1.

BRAIN STUFF
The cerebral cortex (consisting of 52 Brodmann areas) is responsible for the 3
kinds of conscious behavior.
Motor areas are responsible for allowing you to physically interact with the
surrounding area: to move. The primary motor cortex is responsible for skeletal
muscular control. The axons of its pyrimidial cells form the corticospinal tracts.
Damage to this area results in paralysis. Voluntary control over certain muscles no
longer exists. The premotor cortex acts as a memory center for repetitive
motions dance, sports, typing, etc. Damage to this center results in no paralysis,
but all the programmed skills must be relearned. Brocas area is the motor
speech area. It coordinates the muscles of the mouth to allow us to talk. Damage
to this area results in the physical inability to speak. The frontal eye field is
responsible for voluntary eye movement such as glancing from side to side without
head movement. Damage results in loss of voluntary eye movement.
Sensory areas are responsible for allowing you to interpret your surroundings. The
primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for receiving and interpreting
information from receptors (pain, heat, pressure, etc.) The somatosensory
association area interprets this information so you recognize what is being felt.
Damage to the cortex results in loss of sensation, while damage to the association
area results in loss of the ability to interpret what is being felt. The primary visual
cortex receives visual information from the eyes. The visual association area
interprets the information. Damage to the cortex results in blindness, wile damage
to the association area results in the inability to recognize what is being seen. The
primary auditory cortex receives auditory input. The auditory association
area interprets what is heard. Damage to the cortex causes deafness, while
damage to the association area results in the inability to interpret sound. The
primary olfactory cortex receives signals from the nose (odors), while the
olfactory association area interprets what is being smelled. The primary
gustatory cortex receives taste information from the mouth. Its association area
interprets what is being tasted.
Association areas are responsible for meaningful interaction with the outside world.
The prefrontal cortex is associated with learning, ideas, judgment, empathy, and
emotion. Damage to the prefrontal cortex results in mental/personality disorders.
The general interpretation area includes the sensory association areas. It
interprets sensation and makes connections with memory. Damage results in not
the loss of perception but loss of ability to see/hear/taste/etc. what is being
perceived. Wernickes area is the language center of the brain. It is involved with
the interpretation of written and spoken language. While you may hear someone
speak or look at words on a paper, none of it can be understood if this area is
damaged. The visceral association area interprets visceral sensations such as
stomach and bladder signals.
2. REFLEXES AND SUCH
Reflex arcs consist of a receptor, a sensory (afferent) neuron, an integration center,
a motor (efferent) neuron, and an effector. The receptor is what feels the
stimulus like a nociceptor. The sensory neuron carries the stimulus to the
integration center. The integration center interprets the information and
determines what needs to happen. A signal is sent from the integration center
along the motor neuron. This signal triggers the effector, which carries out the
action like a muscle. In a somatic reflex arc, the receptor may be a nociceptor
which has sensed pain when you touch a hot surface. A sensory neuron carries this

information through the dorsal root into the spinal cord. The spinal cord
interneuron (the integration center) interprets the signal from the nociceptor and
sends a signal along the motor neuron to the muscles of the arm (effector). The
muscles jerk the hand away from the hot surface. In an autonomic reflex arc, a
stimulus of food odor may trigger olfactory receptors in the nose (receptor). The
receptors send the signals via a sensory neuron to the brain (integration area). The
brain sends a signal via a motor neuron to the salivary glands (effector), causing
the salivary glands to produce saliva. Autonomic reflexes act on organs and
structures while somatic reflexes usually act on muscles.
3. Butters hypocalcemia is caused by abnormal parathyroid hormone production. Not
enough PTH is being produced, resulting in inhibited osteoclast activity. PTH is the
main hormone used to control Ca+ level. Hypocalcemia can cause bruising, a
sensation of pins and needles, and tetany in various parts of the body. Usually, it is
treated with intravenous calcium. Butters hyperglycemia is cause by impaired
insulin function. Insulin is the main hormone responsible for glucose levels in the
body. Acute hyperglycemia is life threatening due to massive loss of fluids. In
severe cases, it can cause seizures and coma. Chronic hyperglycemia is usually
caused by diabetes. To treat hyperglycemia, the underlying cause must be
eliminated. In acute cases, insulin injections are often given. Butters low thyroid
stimulating hormone results in hypothyroidism. TSH is responsible for stimulating
and inhibiting thyroid activity. Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does
not produce enough thyroid hormone. This can cause weight gain, fatigue, and a
slowed metabolism. The treatment is injections of a thyroid hormone substitute to
restore balance. Poor Butters!
4. BLOOD
There are three main steps to the stoppage of bleeding. Step one is vascular
spasm. The area around where the blood vessel is damaged contracts to reduce
blood loss. Step two is platelet plug formation. Collagen fibers in the vessel wall
are exposed when the vessel tears. The platelets swell and form spiked processes,
which stick to the collagen. The platelets break down and release serotonin, ADP,
and other chemicals to increase vascular spasm, attract other platelets, etc. Fibrin
threads then glue the platelets together to seal the tears. The last step is
coagulation. First, a prothrombin activator is formed. The clotting factor turns the
prothrombin into thrombin, an enzyme. The thrombin catalyzes the transformation
of fibrogen into a fibrin mesh, which traps blood cells and seals the tear until the
vessel can be sealed.
5. HEART
Blood starting at the right atrium passes through the tricuspid valve and into the
right ventricle. There, it passes the pulmonary semilunar valve to enter the
pulmonary artery, where it travels to the capillary beds of the lungs. Once the
blood is oxygenated, it travels via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. The
blood goes past the bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle, past the aortic semilunar
valve, and into the aorta. The aorta separates into the several arteries
(brachiocephalic, carotid, etc.). The arteries separate into arterioles, which
eventually become capillaries. The capillaries carry oxygen and other nutrients to
cells, then carry deoxygenated blood and waste materials via venoules and veins
to the inferior/superior vena cava. These vessels empty into the right atrium.
6. Nope.

7. IDEAL GASES
The ideal gas law (Boyles law) states that the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure (P1V1 = P2V2). Essentially, as volume increases,
pressure decreases. So when the diaphragm contracts and lung volume increases,
intrapulmonary pressure decreases. This creates a pressure gradient (as the
intrapulmonary pressure is less than the pressure of the air outside). Air travels
down the pressure gradient and into the lungs. As the diaphragm relaxes,
intrapulmonary pressure rises and the pressure gradient disappears. Exhalation
occurs.
8. CHAMBERS
Hyperbaric chambers are used to treat conditions like nitrogen narcosis, and
carbon monoxide poisoning. Nitrogen narcosis (the bends) occurs when the
nitrogen in the bloodstream forms bubbles when a diver depressurizes too fast.
CO2 poisoning occurs when CO is inhaled. Hyperbaric chambers contain a high
percent of oxygen under pressure. Daltons law states that total pressure equals
sum of partial pressures. If you put air under pressure, the partial pressure of
various gases will increase like oxygen. Henrys law states that the solubility of a
gas is directly proportional to its pressure. So if air is put under high pressure, the
partial pressure of oxygen will increase. When the partial pressure of oxygen
increases, its solubility increases, and its concentration in the blood increases. This
forces nitrogen out of the blood (in the case of nitrogen narcosis) and CO out of the
blood (in the case of CO poisoning).
9. Omnomnomfood. I got this.
10.
PEE
Urine formation occurs in the nephrons of the kidney. In filtration, blood in the
afferent arteriole enters the glomerulus, which is surrounded by the Bowmans
capsule. The bloods filterable components (water, nutrients, waste) pass through
membranes and into the Bowmans capsule. These filtered materials are called
glomular filtrate. In reabsorption, glomular filtrate travels through the renal tubules
(proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule).
Water is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries via passive reabsorption. Blood
glucose and sodium ions are reabsorbed via active transport. During secretion, the
filtrate enters the distal and collecting tubules. Wastes are secreted through active
transport from the peritubular capillaries into tubules. Urine travels down the
ureters and into the bladder, where it is held until disposal.
11.
In spermatogenesis, spermatogonia undergo meiosis to produce
spermatozoa. A spermatogonium copies its DNA through replication (interphase)
and then undergoes meiosis i to form two spermatocytes. Each goes through
meiosis ii to form four haploid spermatids.
In spermiogenesis, the spermatids are matured into spermatozoa. During the golgi
phase, the cells polarity becomes apparent. The golgi apparatus forms at one end,
while the mitochondria forms at the other end to become the axoneme. DNA is
packaged into chromatin. During the cap phase, the golgi apparatus surrounds the
nucleus to form the acrosomal cap. During the tail formation phase, a centriole
becomes the sperms tail. The last stage, maturation, results in the excess
cytoplasm being removed through phagocytosis. The sperm are then released into

the lumen of the seminal tubule and then into the epididymis where they acquire
motility.
12.
The uterine cycle and the menstrual cycle are closely interlinked. The uterine
cycle starts at the end of the menses. During the first step, the early proliferative,
the uterine glands are small and sparse. Estrogen causes the epithelial cause
microvilli and cilia to appear. During the late proliferative stage, the stratum
functionalis is thickened. The glands are denser. During this time, the follicular
phase of the ovarian cycle occurs. The endometrium thickens, and follicle
stimulating hormone cause follicles to grow and estrogen levels to rise. The next
part of the uterine cycle correlates with the ovulation and luteal phases of the
ovarian cycles. In the uterus, the glands coil, the endometrium lining is at its
thickest, and the lumen starts producing glycoproteins. During ovulation, lutenizing
hormone causes the follicle to rupture and the egg travels down the fallopian tubes
and into the uterus. In the luteal phase, the follicle becomes the corpus luteum,
producing estrogen and progesterone. The last phase is the menstrual phase
(uterine) and menustration (ovarian). In both, the linings and structures built up
over the cycle are sloughed. The corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone stops,
the stratum functionalis, the endometrium, and menses leave the body through
the vagina.