemotionalself
efficacy.
ThetraitEImodelisgeneralandsubsumestheGolemanmodeldiscussedabove.Theconceptualization
ofEIasapersonalitytraitleadstoaconstructthatliesoutsidethetaxonomyofhumancognitiveability.
Thisisanimportantdistinctioninasmuchasitbearsdirectlyontheoperationalizationoftheconstruct
andthetheoriesandhypothesesthatareformulatedaboutit.[16]

Measurement
TherearemanyselfreportmeasuresofEI,[39]includingtheEQi,theSwinburneUniversityEmotional
IntelligenceTest(SUEIT),andtheSchutteEImodel.Noneoftheseassessintelligence,abilities,or
skills(astheirauthorsoftenclaim),butrather,theyarelimitedmeasuresoftraitemotional
intelligence.[37]Oneofthemorecomprehensiveandwidelyresearchedmeasuresofthisconstructisthe
TraitEmotionalIntelligenceQuestionnaire(TEIQue),whichwasspecificallydesignedtomeasurethe
constructcomprehensivelyandisavailableinmanylanguages.
TheTEIQueprovidesanoperationalizationforthemodelofPetridesandcolleagues,thatconceptualizes
EIintermsofpersonality.[40]Thetestencompasses15subscalesorganizedunderfourfactors:well
being,selfcontrol,emotionality,andsociability.ThepsychometricpropertiesoftheTEIQuewere
investigatedinastudyonaFrenchspeakingpopulation,whereitwasreportedthatTEIQuescoreswere
globallynormallydistributedandreliable.[41]
TheresearchersalsofoundTEIQuescoreswereunrelatedtononverbalreasoning(Raven'smatrices),
whichtheyinterpretedassupportforthepersonalitytraitviewofEI(asopposedtoaformof
intelligence).Asexpected,TEIQuescoreswerepositivelyrelatedtosomeoftheBigFivepersonality
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traits(extraversion,agreeableness,openness,conscientiousness)aswellasinverselyrelatedtoothers
(alexithymia,neuroticism).Anumberofquantitativegeneticstudieshavebeencarriedoutwithinthe
traitEImodel,whichhaverevealedsignificantgeneticeffectsandheritabilitiesforalltraitEIscores.[42]
Tworecentstudies(oneametaanalysis)involvingdirectcomparisonsofmultipleEItestsyieldedvery
favorableresultsfortheTEIQue.[27][43]

Criticismsoftheoreticalfoundation
Cannotberecognizedasformofintelligence
Goleman'searlyworkhasbeencriticizedforassumingfromthebeginningthatEIisatypeof
intelligence.Eysenck(2000)[44]writesthatGoleman'sdescriptionofEIcontainsunsubstantiated
assumptionsaboutintelligenceingeneral,andthatitevenrunscontrarytowhatresearchershavecome
toexpectwhenstudyingtypesofintelligence:
"[Goleman]exemplifiesmoreclearlythanmostthefundamentalabsurdityofthetendency
toclassalmostanytypeofbehaviourasan'intelligence'...Ifthesefive'abilities'define
'emotionalintelligence',wewouldexpectsomeevidencethattheyarehighlycorrelated
Golemanadmitsthattheymightbequiteuncorrelated,andinanycaseifwecannotmeasure
them,howdoweknowtheyarerelated?Sothewholetheoryisbuiltonquicksand:thereis
nosoundscientificbasis."
Similarly,Locke(2005)[45]claimsthattheconceptofEIisinitselfamisinterpretationoftheintelligence
construct,andheoffersanalternativeinterpretation:itisnotanotherformortypeofintelligence,but
intelligencetheabilitytograspabstractionsappliedtoaparticularlifedomain:emotions.He
suggeststheconceptshouldberelabeledandreferredtoasaskill.
Theessenceofthiscriticismisthatscientificinquirydependsonvalidandconsistentconstruct
utilization,andthatbeforetheintroductionofthetermEI,psychologistshadestablishedtheoretical
distinctionsbetweenfactorssuchasabilitiesandachievements,skillsandhabits,attitudesandvalues,
andpersonalitytraitsandemotionalstates.[46]Thus,somescholarsbelievethatthetermEImergesand
conflatessuchacceptedconceptsanddefinitions.

Confusingskillswithmoralqualities
AdamGrantwarnedofthecommonbutmistakenperceptionofEIasadesirablemoralqualityrather
thanaskill,GrantassertingthatawelldevelopedEIisnotonlyaninstrumentaltoolforaccomplishing
goals,buthasadarksideasaweaponformanipulatingothersbyrobbingthemoftheircapacityto
reason.[47]

Haslittlepredictivevalue
Landy(2005)[48]claimedthatthefewincrementalvaliditystudiesconductedonEIhaveshownthatit
addslittleornothingtotheexplanationorpredictionofsomecommonoutcomes(mostnotably
academicandworksuccess).Landysuggestedthatthereasonwhysomestudieshavefoundasmall
increaseinpredictivevalidityisamethodologicalfallacy,namely,thatalternativeexplanationshavenot
beencompletelyconsidered:
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"EIiscomparedandcontrastedwithameasureofabstractintelligencebutnotwitha
personalitymeasure,orwithapersonalitymeasurebutnotwithameasureofacademic
intelligence."Landy(2005)
Similarly,otherresearchershaveraisedconcernsabouttheextenttowhichselfreportEImeasures
correlatewithestablishedpersonalitydimensions.Generally,selfreportEImeasuresandpersonality
measureshavebeensaidtoconvergebecausetheybothpurporttomeasurepersonalitytraits.[37]
Specifically,thereappeartobetwodimensionsoftheBigFivethatstandoutasmostrelatedtoself
reportEIneuroticismandextroversion.Inparticular,neuroticismhasbeensaidtorelatetonegative
emotionalityandanxiety.Intuitively,individualsscoringhighonneuroticismarelikelytoscorelowon
selfreportEImeasures.
TheinterpretationsofthecorrelationsbetweenEIquestionnairesandpersonalityhavebeenvaried.The
prominentviewinthescientificliteratureistheTraitEIview,whichreinterpretsEIasacollectionof
personalitytraits.[49][50][51]

Criticismsofmeasurement
Abilitymodel
Measuresconformity,notability
OnecriticismoftheworksofMayerandSaloveycomesfromastudybyRobertsetal.(2001),[52]which
suggeststhattheEI,asmeasuredbytheMSCEIT,mayonlybemeasuringconformity.Thisargumentis
rootedintheMSCEIT'suseofconsensusbasedassessment,andinthefactthatscoresontheMSCEIT
arenegativelydistributed(meaningthatitsscoresdifferentiatebetweenpeoplewithlowEIbetterthan
peoplewithhighEI).
Measuresknowledge,notability
FurthercriticismhasbeenleveledbyBrody(2004),[53]whoclaimedthatunliketestsofcognitiveability,
theMSCEIT"testsknowledgeofemotionsbutnotnecessarilytheabilitytoperformtasksthatare
relatedtotheknowledgethatisassessed".Themainargumentisthateventhoughsomeoneknowshow
heshouldbehaveinanemotionallyladensituation,itdoesn'tnecessarilyfollowthatthepersoncould
actuallycarryoutthereportedbehavior.
Measurespersonalityandgeneralintelligence
NewresearchissurfacingthatsuggeststhatabilityEImeasuresmightbemeasuringpersonalityin
additiontogeneralintelligence.Thesestudiesexaminedthemultivariateeffectsofpersonalityand
intelligenceonEIandalsocorrectedestimatesformeasurementerror(whichisoftennotdoneinsome
validationstudies).Forexample,astudybySchulte,Ree,Carretta(2004),[54]showedthatgeneral
intelligence(measuredwiththeWonderlicPersonnelTest),agreeableness(measuredbytheNEOPI),as
wellasgenderhadamultipleRof.81withtheMSCEIT.ThisresulthasbeenreplicatedbyFioriand
Antonakis(2011),[55]theyfoundamultipleRof.76usingCattellsCultureFairintelligencetestand
theBigFiveInventory(BFI)significantcovariateswereintelligence(standardizedbeta=.39),
agreeableness(standardizedbeta=.54),andopenness(standardizedbeta=.46).AntonakisandDietz
(2011a),[56]whoinvestigatedtheAbilityEmotionalIntelligenceMeasurefoundsimilarresults(Multiple
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R=.69),withsignificantpredictorsbeingintelligence,standardizedbeta=.69(usingtheSwapsTest
andaWechslerscalessubtest,the40itemGeneralKnowledgeTask)andempathy,standardizedbeta=
.26(usingtheQuestionnaireMeasureofEmpathicTendency)seealsoAntonakisandDietz(2011b),[57]
whoshowhowincludingorexcludingimportantcontrolsvariablescanfundamentallychangeresults
thus,itisimportanttoalwaysincludeimportantcontrolslikepersonalityandintelligencewhen
examiningthepredictivevalidityofabilityandtraitEImodels.

Selfreportmeasuressusceptibletofaking
Moreformallytermedsociallydesirableresponding(SDR),fakinggoodisdefinedasaresponsepattern
inwhichtesttakerssystematicallyrepresentthemselveswithanexcessivepositivebias(Paulhus,2002).
Thisbiashaslongbeenknowntocontaminateresponsesonpersonalityinventories(Holtgraves,2004
McFarland&Ryan,2000Peebles&Moore,1998Nichols&Greene,1997Zerbe&Paulhus,1987),
actingasamediatoroftherelationshipsbetweenselfreportmeasures(Nichols&Greene,1997
Gangsteretal.,1983).
Ithasbeensuggestedthatrespondinginadesirablewayisaresponseset,whichisasituationaland
temporaryresponsepattern(Pauls&Crost,2004Paulhus,1991).Thisiscontrastedwitharesponse
style,whichisamorelongtermtraitlikequality.ConsideringthecontextssomeselfreportEI
inventoriesareusedin(e.g.,employmentsettings),theproblemsofresponsesetsinhighstakes
scenariosbecomeclear(Paulhus&Reid,2001).
Thereareafewmethodstopreventsociallydesirablerespondingonbehaviorinventories.Some
researchersbelieveitisnecessarytowarntesttakersnottofakegoodbeforetakingapersonalitytest
(e.g.,McFarland,2003).Someinventoriesusevalidityscalesinordertodeterminethelikelihoodor
consistencyoftheresponsesacrossallitems.

Predictivepowerunsubstantiated
Landy[48]distinguishesbetweenthe"commercialwing"and"theacademicwing"oftheEImovement,
basingthisdistinctionontheallegedpredictivepowerofEIasseenbythetwocurrents.Accordingto
Landy,theformermakesexpansiveclaimsontheappliedvalueofEI,whilethelatteristryingtowarn
usersagainsttheseclaims.Asanexample,Goleman(1998)assertsthat"themosteffectiveleadersare
alikeinonecrucialway:theyallhaveahighdegreeofwhathascometobeknownasemotional
intelligence....emotionalintelligenceisthesinequanonofleadership".Incontrast,Mayer(1999)
cautions"thepopularliterature'simplicationthathighlyemotionallyintelligentpeoplepossessan
unqualifiedadvantageinlifeappearsoverlyenthusiasticatpresentandunsubstantiatedbyreasonable
scientificstandards."Landyfurtherreinforcesthisargumentbynotingthatthedatauponwhichthese
claimsarebasedareheldin"proprietarydatabases",whichmeanstheyareunavailabletoindependent
researchersforreanalysis,replication,orverification.[48]Thus,thecredibilityofthefindingscannotbe
substantiatedinascientificway,unlessthosedatasetsaremadepublicandavailableforindependent
analysis.
Inanacademicexchange,AntonakisandAshkanasy/Dasboroughmostlyagreedthatresearcherstesting
whetherEImattersforleadershiphavenotdonesousingrobustresearchdesignstherefore,currently
thereisnostrongevidenceshowingthatEIpredictsleadershipoutcomeswhenaccountingfor
personalityandIQ.[58]AntonakisarguedthatEImightnotbeneededforleadershipeffectiveness(he
referredtothisasthe"curseofemotion"phenomenon,becauseleaderswhoaretoosensitivetotheirand
others'emotionalstatesmighthavedifficultymakingdecisionsthatwouldresultinemotionallaborfor
theleaderorfollowers).ArecentlypublishedmetaanalysisseemstosupporttheAntonakisposition:In
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fact,HarmsandCredfoundthatoverall(andusingdatafreefromproblemsofcommonsourceand
commonmethods),EImeasurescorrelatedonly=0.11withmeasuresoftransformational
leadership.[59]Interestingly,abilitymeasuresofEIfaredworst(i.e.,=0.04)theWLEIS(WongLaw
measure)didabitbetter(=0.08),andtheBarOn[60]measurebetterstill(=0.18).However,the
validityoftheseestimatesdoesnotincludetheeffectsofIQorthebigfivepersonality,whichcorrelate
bothwithEImeasuresandleadership.[61]InasubsequentpaperanalyzingtheimpactofEIonbothjob
performanceandleadership,HarmsandCred[62]foundthatthemetaanalyticvalidityestimatesforEI
droppedtozerowhenBigFivetraitsandIQwerecontrolledfor.JosephandNewman[63]meta
analyticallyshowedthesameresultforAbilityEI,butfurtherdemonstratedthatselfreportedandTrait
EImeasuresretainasmallamountofpredictivevalidityforjobperformanceaftercontrollingBigFive
traitsandIQ.Newman,Joseph,andMacCann[64]contendthatthegreaterpredictivevalidityofTraitEI
measuresisduetotheirinclusionofcontentrelatedtoachievementmotivation,selfefficacy,andself
ratedperformance.RSN

NICHDpushesforconsensus
TheNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopmenthasrecognisedthatbecausethereare
divisionsaboutthetopicofemotionalintelligence,thementalhealthcommunityneedstoagreeonsome
guidelinestodescribegoodmentalhealthandpositivementallivingconditions.Intheirsection,
"PositivePsychologyandtheConceptofHealth,"theyexplain."Currentlytherearesixcompeting
modelsofpositivehealth,whicharebasedonconceptssuchasbeingabovenormal,characterstrengths
andcorevirtues,developmentalmaturity,socialemotionalintelligence,subjectivewellbeing,and
resilience.Buttheseconceptsdefinehealthinphilosophicalratherthanempiricalterms.Dr.[Lawrence]
Beckersuggestedtheneedforaconsensusontheconceptofpositivepsychologicalhealth..."[65]

Interactionswithotherphenomena
Bullying
Bullyingisabusivesocialinteractionbetweenpeerswhichcanincludeaggression,harassment,and
violence.Bullyingistypicallyrepetitiveandenactedbythosewhoareinapositionofpoweroverthe
victim.Agrowingbodyofresearchillustratesasignificantrelationshipbetweenbullyingandemotional
intelligence.Emotionalintelligence(EI)isasetofabilitiesrelatedtotheunderstanding,useand
managementofemotionasitrelatestoone'sselfandothers.Mayeretal.,(2008)definesthedimensions
ofoverallEIas:"accuratelyperceivingemotion,usingemotionstofacilitatethought,understanding
emotion,andmanagingemotion".[66]Theconceptcombinesemotionalandintellectualprocesses.[67]
Loweremotionalintelligenceappearstoberelatedtoinvolvementinbullying,asthebullyand/orthe
victimofbullying.EIseemstoplayanimportantroleinbothbullyingbehaviorandvictimizationin
bullyinggiventhatEIisillustratedtobemalleable,EIeducationcouldgreatlyimprovebullying
preventionandinterventioninitiatives.[68]

Jobperformance
ResearchofEIandjobperformanceshowsmixedresults:apositiverelationhasbeenfoundinsomeof
thestudies,inotherstherewasnorelationoraninconsistentone.ThisledresearchersCoteandMiners
(2006)[69]toofferacompensatorymodelbetweenEIandIQ,thatpositsthattheassociationbetweenEI
andjobperformancebecomesmorepositiveascognitiveintelligencedecreases,anideafirstproposedin
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thecontextofacademicperformance(Petrides,Frederickson,&Furnham,2004).Theresultsofthe
formerstudysupportedthecompensatorymodel:employeeswithlowIQgethighertaskperformance
andorganizationalcitizenshipbehaviordirectedattheorganization,thehighertheirEI.
AmetaanalyticreviewbyJosephandNewman[63]alsorevealedthatbothAbilityEIandTraitEItendto
predictjobperformancemuchbetterinjobsthatrequireahighdegreeofemotionallabor(where
'emotionallabor'wasdefinedasjobsthatrequiretheeffectivedisplayofpositiveemotion).Incontrast,
EIshowslittlerelationshiptojobperformanceinjobsthatdonotrequireemotionallabor.Inother
words,emotionalintelligencetendstopredictjobperformanceforemotionaljobsonly.
AmorerecentstudysuggeststhatEIisnotnecessarilyauniversallypositivetrait.[70]Theyfounda
negativecorrelationbetweenEIandmanagerialworkdemandswhileunderlowlevelsofmanagerial
workdemands,theyfoundanegativerelationshipbetweenEIandteamworkeffectiveness.An
explanationforthismaysuggestgenderdifferencesinEI,aswomentendtoscorehigherlevelsthan
men.[63]ThisfurtherstheideathatjobcontextplaysaroleintherelationshipsbetweenEI,teamwork
effectiveness,andjobperformance.
AnotherinterestingfindwasdiscussedinastudythatassessedapossiblelinkbetweenEIand
entrepreneurialbehaviorsandsuccess.[71]InaccordancewithmuchoftheotherfindingsregardingEI
andjobperformance,theyfoundthatlevelsofEIonlypredictedasmallamountofentrepreneurial
behavior.

Religiosity
Asmall2004studybyEllenPaekempiricallyexaminedtheextenttowhichreligiosity,operationalized
asreligiousorientationandreligiousbehaviour,isrelatedtothecontroversial[45][46][72]ideaofemotional
intelligence(EI).Thestudyexaminedtheextenttowhichreligiousorientationandbehaviorwererelated
toselfreported(EI)in148churchattendingadultChristians.[73](nonreligiousindividualswerenotpart
ofthestudy).Thestudyfoundthattheindividuals'selfreportedreligiousorientationwaspositively
correlatedwiththeirperceivingthemselvestohavegreaterEI.Whilethenumberofreligiousgroup
activitieswaspositivelyassociatedwithperceivedEI,numberofyearsofchurchattendancewas
unrelated.Significantpositivecorrelationswerealsofoundbetweenlevelofreligiouscommitmentand
perceivedEI.Thus,theChristianvolunteersweremorelikelytoconsiderthemselvesemotionally
intelligentiftheyspentmoretimeingroupactivitiesandhadmorecommitmenttotheirbeliefs.
Tischler,BibermanandMcKeagewarnthatthereisstillambiguityintheaboveconcepts.Intheir2002
article,entitledLinkingemotionalintelligence,spiritualityandworkplaceperformance:Definitions,
modelsandideasforresearch,theyreviewedliteratureonbothEIandvariousaspectofspirituality.
TheyfoundthatbothEIandspiritualityappeartoleadtosimilarattitudes,behaviorsandskills,andthat
thereoftenseemstobeconfusion,intersectionandlinkingbetweenthetwoconstructs.[74]

Selfesteemanddruguse
A2012studycrossexaminedemotionalintelligence,selfesteem,andmarijuanadependence.[75]Outof
asampleof200,100ofwhichweredependentoncannabisandtheother100emotionallyhealthy,the
dependentgroupscoredexceptionallylowonEIwhencomparedtothecontrolgroup.Theyalsofound
thatthedependentgroupalsoscoredlowonselfesteemwhencomparedtothecontrol.

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Anotherstudyin2010examinedwhetherornotlowlevelsofEIhadarelationshipwiththedegreeof
drugandalcoholaddiction.[76]Intheassessmentof103residentsinadrugrehabilitationcenter,they
examinedtheirEIalongwithotherpsychosocialfactorsinaonemonthintervaloftreatment.They
foundthatparticipants'EIscoresimprovedastheirlevelsofaddictionlessenedaspartoftheirtreatment.
Test1:Ineachofthefollowingchoosefromascaleof15whichofthesestatementsyoumostagree
withorismostapplicabletoyourself.Choose5formostagree=mostapplicable,downto1forleast
agree=leastapplicable.
1. Loudnoiseaggravatesme.
2. WhenIgetlittleachesandpains,Ioftenworrythatitcouldbesomethingmoreserious.
3. SometimesIcannotgettosleepasIhavetoomuchonmymind.
4. Ifinditdifficulttoswitchoffcompletelyandtotallyrelax.
5. IsometimesgetangrywithmyselfifImakeamistakeordonotdosomethingtothestandardI
havesetmyself.
Test2:Answereachquestionorstatementbychoosingwhichoneofthethreealternativeresponses
givenismostapplicabletoyou.
1Doyouprefertoworkalone,oraspartofateam?
a)Nostrongpreference.
b)Alone.
c)Aspartofateam.
2Whatisyouridealwayofcelebratingyourbirthday?
a)Goingoutforamealwithafewfamilyorfriends.
b)Iprefermybirthdaytobejustlikeanyothernormalday.
c)Asurprisepartywithlotsoffamilyandfriends.
3Howquicklydoyoubecomeboredandrestlesswhenperformingroutinetasks?
a)Fairlyquickly.
b)Notveryquickly,asIamabletoapplymymindto,andconcentrateon,thetaskinhand.
c)Extremelyquickly.
4Howeasilydoyoumakefriends?
a)Fairlyeasily.
b)Noteasily.
c)Veryeasily.
5Wouldyoudescribeyourselfasaleaderorafollower?
a)Abitofboth,dependingonthesituationorcircumstances.
b)Generallyafollower.
c)Generallyaleader.
Test3:Ineachofthefollowing,choosefromascaleof1^5whichofthesestatementsyoumostagree
withorismostapplicabletoyourself.
Choose5formostagree=mostapplicable,downto1forleastagree=leastapplicable.
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1. Whenonedoorclosesanotheronealwaysopens.
2. Inlife,thereisanidealpartnerforeveryone.
3. Ialwayslookforwardtothefuturewithhighexpectations.
4. Ifatfirstyoudontsucceed,youshouldtry,tryandtryagain.
5. Ultimately,goodwillalwaystriumphoverevil.
Test4:Answereachquestionorstatementbychoosingwhichoneofthethreealternativeresponses
givenismostapplicabletoyou.
1Howmuchdoyoufeelincontrolofyourownlife?
a)Onlypartlyincontrol.
b)Verymuch.
c)Notverymuch.
2Howoftendoyouworryaboutlivinguptothestandardsofothers?
a)Occasionally.
b)Never.
c)Morethanoccasionally
3Howmuchconfidencedoyouhaveinyourowndecisions?
a)Fairlyconfident.
b)Agreatdeal.
c)MorehopefulthanconfidentthatIhavemadetherightdecision.
4Doyoubelieveinthepowerofpositivethinking?
a)Maybe.
b)Yes.
c)ItisnotsomethingIhaveeverthoughtabout.
5Howoftendoyoufeelsadordepressedaboutyourpersonalcircumstances?
a)Occasionally.
b)Rarelyornever.
c)Morethanoccasionally.
Test5:Ineachofthefollowingchoosefromascaleof15whichofthesestatementsyoumostagree
withorismostapplicabletoyourself.
Choose5formostagree=mostapplicable,downto1forleastagree=leastapplicable.
1. Iadmirepeoplewhoarepreparedtoadmittheywerewrong.
2. IfsomeonedoesmeabadturnIdontwastetimethinkingofrevenge.
3. Myheartrulesmyheadmorethanmyheadrulesmyheart.
4. Onoccasionsmyeyeshavefilledupwithtearswhenwatchingamovie(happyorsad).
5. Ihaveneverfounditdifficulttoforgiveandforget.

Seealso
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AnabelJensen
ClaudeSteiner
EmotionalIntelligence2.0
Emotionalliteracy
JoshuaFreedman
Lifeskills
MarcBrackett
Outlineofhumanintelligence
Peopleskills
Positivepsychology
Psychologicalmindedness
SixSeconds
Socialemotionallearning
Softskills
TheEmotionalIntelligenceAppraisal

Furtherreading
Goleman,Daniel(1996).EmotionalIntelligence:WhyItCanMatterMoreThanIQ.Bantam
Books.ISBN9780553383713.

Externallinks
OverviewonSocialEmotionalLearning(http://www.edutopia.org/socialemotionallearning),
Edutopia

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