Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Handbook for
Grain/Crop
Producers
University of Maryland Extension
Agriculture Profitability Team
Foreword
This handbook was originally compiled by Craig Yohn, West Virginia University Extension
Agent-Jefferson County in response to the widespread drought of 2007. The handbook was
adapted to Maryland conditions by Ben Beale, Extension Educator with University of Maryland
and distributed to farmers during that time. We had hoped it would stay on the shelves and
collect dust for a while longer. Unfortunately that is not the case.
The summer of 2010 has been a challenge for most producers around the state. The spring
started off without a hitch. Crops were planted on time and looked very good heading into the
summer growing season. However June and July brought record heat coupled with sporadic
rainfall. The result has been a very poor growing season. We anticipate a marked decline in
yields of many crops, particularly hay, pasture and corn.
Thus, the University of Maryland Agriculture Profitability team, in conjunction with industry
and government partners, revised the drought handbook for use in 2010. The handbook has
been expanded to include a grain edition and forage/animal edition. The handbook contains a
wide variety of information relevant to drought conditions.
A major difference between 2007 and 2010 is the relief from more rains and cooler
temperatures in August. Thankfully, many soybean acres will have a chance to rebound. It may
also open up some options for emergency forage seedings and allow for decent germination of
cover crop and small grain plantings.
The UME Ag Profitability Team appreciates the efforts of Kathi Dionne, Administrative
Assistant in the St. Marys County UME office for assistance in layout and editing.
Table of Contents
Maryland Department of Agriculture Offering Free Grain/Forage
Testing Program .................................................................................. 5
Plan Ahead to Deal with Corn Stalk Rots, Ear Rots, and Toxins
in Grain................................................................................................ 6
Aflatoxins in Corn Will Be A Concern This Harvest Season .............. 8
Meeting Grain Contract Obligations ................................................. 11
Equipment is Key to Drought Harvest ............................................... 14
Fall Seeded Annuals for Forage .........................................................16
Loss Reporting Tips for Crop Insurance............................................ 20
2010 Corn Silage Value Examples .................................................... 21
Determining the Yield of Corn Silage Without
Weighing Wagons ............................................................................. 22
University of Maryland Extension Offices ........................................ 23
Plan Ahead to Deal with Corn Stalk Rots, Ear Rots and Toxins in Grain
Dr. Arvydas (Arv) Grybauskas, Plant Pathologist; University of Maryland
Corn harvest will begin earlier this season due to the high average temperatures increasing the speed with which
growing degree-days (GDD) have accumulated. Typically in seasons characterized by high temperatures and
droughty conditions there is an increase in stalk rots and certain ear rots. Most notably two fungal ear rots that
can produce toxins in the grain, Aspergillus and Fusarium ear rot, are favored by these conditions. The more
dangerous of the two is Aspergillus. Aspergillus infected kernels can contain the carcinogenic toxins known as
aflatoxins.
Aspergillus is a fungus that is highly tolerant of high temperatures. It is this high temperature tolerance that
makes Aspergillus the most prevalent ear-infecting fungus during hot dry conditions. The fungus survives in
soil and crop debris and is spread to silks by wind and insects. The use of certain types of BT corn have helped
reduce the incidence of Aspergillus infection by reducing the insect-associated infections but direct wind-aided
infections are still possible. Stressed corn appears to be more susceptible to infection. Typically only a few
kernels near the tip are infected by Aspergillus, but tolerance levels for aflatoxin are in parts per billion (e.g. 20
ppb for human consumption). A blacklight is commonly employed as a quick preliminary test for aflatoxin
contamination. A sample of cracked or coarsely ground kernels is illuminated with a blacklight and viewed for a
yellow-green fluorescence. It is important to know that the fluorescing material is not aflatoxin itself but rather
it is an indicator of (correlated with) aflatoxin. Other material such as corn glumes (a.k.a. beeswings), certain
weed seeds, and uninfected kernel tips, also will fluoresce under blacklight making false positives possible.
Since the advisory limits are at ppb levels false negatives in the presence of Aspergillus are also possible with
the blacklight test. There are commercially available rapid test kits that provide better and in many cases
quantitative detection, as well as commercial labs that will test for toxins.
Similar to Aspergillus, Fusarium ear and kernel rot is favored by high temperatures and droughty conditions
especially when the occurrence is near flowering. There are several species of Fusarium that are involved but
generally they are different from the primary species that cause scab in wheat. Fusarium ear and kernel rot is
important because of a production of a class of toxins known as Fumonisins. Fumonisin are known to cause
equine leukoencephalomalacia, blind staggers in horses and pulmonary edema in swine, and have been linked
to human cancers in other parts of the world. Different tests are required to detect Fumonisins.
Stalk rots that are caused by fungi and result in premature lodging are also generally favored during a stressful
growing season. In general any stress on the corn plant can lead to insufficient capacity of the plant to provide
photosynthate to the developing ear. When this occurs, the plant mobilizes stored carbohydrates from the stalks
to fill the demand. This leads to premature senescence of stalk tissue and predisposes the plant to colonization
by any number of opportunistic stalk rotting fungi.
Regardless of the cause of the stalk rot or ear rot, there are a few things that can be done to minimize harvest
losses. First, harvest the corn at high grain moisture (25 to 27%), and make sure the combine is adjusted
properly to minimize cracking. Harvesting as early as practical reduces the time that the damaging fungi have at
colonizing the target tissue. This reduces lodging due to stalk rots, and reduces kernel infection and toxin
development. Minimizing the number of cracked kernels is important because they are more susceptible to postharvest colonization and toxin development. You can also use a simple pre-harvest stalk testing technique to
determine which fields are at greater risk for lodging allowing you to schedule harvest accordingly. You can
either pinch stalk internodes to determine a percentage that are soft and likely to lodge if left in the field, or you
can use the push test. The push test is simply pushing corn stalks at arms length and determining the percentage
that break. In both cases, you will get better information as the number of plants and sites scouted increases. A
rule of thumb I like is 10 stalks in 10 sites for every 10 acres.
6
It is also important to note that fungicides used near tassel will not have a direct effect on stalk rotting. If there
was a foliar disease present, the fungicide reduced the stress associated with the foliar disease which can
indirectly reduce stalk rotting. However, there is no fungicide residue available by the time stalks are
predisposed to stalk rotting fungi to directly affect the colonization by these fungal organisms.
To reduce the damage from ear rots and in particular to keep toxin development to a minimum, after harvesting
corn at high moisture with careful attention to minimizing the amount of cracking, dry the corn as soon as
possible (within a day or two) to 15.5% moisture or lower. The ear rotting fungi continue to grow in high
moisture corn in the bin. Controlling moisture and temperature of harvested corn is the most cost-effective
method of preventing spoilage.
Corn that is contaminated at levels greater than 20 ppb may not be sold for interstate commerce. It can be used
locally for livestock and poultry if under certain levels, but not for lactating dairy. Check with your grain buyers
on how they will handle aflatoxin contaminated corn. Blending with non-contaminated corn to reduce levels to
below 20 ppb may be an option. Cleaning grain by screening or a gravity table can also reduce aflatoxin
concentrations.
For more information see these web sites:
Aflatoxins in Corn from Iowa State University Extension (PDF)
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1800.pdf
Minimizing Aflatoxin in Corn from Mississippi State University
http://msucares.com/pubs/infosheets/is1563.htm
Aflatoxins in Corn from the University of Kentucky (PDF)
http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id59/id59.pdf
Reducing Aflatoxin in Corn During Harvest and Storage from the University of Georgia (PDF)
http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/B1231.pdf
Table from Iowa State University Extension Publication PM1800 Aflatoxins in Corn
Prepared by Gary Munkvold, extension plant pathologist; Charles Hurburgh, professor of agricultural and
biosystems engineering; and Julie Meyer, plant pathologist.
Updated by Charles Hurburgh, professor of agricultural and biosystems engineering; Dan Loy, professor,
animal science and Alison Robertson, extension plant pathologist.
10
oThis involves a cash settlement on the difference between the contract price and the current market
price. Additional fees may also apply to contract washouts.
oBuy-outs are typically the least favored option for farmers in a negative position because they
further limit cash-flow in an off year.
oBuy-outs or cancelled contracts are obviously more favorable for farmers that are in a positive
position- the elevator is able to cancel their commitments more easily and the farmer is not left
with any obligations. It should be noted that elevators will rarely pay for any difference between
the forward contract and current price offering.
Example of a contract buyout with farmer in a negative position
Forward Contract Price
Current Fall Delivery Price
Difference
+
Buy-out Penalty
$
$
$
3.00
3.55
0.55
0.10
0.65
5,000
$ 3,250.00
$
$
$
3.00
2.50
-0.50
0.00
0.00
5,000
$ 00.00
$ 4.00
$ 4.50
$ 4.75
$ (0.50)
$ 4.25
$ 0.10
$ 4.15
Elevators may also ask for verification of poor growing conditions if you cannot fill your contract
obligation. This proof can be obtained from you local Extension office, the Farm Service Agency or your
crop insurance agent.
The above information is for farmers with straight forward contracts with an elevator. It is not intended
for farmers who hold positions in the futures market.
Summary: Forward contracts are an important tool to manage price volatility and risk on grain farms.
Some risks can be avoided by limiting the number of bushels under contract and using crop insurance;
however there will be catastrophic years where production will not meet contract obligations. When it
happens, be sure to communicate regularly with your buyer. Ask about options available ahead of time
and be prepared to have an informed discussion on the best option for your operation.
1
Much of the content for this document was adapted with permission from a document titled Drought
and Grain Contracts produced by the North Wales Farming Association available online at:
http://www.nswfarmers.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/40398/Drought_Grain_Contracts-0907.pdf
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Forage harvest
A common mistake is to underestimate the moisture content of drought damaged crop. Check moisture
content before baling or stacking. Operation of harvesting equipment will generally be similar to that used
in a normal crop with a few exceptions. Check your owners/operators manual for useful tips (for
example using hay harvest equipment to harvest cornstalks or soybean straw). Your dealer is another
source of information.
Windrowers, rakes, balers, and stackers have all been used to harvest corn. Expect that operation of
conventional hay harvest equipment in cornstalks may be more difficult or at least require adjustment and
some experimentation. Cornstalks are larger and may be more difficult to package. The potential
variability of stalk diameter and length will put a premium on proper adjustment. Some equipment may
not work in some conditions. Expect more wear, especially on cutting components, than when harvesting
hay.
A major objective is to get the stalks dry enough to store. Allow the crop to field dry for much of the
moisture removal. Equipment should aggressively shred stalks to promote drying and present smaller
pieces for easier packaging. Flail shredding may do this easier than conditioning. If using a conditioner,
consider tightening the roll spacing and slowing travel speed for more aggressive action. Stalks that are
damp can be hard to start and they tend to wrap in baler belts.
15
Annual Ryegrass
Annual ryegrass ability to produce a vigorous seedling lends it to a variety of seeding
methods into a number of forage cropping systems. A seeding rate of 30 pounds per acre
has provided satisfactory results in numerous on-farm and research farm situations. It
should be noted that annual ryegrass varieties will differ in seed size and density. This fact
will require producers to adjust seeding rates and drill calibrations slightly from variety to
variety.
Some producers, particularly on dairy farms, utilize higher seeding rates of 40 or even 50
pounds. These increased seeding rates will produce more dense stands which can be used
for either grazing or haylage harvest.
Due to its small seed size, annual ryegrass seedings are either broadcast on the surface or
no-tilled at -inch depth. Under favorable conditions, germination can be expected in five to
seven days.
Annual ryegrass should not be seeded into living cool season grass stands. Ryegrass will
not compete effectively with an established cool season perennial grass. However, in thin or
poor perennial grass stands, annual ryegrass may be broadcast or no-tilled after the
perennial grass is suppressed or destroyed with Gramoxone or Roundup.
Annual ryegrass can be seeded into established alfalfa by broadcasting seed or no tilling.
Seedings should be made immediately after the alfalfa cutting in late August or September.
If the field to be seeded is cultivated by plowing or disking, the seedbed should be firmed.
The seeding may then be made by broadcasting the seed alone or blended with dry fertilizer.
The field should then be cultipacked. A conventional drill cannot be used to seed annual
ryegrass in a cultivated field in a normal manner due to placing the seed too deep in the drill
disk furrows. However, if the conventional drill is used in the raised position or if the boots
are removed from the disc openers, the seed will be effectively broadcast. The field should
then be cultipacked.
In this area, many annual ryegrass seedings follow corn silage harvest. It is an effective
cover crop. If no manure is to be applied, simply broadcast or no-till the seed. If applying
manure with no incorporation, broadcast seed prior to manure application to improve soil
contact. If manure is to be incorporated, follow recommendations for a cultivated field.
16
Due to the prolific seed production of some ryegrass varieties, it should be noted that a
number of producers have managed successful volunteer seedings in grazing situations, in
alfalfa, and in annual ryegrass hay fields.
Annual ryegrass responds vigorously to nitrogen (N) fertilization. Very satisfactory yields are
obtained under intensive grazing or haylage harvest regimens using a total of 200lbs. of N.
In very general terms, apply 50 lbs. N at the early September seeding. Then in the spring,
apply 50 lbs. N on April 1, May 1, and June 1 for maximum growth. Manure can provide a
portion of this N requirement.
Fall seedings made before October can utilize up to 50 lbs. of N to produce a fall crop to be
grazed or cut for haylage by mid to late November. Later seedings will utilize proportionately
less N.
Excessive fall growth should be harvested or clipped to a 3-4 inch height to prevent matting
under snow. Due to the continuous growth habit of annual ryegrass leaves and lack of true
dormancy, matting or excessive freeze damage to grass leaves will delay or inhibit spring
growth.
Under a haylage system, the best forage quality is achieved when the first cutting is
harvested when the plants are in the late vegetative to early boot stage of maturity. This
corresponds to an average height of 15-20 inches. Immediately apply 50 lbs. of N and plan
to harvest the next cutting in 20 days. Each producer will then need to decide how long to
graze or cut haylage from the ryegrass before replanting the field to the next crop in a double
crop system.
Care needs to be taken in controlling ryegrass regrowth prior to planting the next crop.
Annual ryegrass regrowth is more difficult to control than that of cereal rye. Producers have
obtained good results by allowing several inches of regrowth and using Roundup at a 1quart rate. Post-applied grass herbicides provide effective control also.
Annual ryegrass is an aggressive and versatile forage grass, but its real value is in its ability
to produce significant yields of high quality forage. This ryegrass can be harvested as
pasture, greenchop, chopped haylage, baleage or dry hay. Optimum forage quality will be
obtained only by heads-up forage management.
Ryegrass needs to be grazed before the grass begins the jointing phase of development.
Ryegrass is best managed under a management intensive grazing system. Initiate grazing
when the grass is six inches tall and move animals quickly. Expect to maintain a 10-12 day
rotation to achieve top forage quality. The key is to keep the grass in a vegetative growth
state as long as possible.
NOTE!! Do not use annual ryegrass in grain production systems! It is a prolific seed
producer and is a serious weed in small grains!
17
Wheat
Same as above except do not seed before September 15-October 1. Wheat needs to
emerge after Hessian fly free date. Yes, they are still here!
Spring Oats
Seed mid-August to late September at a rate of 2-3 bu. Seedings emerged by September
10-15 will start to come into head by November 15-20. Can be chopped to fill silo, made into
round bale haylage or grazed. If grazing is the option, can begin at six inches of growth.
Flash graze paddock by paddock. Oats will stop growing when ground begins to freeze.
Quality will hold until after several very hard freezes (20 degrees F or less) then decline
slowly. Oats will die over the winter; no spring regrowth.
May be seeded with winter peas for more protein. Chop for silage in mid to late November.
May be seeded with rye. Two bushels of each. This gives a good fall harvest and a spring
harvest.
Can be seeded with annual ryegrass, too--2-3 bu. Oats and 25-30 lbs. Ryegrass. Chop or
graze by Thanksgiving and continue ryegrass harvest in the spring.
Brassicas
Brassicas (turnips, radishes, rape) can be planted at different times of the year and with various
companion crops. The purpose of this chart is to provide some options on how turnips may be
used for different seasons, different animals, and different uses.
18
Brassicas
Appin Forage
Grazing Turnip
Purple Top Turnip
Tankard Turnip
Tillage Radishes
Spring Planting
Companion crops
Annual Ryegrass
Oats
Summer Planting
Companion crops
Annual Ryegrass
BMR SorghumSudangrass
Planting rate
#/Ac
2-5
2-5
2-5
30-40
3-4 bushels
30-40
30
Corn
Late-Summer
Planting
Companion crops
Oats with Cereal Rye
Annual Ryegrass
Benefits
When to plant
Early March
** Rememberfall forage growth still depends upon rainfall! But if good moisture is present by September 1st--go for it! And
do not forget to apply N to any grass pastures or grass hay fields that can be pastured October-December. All animals
including dry cows and dairy heifers do okay on fescue over the winter!
For farm specific questions, contact your countys Extension Agent or Crops Consultant.
19
Also, promptly your report crop damage to the Farm Service Agency (FSA/USDA). This report may be
important ift you become eligible for a crop disaster payment under the SURE program. The deadline for
submitting applications for 2008 crop year SURE payments to the county FSA/USDA office is September
30, 2010.
For spring crops, check the yield/revenue potential of your crops. Youll soon be thinking about Fall
Harvesting. Remember the crop damage reporting requirements (if a loss is anticipated): The insurance policies
require that written notice be given to your crop insurance agent (by crop by unit (FSA farm #)):
Within 72 hours of discovery of damage or loss,
15 days before harvest begins **, and
Within 15 days after harvesting is completed but not later than 10/20 corn insured as silage; 12/10
for grain corn and soybeans.
Dont destroy evidence of damage until a loss adjuster evaluates it!
Prior Authorization is Required to Leave Sample Rows for Yield Determination: If loss adjusting
workload does not permit appraising damaged crop acreage before you are ready to start cutting silage, prior
authorization must be obtained from your insurance company, through your crop insurance agent, before sample
row areas can be left for later yield determination. For this reason, its important that notice of damage be
filed with your crop insurance agent as early as you determine that damage occurred so that harvesting is
not delayed.
Cutting Damaged Corn for Silage: If you plan to cut damaged grain type corn for silage, its important that
the grain content be determined before harvesting regardless of whether you insure on a tonnage or grain yield
basis. If you insured on a grain basis, a loss is determined by comparing the revenue or yield guarantee to the
appraised yield (times the October CBOT average price for the December contract for CRC). If you insured
and harvest on a tonnage basis and your grain content is below normal (less than 4.5 bushels per ton), the
grain content appraisal becomes the basis for quality adjustment which may reduce the amount of silage
tonnage that counts against your guarantee. Contact your crop insurance agent for more details, and
see the RMA/USDA Web at: WWW.RMA.usda.gov
20
Market Price of corn* X 8 = value of standing corn. Add $10/T for harvest costs and 10% for
storage losses to get the value of fermented feed.
Corn market price*($/bu)Value of standing corn ($/ton) Value of fermented silage ($/ton)
4.0032.0046.20
4.5036.0050.60
5.0040.0055.00
5.5044.0059.40
6.0048.0063.80
6.5052.0068.20
7.0056.0072.60
Method 2:Feed Value Method
A) one ton of fermented silage equals 1/3 ton of hay
Example: hay value at $150 per ton X .33 = $49.50/ton for fermented silage
B) one ton of fermented silage equals 10 - 12 bu corn
corn price* ($/bu)Value of fermented silage ($/ton)
11
X4.00=44.00
11
X 5.00=55.00
11
X6.00=66.00
11
X7.00=77.00
(Note: Subtract $15-18 per ton to get standing corn value)
Method 3:Petersens Constants
Value ($/ton) of fermented silage1 with hay valued at $150 per ton2.
corn price*
Soybean meal price* ($/ton)
($/bu) 300 350 400 450 500_
4.00
47.91
42.14
36.3630.5924.81
5.0051.1445.3639.2833.8128.04
6.0054.3648.5942.8137.0431.26
7.0057.5851.8146.0340.2634.48
1
Subtract $10 per ton for harvest costs and 10% for storage losses to determine the price of standing
corn.
2
Add(subtract) $4.65 for each $10 increase (decrease) in hay price.
*Market price is the price the livestock producer must pay for that commodity from the feed mill, another
farmer, or his cost to grow the crop.
Compiled by Stanley Fultz, Dairy Science Extension Agent, University of Maryland Extension, Frederick
County Office.
C: my documents\nutrition\silage\2010 pricingupdated
7/26/2010
21
37
50
35
45
42
C. 209 pounds divided by 5 = 41.8 pounds average weight for 1/1000 of an acre
D. 41.8 pounds X 1000 = 41,800 pounds per acre
E. 41,800 divided by 2000 pounds/ton = 20.9 ton per acre
For more information:
Stanley W. Fultz
Extension Agent, Dairy Science
University of Maryland Extension
330 Montevue Lane
Frederick, MD 21702
301-600-3578
sfultz@umd.educ:\\nutrition\silage\tons per acre 2010
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UME-Baltimore City
6615 Reistertown Road, Suite 201
Baltimore, MD 21215
410-856-1850
Fax: 410-856-1852
UME-Baltimore County
1114 Shawan Road
Cockeysville, MD 21030
410-771-1761
Fax: 410-785-5950
UME-Calvert County
County Svcs. Plaza, Suite 300
30 Duke St., Rm 103, P. O. Box 486
Prince Frederick, MD 20678
410-535-3662
410-535-2438
UME-Caroline County
207 S. Third Street
Denton, MD 21629
410-479-4030
Fax: 410-479-4042
UME-Carroll County
700 Agriculture Center
Westminster, MD 21157
410-386-2760
Toll free: 888-326-9645
Fax: 410-876-0132
UME-Cecil County
County Adm. Bldg. Suite 1500
200 Chesapeake Blvd.
Elkton, MD 21921
410-996-5280
Fax: 410-996-5285
UME-Charles County
9375 Chesapeake St., Suite 119
LaPlata, MD 20646
301-934-5403
DC Area 301-753-8195
Fax: 301-753-1857
UME-Dorchester County
P. O. Box 299, Co. Bldg., 501 Court Lane
Cambridge, MD 21613-0299
410-228-8800
Fax: 410-228-3868
UME-Frederick County
330 Montevue Lane
Frederick, MD 21702
301-600-1594
Fax: 301-600-1588
UME-Garrett County
1916 Maryland Hwy., Suite A
Mt. Lake Park, MD 21550
301-334-6960
Fax: 301-334-6961
UME-Harford County
P. O. Box 663
2335 Rock Spring Road
Forest Hill, MD 21050
410-638-3255
Fax: 410-638-3053
UME-Howard County
3300 N. Ridge Rd., Suite 240
Ellicott City, MD 21043
410-313-2707
DC Area 301-621-4300 x410
Fax: 410-313-2712
UME-Kent County
Kent Co. Public Works Complex
709 Morgnec Road, Suite 202
Chestertown, MD 21620
410-778-1661
Fax: 410-778-9075
UME-Montgomery County
18410 Muncaster Road
Derwood, MD 20855
301-590-9638
Fax: 301-590-2828
UME-Somerset County
30730 Park Drive
Princess Anne, MD 21853
410-651-1350
Fax: 410-651-0806
UME-Talbot County
Talbot Agriculture Svc. Center
28577 Marys Court, Suite 1
Easton, Maryland 21601
410-822-1244
Fax: 410-822-5627
UME-Alleghany County
One Commerce Drive
Cumberland, MD 21502
301-724-3320
Fax: 301-722-4015
UME-Washington County
7303 Sharpsburg Pike
Boonsboro, MD 21713
301-791-1304
Fax: 301-791-1048
UME-Wicomico County
P. O. Box 1836
28647 Old Quantico Road
Salisbury, MD 21802-1836
410-749-6141
Fax: 410-548-5126
UME-Worchester County
P. O. Box 219, 100 River Street
Snow Hill, MD 21863
410-632-1972
Fax: 410-632-3023
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