Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Role No: 53
Introduction:
The Researcher is researching on effect of Earthquake, Volcano and Tsunami. These are
the ultimate destroyer of the Natural Environment and Human Environment. We usually
think of the ground and the oceans are peaceful things. The ground lies quietly beneath our
feet, and the ocean laps gently against the shore. But forces deep within the Earth can
suddenly destroy that peacefulness. These forces cause violent shakings called earthquakes;
explosions of ash, gases, and hot rocks called volcanoes; and huge waves called tsunamis.
(i)
Earthquake: The plates usually move very slowly. But sometimes large pieces of
the plates get caught. The plates keep trying to move, but these large blocks of rock
hold them back. The pressure and energy build up. Then, suddenly, the rocks give
way, releasing all that pressure and energy. The plates jerk forward, and the ground
shakes. Far above, on the surface, people feel an earthquake. In a small earthquake,
the ground shakes a little, causing some hanging objects to swing. Tree branches
sway, as if there were a gentle breeze. Some earthquakes are so small that we do not
notice them. But sometimes the shaking is so strong that buildings crumble, bridges
collapse, and large cracks open in the ground over large areas.
(ii)
Volcano: A volcano occurs wherever magma from deep inside the Earth comes out
through a crack in the surface. Volcanoes usually happen near the edges of the plates,
where there are many cracks and thin spots where the magma can leak out. When the
magma pours onto the surface, it hardens, often piling up into a mountain.
Sometimes, the liquid rock flows peacefully out across the land. This is how many of
the active volcanoes on the Hawaiian Islands behave.
(iii)
Tsunami: Tsunamis are huge waves caused by earthquakes or volcanoes. They used
to be called tidal waves. But the word tidal means something to do with the
oceans normal tides, and tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Tsunamis can
be as high as a football field is long. They are the largest waves in the world.
Hypothesis:
Earthquake, Volcano and Tsunami has significant effect on our natural and human
environment which causes huge damages to life and property.
Chapterisation:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Concept
Chapter 2.1: Concept of Earthquake
Chapter 2.2: Concept of Volcano
Chapter 2.3: Concept of Tsunami
Chapter 3: Effects
Chapter 3.1: Effects of Earthquake
Chapter 3.1: Effects of Volcano
Chapter 3.1: Effects of Tsunami
Chapter 4: Safety Precautions
Chapter 4.1: Safety Precautions during earthquake
Chapter 4.2: Safety Precautions during volcanic eruptions
Chapter 4.3: Safety Precautions during Tsunami
Chapter 5: Legal Framework
Conclusion: Now a days Earthquake, Volcano and Tsunami are serious challenges before
the world. Because all countries concentrate on only development. Therefore due to massive
development and without environment management global warming is increasing day by
day. Then Human and Natural life are going danger. Now a days we are listening about news
that Earthquake, Volcano and Tsunami are happen in most of countries again and again.
earthquake, trembling or shaking movement of the earth's surface. Most earthquakes are minor tremors. Larger earthquakes usually
begin with slight tremors but rapidly take the form of one or more violent shocks, and end in vibrations of gradually diminishing force called
aftershocks. The subterranean point of origin of an earthquake is called its focus; the point on the surface directly above the focus is the
epicenter. The magnitude and intensity of an earthquake is determined by the use of scales, e.g., the moment magnitude scale, Richter scale
, and the modified Mercalli scale.
Causes of Earthquakes
Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at the margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates
that make up the earth's surface (see lithosphere
). The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault
, or fracture in the earth's crust, resulting in movement of the opposing blocks of rock past one another. These movements cause vibrations
to pass through and around the earth in wave form, just as ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic eruptions,
rockfalls, landslides, and explosions can also cause a quake, but most of these are of only local extent. Shock waves from a powerful
earthquake can trigger smaller earthquakes in a distant location hundreds of miles away if the geologic conditions are favorable.
See also plate tectonics
.
Seismic Waves
There are several types of earthquake waves including P, or primary, waves, which are compressional and travel fastest; and S, or
secondary, waves, which are transverse, i.e., they cause the earth to vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of their motion. Surface waves
consist of several major types and are called L, or long, waves. Since the velocities of the P and S waves are affected by changes in the
density and rigidity of the material through which they pass, the boundaries between the regions of the earth known as the crust, mantle, and
core have been discerned by seismologists, scientists who deal with the analysis and interpretation of earthquake waves (see earth
). Seismographs (see seismology
) are used to record P, S, and L waves. The disappearance of S waves below depths of 1,800 mi (2,900 km) indicates that at least the outer
part of the earth's core is liquid.
Major Earthquakes
On average about 1,000 earthquakes with intensities of 5.0 or greater are recorded each year. Great earthquakes (magnitude 8.0 or higher)
occur once a year, major earthquakes (magnitude 7.07.9) occur 18 times a year, strong earthquakes (magnitude 6.06.9) 10 times a month,
and moderate earthquakes (magnitude 5.05.9) more than twice a day. Because most of these occur under the ocean or in underpopulated
areas, they pass unnoticed by all but seismologists. Moderate to strong earthquakes can cause more significant destruction if they occur
closer to the earth's surface. Notable earthquakes have occurred at Lisbon, Portugal (1755); New Madrid, Mo. (1811 and 1812); Charleston,
S.C. (1886); Assam, India (1897 and 1950); San Francisco (1906); Messina, Italy (1908); Gansu, China (1920); Tokyo, Japan (1923); Chile
(1960); Iran (1962); S Alaska (1964); Managua, Nicaragua (1972); Guatemala (1976); Hebei, China (1976); Mexico (1985); Armenia (1988);
Luzon, Philippines (1990); N Japan (1993); Kobe, Japan (1995); Izmit, Turkey (1999); central Taiwan (1999); Oaxaca state, Mexico (1999);
Bam, Iran (2003); NW Sumatra, Indonesia (2004); Sichuan, China (2008); S Haiti (2010); Chile (2010); South Island, New Zealand (2010,
2011); and NE Japan (2011). The Lisbon, Chilean, Alaskan, Sumatran, and NE Japan earthquakes were accompanied by
significant tsunamis.
Twelve of the twenty largest earthquakes in the United States have occurred in Alaska. Most of the largest in the continental United States
have occurred in California or elsewhere along the Pacific Coast, but the three New Madrid earthquakes (181112) also were among the
largest continental events, as was the Charleston, S.C., earthquake (1886). On Good Friday 1964, one of the most severe North American
earthquakes ever recorded struck near Anchorage, Alaska, measuring 8.4 to 8.6 in magnitude. Besides elevating some 70,000 sq mi
(181,300 sq km) of land and devastating several cities, it generated a tsunami that caused damage as far south as California. Other recent
earthquakes that have affected the United States include the Feb., 1971, movement of the San Fernando fault near Los Angeles. It rocked
the area for 10 sec, thrust parts of mountains 8 ft (2.4 m) upward, killed 64 persons, and caused damage amounting to $500 million. In 1989,
the Loma Prieta earthquake above Santa Cruz shook for 15 seconds at an magnitude of 7.1, killed 67 people, and toppled buildings and
bridges. In Jan., 1994, an earthquake measuring 6.6 with its epicenter in N Los Angeles caused major damage to the city's infrastructure and
left thousands homeless.
Bibliography
See C. H. Scholz, The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting (1991); C. Lomnitz, Fundamentals of Earthquake Prediction(1994); D. S.
Brumbaugh, Earthquakes: Science and Society (1998); B. A. Bolt, Earthquakes (4th ed. 1999). See also bibliography under seismology.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright 2013, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/
earthquake
Sudden shaking of the ground caused by a disturbance deeper within the crust of the Earth. Most earthquakes occur when masses of rock
straining against one another along fault lines suddenly fracture and slip. The Earth's major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with
the margins of tectonic plates. These include the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian Islands,
Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America; the Alpide Belt, which passes through the Mediterranean region eastward
through Asia; oceanic ridges in the Arctic, Atlantic, and western Indian oceans; and the rift valleys of East Africa. The size, or magnitude, of
earthquakes is usually expressed in terms of the Richter scale, which assigns levels from 1.0 or lower to 8.0 or higher. The largest quake
ever recorded (Richter magnitude 9.5) occurred off the coast of Chile in 1960. The strength of an earthquake is rated in intensity scales
such as the Mercalli scale, which assigns qualitative measures of damage to terrain and structures that range from not felt to damage
nearly total. The most destructive quake of modern times occurred in 1976, when the city of Tangshan, China, was leveled and more than
250,000 people killed.
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little
warning. They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire
habitation but may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the country.
Earthquakes are the manifestations of sudden release of strain energy accumulated in the rocks over extensive periods of time in the upper
part of the Earth.
Seismology (derived from Greek word Seismos meaning Earthquake and Logos meaning science) is the science of Earthquakes and
related phenomena.
Seismograph/ Seismogram
Seismograph is an instrument that records the ground motions. Seismogram is a continuous written record of an earthquake recorded by a
seismograph.
Seismic Zonation map of a country is a guide to the seismic status of a region and its susceptibility to earthquakes. India has been divided
into five zones with respect to severity of earthquakes. Of these, Zone V is seismically the most active where earthquakes of magnitude 8 or
more could occur recent strong motion observations around the world have revolutionized thinking on the design of engineering structures,
placing emphasis also on the characteristics of the structures themselves it should be realized that in the case of shield type earthquakes,
historic data are insufficient to define zones because recurrence intervals are much longer than the recorded human history this may often
give a false sense of security. Occurrence of the damaging earthquake at Latur, falling in zone I is a typical example of this situation.
Cause of Earthquake :
The earths crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth of about 10kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers under the
continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions called plates which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of
kilometers. The theory of plate tectonics holds that theplates ride up on the more mobile mantle,and are driven by some yet unconfirmed
mechanisms, perhaps thermal convection currents. When these plates contact each other, stress arises in the crust. These stresses can be
classified according to the type of movement along the plates boundaries:
a) pulling away from each other,
b) pushing against one another and
c) sliding sideways relative to each other.
All these movements are associated with earthquakes.The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping
or rupturing are known as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crustis continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates;
it eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds under its own
elastic stresses until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or
earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all directions. The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be located near the
surface or deep below it. The point on the surface directly above the focus is termed as the epicenter' of the earthquake
Magnitude:
It is a quantity to measure the size of an earthquake and is independent of the place of the observation.
Richter Scale:
The local magnitude is defined as the logarithm of the maximum amplitude measured in microns on a seismogram written by WoodAnderson seismograph with free period of 0.8 second, magnification of 2,800, damping factor of 0.8 calculated to be at a distance of 100
kms. The relative size of events is calculated by comparison to a reference event of ML=0,using the formula, ML=log A-log Ao
where A is the maximum trace amplitude in micrometer recorded on a standard seismograph and Ao is a standard value which is a
function of epicentral distance () in kilometers.
Classification of earthquakes
Category
Slight
Upto 4.9
Moderate
5.0 to 6.9
Great
7.0 to 7.9
Very Great
Source: www.imd.gov.in
India has witnessed some of the most devastating earthquakes during the last century like the one in Kangra (1905), Bihar-Nepal (1934) and
in Assam (1950). In the recent past, earthquakes have caused havoc in Uttarkashi (1991), Latur (1993), Jabalpur (1997), Chamoli (1999)
and in Bhuj (2001).
On 26th January 2001, India experienced one of the worst earthquakes in recent times. Measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale, the earthquake
caused incalculable damage not just to its epicenter, Bhuj but also to other towns of the district of Kutch and to about 500 villages out of the
total of 900 villages. The reported damage to property in Gujarat was about Rs.21, 000crore and the number of human lives lost were about
14,000. Of these, more than 500 deaths were reported from Ahmedabad, situated at a distance of about 350 kms from Bhuj. In the same city,
close to 150 multi-storied buildings crumbled down. Cities far away from the epicenter, like Surat, too reported damage to property.
SOME DAMAGING EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA AND APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF LIVES LOST
Year of
occurrence
Place of
occurrence
1618
Bombay
1720
Delhi
1737
Intensity
Others
6.5
Bengal
1803
Mathura
6.5
1803
Kumaon
6.5
1819
Kutchch
8.0
XI
1828
Srinagar
6.0
1833
Bihar
7.7
1848
Mt.Abu, Rajasthan
6.0
1869
Assam
7.5
Affected an area of
2,50,000 Sq. miles.
1885
Srinagar
7.0
1897
Shillong
8.7
XII
1905
Himachal Pradesh
8.0
XI
Thousands of people
killed.
1906
Himachal Pradesh
7.0
Heavy damage.
1916
Nepal
7.5
1918
Assam
7.6
Heavy damage.
1930
Dhubri, Meghalaya
7.1
IX
1934
Bihar, Nepal
8.3
XI
1935
7.5
IX
1941
Andaman
8.1
1947
Dibrugarh
7.8
Heavy damage.
1950
Assam
8.6
XII
1952
NE India
7.5
1956
Bulandshahar, U.P.
6.7
VIII
1956
Anjar, Gujarat
7.0
VIII
1958
Kapkote, U.P.
6.3
VIII
1967
Koyna,
6.1
VIII
1969
Bhadrachalam
6.5
Heavy damage.
1986
Dharamshala (H.P)
5.7
VIII
Lots of damage.
1988
Assam
7.2
IX
1988
Bihar- Nepal
6.5
VIII
1991
Uttarkashi
6.6
VIII
VIII
VIII
Lots of damage to
property, about 39 lives
lost.
1993
1997
Latur
Jabalpur
6.4
6.0
1999
Chamoli
6.8
VIII
Lots of damage to
property about 100 people
lost lives.
2001
Bhuj
6.9
Kashmir and Western Himalayas - Covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub-mountainous areas of
Punjab
Central Himalayas - Includes the mountain and sub-mountain regions of Uttar Pradesh and the sub-mountainous parts of Punjab
North-east India - Comprises the whole of Indian territory to the east of north Bengal
Indo-Gangetic basin and Rajasthan - This region comprises of Rajasthan, plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal
Re-framing buildings' codes, guidelines, manuals and byelaws and their strict implementation. Tougher legislation for highly
seismic areas.
Making all public utilities like water supply systems, communication networks, electricity lines etc. earthquake-proof. Creating
alternative arrangements to reduce damages to infrastructure facilities.
Constructing earthquake-resistant community buildings and buildings (used to gather large groups during or after an earthquake)
like schools, dharamshalas, hospitals, prayer halls, etc., especially in seismic zones of moderate to higher intensities.
Supporting R&D in various aspects of disaster mitigation, preparedness and prevention and post-disaster management.
Evolving educational curricula in architecture and engineering institutions and technical training in polytechnics and schools to
include disaster related topics.
Preparation of disaster related literature in local languages with dos and don'ts for construction.
Getting communities involved in the process of disaster mitigation through education and awareness.
Descriptor
Magnitude
Average Annually
Great
8 and higher
Major
7 - 7.9
17
Strong
6 - 6.9
134
Moderate
5 - 5.9
1319
Light
4 - 4.9
13,000 (estimated)
Minor
3 - 3.9
130,000 (estimated)
Very Minor
2 - 2.9
1,300,000 (estimated)
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
8.0 to 9.9
7.0 to 7.9
14
15
13
14
14
6.0 to 6.9
158
126
130
140
140
116
5.0 to 5.9
1345
1243
1218
1203
1509
1307
4.0 to 4.9
8045
8084
8584
8462
10894
10264
3.0 to 3.9
4784
6151
7005
7624
7937
5782
2.0 to 2.9
3758
4162
6419
7727
6317
3249
1.0 to 1.9
1026
944
1137
2506
1344
20
0.1 to 0.9
10
134
103
No Magnitude
3120
2938
2937
3608
2939
642
Total
22256
23534
27454
31419
* 31199
* 21390
21357
1685
33819
284010
1957
Date
Epicenter
Location
Magnitude
1819 Jun 16
23.6
68.6
Kutch,Gujarat
8.0
1869 Jan 10
25
93
7.5
1885 May 30
34.1
74.6
Sopor, J&K
7.0
1897 Jun 12
26
91
Shillongplateau
8.7
1905 Apr 04
32.3
76.3
Kangra, H.P
8.0
1918 Jul 08
24.5
91.0
Srimangal, Assam
7.6
1930 Jul 02
25.8
90.2
Dhubri, Assam
7.1
1934 Jan 15
26.6
86.8
Bihar-Nepalborder
8.3
1941 Jun 26
12.4
92.5
Andaman Islands
8.1
1943 Oct 23
26.8
94.0
Assam
7.2
1950 Aug 15
28.5
96.7
1956 Jul 21
23.3
7.0
Anjar, Gujarat
7.0
1967 Dec 10
17.37
73.75
Koyna, Maharashtra
6.5
1975 Jan 19
32.38
78.49
Kinnaur, Hp
6.2
1988 Aug 06
25.13
95.15
Manipur-Myanmar Border
6.6
1988 Aug 21
26.72
86.63
Bihar-Nepal Border
6.4
1991 Oct 20
30.75
78.86
Uttarkashi, Up Hills
6.6
1993 Sep 30
18.07
76.62
1997 May 22
23.08
80.06
Jabalpur, MP
6.0
1999 Mar 29
30.41
79.42
Champoli, UP
6.8
2001 Jan 26
23.40
70.28
Bhuj, Gujarat
6.9
Extensive Definition
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth'scrust that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes are recorded with aseismometer, also known as a seismograph. The moment
magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the related and mostly
obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and
magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the
modifiedMercalli scale.
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by a shaking and sometimes displacement
of the ground. When a large earthquakeepicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers
sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides
and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic eventwhether a
natural phenomenon or an event caused by humansthat generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are
caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, huge amounts of gas migration, mainly methane deep
within the earth, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear experiments.
An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter means
the point at ground level directly above this.
Earthquake storms
Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes
strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous
earthquakes. Similar toaftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the
course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern
was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in
Turkey in the 20th century, the half dozen large earthquakes in New Madrid in 1811-1812, and has
been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East and in the Mojave
Desert.
The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As
a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past because of the vast improvement in
instrumentation (not because the number of earthquakes has increased). The USGSestimates that,
since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and one great
earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. In
fact, in recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has actually decreased, although this
is likely a statistical fluctuation. More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is
available from the USGS.
Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long,
horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire,
which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other
plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains.
With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo orTehran, in areas of high seismic
risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 million
people.
Effects/impacts of earthquakes
There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the following:
Fires
Following an earthquake, fires can be generated by break of theelectrical power or gas lines. In the
event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread
of a fire once it has started.
Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturatedgranular material
temporarily loses its strength and transforms from asolid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause
rigid structures, as buildings or bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
Tsunami
Undersea earthquakes and earthquake-triggered landslides into the sea, can cause Tsunami. See,
for example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
Floods
Floods may be a secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.
Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which then collapse and cause floods.
Human impacts
Earthquakes may result in disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance premiums,
general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse of buildings or destabilization of the
base of buildings which may lead to collapse in future earthquakes.
The most significant human impact is loss of life
Earthquake preparedness
Seismic retrofit
Seismic hazard
Earthquake prediction
Alpine Fault
Calaveras Fault
Hope Fault
Liquie-Ofqui Fault
Wasatch Fault
Major earthquakes
Pre-20th century
Basel earthquake (1356). Major earthquake that struck Central Europe in 1356.
Carniola earthquake (1511). A major earthquake that shook a large portion of South-Central
Europe. Its epicenter was around the town of Idrija, in today's Slovenia. It caused great damage to
structures all over Carniola, including Ljubljana, and in westernCarinthia, particularly
in Villach and Klagenfurt which were almost completely destroyed. There was some minor damage
inVenice and other cities, too.
Shaanxi Earthquake (1556). Deadliest known earthquake in history, estimated to have killed
830,000 in China.
Dubrovnik earthquake (1667). Disastrous earthquake inDubrovnik, Croatia killed about 3/5
of the population.
Port Royal Earthquake (1692). An earthquake on June 7, 1692, largely destroyed Port Royal,
a safe harbor for pirates, causing two thirds of the city to sink into the Caribbean Sea.
The great Sicilian earthquake (1693). As many as 100,000 may have died.
Kamchatka earthquakes (1737) The third biggest earthquake on record measuring 9.3 on the
Richter scale.
Lisbon earthquake (1755), one of the most destructive and deadly earthquakes in history,
killing between 60,000 and 100,000 people and causing a major tsunami that affected parts
of Europe,North Africa and the Caribbean.
Quito earthquake. (1797) Quito, Viceroyalty of Peru, now the capital of Ecuador, was
devastated by an earthquake. 40,000 died.
New Madrid Earthquake (1811), and another tremor (1812) that also struck the small
Missouri town, was reportedly the strongest ever in North America and made the Mississippi
Rivertemporarily change its direction and permanently altered its course in the region.
Fort Tejon Earthquake (1857). Estimated Richter Scale above 8, said the strongest
earthquake in Southern California history.
Great Neapolitan Earthquake (1857). Estimated Richter Scale of 6.9. 11,000 dead.
1872 Lone Pine earthquake (1872). Might been strongest ever measured in California with an
estimated Richter Scale of 8.1 saidseismologists.
100.
Charleston earthquake (1886). Largest earthquake in the southeastern United States, killed
Ljubljana earthquake (14. IV. 1895), a series of powerful quakes that ultimately had a vital
impact on the city of Ljubljana, being acatalyst of its urban renewal.
Assam earthquake of 1897 (1897). Large earthquake that destroyed all masonry structures,
measuring more than 8 on the Richter scale.
20th century
San Francisco Earthquake (1906). Between 7.7 and 8.3 magnitudes; killed approximately
3,000 people and caused around $400 million in damage; most devastating earthquake in California
and U.S. history.
Great Kant earthquake (1923). On the Japanese island ofHonsh, killing over 140,000
in Tokyo and environs.
1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake. Occurred in the Hawkes Bay in theNorth Island of New
Zealand leaving 256 dead.
1935 Balochistan earthquake at Quetta, Pakistan measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale.
Anywhere from 30,000 to 60,000 people died
1939 Erzincan earthquake at Erzincan, Turkey measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale.
Ashgabat earthquake (1948). Earthquake in Ashgabat, Soviet Union measuring 7.3 on the
Richter scale killed over 110,000 (2/3 the population of the city).
Great Kern County earthquake (1952). This was second strongest tremor in Southern
California history, epicentered 60 miles North of Los Angeles. Major damage in Bakersfield,
California and Kern County, California, while it shook the Los Angeles area.
Great Chilean Earthquake (1960). Strongest earthquake ever recorded, 9.5 on Moment
magnitude scale, and generatedtsunamis throughout the Pacific ocean. It measured 9.6 on
theRichter scale.
1963 Skopje earthquake, measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale kills 1,800 people, leaves another
120,000 homeless, and destroys 80% of the city.
Good Friday Earthquake (1964) In Alaska, it was the fourth biggest earthquake recorded,
Luzon Earthquake (1990). On 16 July 1990, an earthquake measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale
struck the island of Luzon, Philippines.
Landers, California earthquake (1992). Serious damage in the small town of Yucca Valley,
California and was felt across 10 states in Western U.S. Another tremor measured 6.4 struck 3 hours
later and felt across Southern California.
August 1993 Guam Earthquake, measuring 8.2 on the Richter scale and lasting 60 seconds.
1993 Latur earthquake Latur Earthquake,an earthquake of magnitude 6.3 on Richter Scale
rocked the districts of Latur and Osmanabad in Maharashtra in India.The degree of fury was such
that dwellings in several villages of these 2 districts were totally converted to debris. In
adjoining Karnataka state, 9 people were killed and about 16,000 people injured. A huge number of
houses were damaged.
Sakhalin earthquake (1995). Measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale, killing over 2,000 people
in Sakhalin, Russia.
Great Hanshin earthquake (1995). Killed over 6,400 people in and around Kobe, Japan.
1998 Afghanistan earthquake (1998). 6.9 on the Richter scale. Some 125 villages were
damaged and 4000 people killed.
Athens earthquake (1999). 5.9 on the Richter scale, it hit Athenson September 7. Epicentered
10 miles north of the Greek capital, it claimed 143 lives.
Chi-Chi earthquake (1999) Also called the 921 earthquake. StruckTaiwan on September
21, 1999. Over 2,000 people killed, destroyed or damaged over ten thousand buildings. Caused world
computer prices to rise sharply.
Armenia, Colombia (1999) 6.2 on the Richter scale, Killed over 2,000 in the Colombian
Coffee Grown Zone.
1999 zmit earthquake measuring 7.5 on the Richter scale and killed over 40,000 people and
left approximately half a million people homeless in northwestern Turkey.
Hector Mine earthquake (1999). 7.1 on the Richter scale, epicentered 30 miles east
of Barstow, California, widely felt in California and Nevada.
1999 Dzce earthquake at Dzce, Turkey measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale.
21st century
El Salvador earthquakes (2001). 7.9 (13 January) and 6.6 (13 February) magnitudes, killed
more than 1,100 people.
Parkfield, California earthquake (2004). Not large (6.0), but the most anticipated and
intensely instrumented earthquake ever recorded and likely to offer insights into predicting future
earthquakes elsewhere on similar slip-strike fault structures.
Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake (26 December 2004). By some estimates, the second largest
earthquake in recorded history (estimates of magnitude vary between 9.1
February 25 2008 Sumatra earthquake 7.3 magnitude. The quake was centered about 160
km (100 miles) south-southwest ofPadang. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a
localtsunami watch.
March 21 2008 China earthquake 7.2 magnitude. The quake happened in Yutian County,
Xinjiang, a remote region in theKunlun Mountains far from any residential areas.
March 29 2008 Sumatra earthquake 6.3 magnitude. The epicenter was about 175 miles (281
kilometers) south of Banda Aceh -- in a region hard-hit by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued warnings on the possibility of the quake
triggering tsunamis on coasts near its epicenter.
April 8 2008 earthquake 7.5 magnitude. The quake was in the southern Pacific Ocean, about
85 kilometers southwest ofVanuatu.
The Earthquake
As India commemorated its 51st Republic Day on
Saturday January 26, a tremendous earthquake struck
Gujarat State in the western part of the country. The
quake's epicenter was near the town of Bhuj in Kutch
District, but tremors from the quake, which registered
7.7 on the Richter scale, were felt deep into Pakistan
and as far away as Nepal.
Estimates for the death toll ranged as high as 100,000
people, and buildings and infrastructure in many areas
were completely destroyed.
After traveling to Bhuj's worst hit areas, CARE worker
Renu Suri described the trauma of survivors
immediately following the quake: "Life has come to a
One tarpaulin, two floor mats and three blankets to protect families from nighttime
temperatures dipping below 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
One 10-liter jerrycan and 20 water purification tablets to ensure each family a clean water
supply for up to three weeks; and
One lantern per family to provide light and security. CARE also assembled six medical teams,
each consisting of a doctor and paramedic, that were rapidly mobilized to the field to provide medical
assistance in the areas most in need. CARE also supplied first-aid equipment and basic medicines
to anganwadi (community) centers in the four areas. By the end of February, CARE concluded the
emergency phase of its relief activities, benefiting more than 10,000 families (50,000 people).
Click here for a summary.
FICCI and CARE have completed 4,982 earthquake resistant houses in 23 villages of Kutch,
Gujarat. Each house is 30 square meters and has two rooms, a kitchen and an attached or community
toilet. The remaining 18 homes will be completed by March 2003.
CARE and FICCI have rebuilt community buildings, such as schools, local government offices
and health centers. So far, 15 schools, 10 community centers, 21 anganwadi(daycare) centers, 5
health centers and 12 panchayat ghars (local government offices) are complete. Three additional
structures (a community center, a health center and an anganwadi center) are expected to be
completed by March 2003.
The project is also helping villagers with basic services, such as access to clean drinking water,
sanitation and new roads. To address the water shortage in Gujarat, the government is providing an
access point at each village entrance; CARE and FICCI are supplying storage tanks and water pipelines.
At the request of the villages, the project is also providing more hygienic sewage pipelines as well as
village entrance gates to increase safety.
To help farmers begin replanting as soon as possible, CARE provided seeds and tools to 1,632
families. We also provided training in organic farming practices to 14 villages, demonstrated drip
irrigation for 30 villages and distributed 1,200 irrigation kits.
To date, CARE has repaired 54 water-harvesting systems serving 10,500 farming families in 47
villages. In addition, the project expanded drinking water systems in six villages, reducing the distance
women have to walk to collect water for their families. The project also revitalized damaged drinking
water sources in the villages and supported the repair of 32 common wells serving 3,500 families in 30
villages.
The project has successfully introduced rooftop rainwater harvesting, in co-ordination with the
ongoing reconstruction of homes. More than 90 rainwater-harvesting structures have been constructed
in 30 villages. Approximately 5,000 litres of water can be harvested from each rooftop and stored in a
cement tank. Three check dams have also been built.
To help villagers rebuild or strengthen their businesses, CARE established nine local business
centers for making blocks. CARE provided resources and assistance to entrepreneurs who supplied
construction blocks for the reconstruction.
CARE provided training to more 2,000 workers in masonry, plumbing, electrical repair,
carpentry, welding and block making. These workers also learned about labor rights and laws. These
trainees were organised into 10 village service guilds, which provide household services 8-10 villages
each.
CARE trained 450 women, in food processing, handmade paper production, leather goods,
bead work and other activities to improve their familys income.
With the destruction of primary healthcare infrastructure in the aftermath of the earthquake,
CARE has been providing maternal and child health services through mobile clinics in remote rural
villages. Currently, seven mobile clinics serve over 270,000 people, across 167 villages.
CARE in India:
CARE began operations in India in 1950. Since 1982,
CARE has been an active supporter of the Indian
government's Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) program, a nutrition and health program which
serves millions of poor women and children, and is the
largest program of its kind in the world. CARE helps
strengthen the capacity of ICDS anganwadi (rural
health) centers to provide basic services that include
the management of diarrhea and respiratory infections,
immunizations, growth monitoring, health and nutrition
education, and Vitamin A supplements. CARE also
provides supplementary food rations to 6.6 million
malnourished children, adolescent girls and pregnant
and nursing women through ICDS. In India, CARE also
manages numerous primary health care, small
enterprise development and girls' education projects,
and provides emergency relief to victims of natural
disasters as needed. In 1999, CARE's relief and
1.
The definition of an earthquake is the release of sudden and extreme energy that is caused by
shifting in the Earth's crust.
A sudden movement of the Earth's lithosphere (its crust and upper mantle). Earthquakes are caused by the release of
built-up stress within rocks along geologic faults or by the movement of magma in volcanic areas. They are usually
followed by aftershocks. See Note at fault.
A Closer Look Fractures in Earth's crust, or lithosphere, where sections of rock have slipped past each other are
called faults. Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of accumulated strain along these faults, releasing
energy in the form of low-frequency sound waves called seismic waves.Although thousands of earthquakes occur
each year, most are too weak to be detected except by seismographs,instruments that detect and record vibrations
and movements in the Earth. The point where the earthquake originates is the seismic focus, and directly above it on
Earth's surface is the earthquake's epicenter. Three kinds of waves accompany earthquakes. Primary (P) waves have
a push-pull type of vibration. Secondary (S) waves have a side-to-side type of vibration. Both P and S waves travel
deep into Earth, reflecting off the surfaces of its various layers. S waves cannot travel through the liquid outer core.
Surface (L) wavesnamed after the nineteenth-century British mathematician A.E.H. Lovetravel along Earth's
surface, causing most of the damage of an earthquake. The total amount of energy released by an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale. Each increase by 1 corresponds to a tenfold increase in strength. Earthquakes above
7 on the Richter scale are considered severe. The famous earthquake that flattened San Francisco in 1906 had a
magnitude of 7.8.
earthquake
Primary and secondary waves radiate from an earthquake's focus and move through the Earth's
interior. As they encounter a boundary, like that between the lower mantle and the liquid outer core,
they are reflected and refracted. Secondary waves cannot travel through liquids. Surface waves
radiate out from an earthquake's focus and travel only along the Earth's surface.
Ans:
Five billion years ago the Earth was formed by a massive conglomeration of space materials. The heat energy released by this event
melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter
silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface. The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner
core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about
10% sulfur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle,
which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000
degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers,
and is composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is
rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes. (Univ. of Nevada).
Q: What are plate tectonics?
Ans: Plate tectonics is the continual slow movement of the tectonic plates, the outermost part of the earth. This motion is what
causes earthquakes and volcanoes and has created most of the spectacular scenery around the world.
Q: What is a fault and what are the different types?
Ans: A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other.
This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in
length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults produce repeated displacements over geologic time. During an
earthquake, the rock on one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical
or some arbitrary angle in between.
Earth scientists use the angle of the fault with respect to the surface (known as the dip) and
the direction of slip along the fault to classify faults. Faults which move along the direction of the dip plane are dip-slip faults and
described as either normal or reverse, depending on their motion. Faults that move horizontally are known as strike-slip faults and
are classified as either right-lateral or left-lateral. Faults, which show both dip-slip and strike-slip motion are known as oblique-slip
faults.
The following definitions are adapted from The Earth by Press and Siever.
Normal fault- a dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved downward relative to the block below. This type of
faulting occurs in response to extension and is often observed in the Western United States Basin and Range Province and along
oceanic ridge systems.
Thrust fault- a dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block. This type of
faulting is common in areas of compression, such as regions where one plate is being sub ducted under another as in Japan. When
the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is often described as a thrust fault.
Strike-slip fault - a fault on which the two blocks slide past one another. The San Andreas Fault is an example of a right lateral
fault.
A left-lateral strike-slip fault is one on which the displacement of the far block is to the left when viewed from either side.
A right-lateral strike-slip fault is one on which the displacement of the far block is to the right when viewed from either side.
Q: At what depth do earthquakes occur?
Ans: Earthquakes occur in the crust or upper mantle, which ranges from the earth's surface to about 800 kilometers deep (about
500 miles).
Q: What is "surface rupture" in an earthquake?
Ans: Surface rupture occurs when movement on a fault deep within the earth breaks through to the surface. NOT ALL earthquakes
result in surface rupture.
Q: What is the relationship between faults and earthquakes? What happens to a fault when an earthquake occurs?
Ans: Earthquakes occur on faults - strike-slip earthquakes occur on strike-slip faults, normal earthquakes occur on normal faults,
and thrust earthquakes occur on thrust or reverse faults. When an earthquake occurs on one of these faults, the rock on one side of
the fault slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be vertical, horizontal, or at some angle to the surface of the earth.
The slip direction can also be at any angle.
Q: How do we know a fault exists?
Ans:
1.
if the EQ left surface evidence, such as surface ruptures or fault scarps (cliffs made by EQs).
2.
if a large EQ has broken the fault since we began instrumental recordings in 1932.
3.
if the faults produces small EQs that we can record with the denser seismographic network established in the 1970s.
Objectives
Background
A major earthquake
is usually rather short in duration, often lasting
only a few seconds and seldom more than a minute or so.
In general, during a quake there are usually one or more major peaks of magnitude of
motion. These peaks represent the maximum effect of the quake.
Although the intensity of the quake is measured in terms of the energy release at the
location of the ground fault, the critical effect on the given structure is determined by
the ground movements at the location of the structure. The effect of these movements
is affected mostly by the distance of the structure from the epicenter, but they are also
influenced by the geological conditions directly beneath the structure and by the
nature of the entire earth mass between the epicenter and the structure.
Modern recording equipment and practices provide us with representations of the
ground movements at various locations, thus allowing us to simulate theeffects of
major earthquakes. One of the most common earthquake representations is
acceleration of the ground in one horizontal direction plotted as a function of elapsed
time; a typical acceleration record of an earthquake is shown on the figure below. For
use in physical tests in laboratories or in computer modeling, records of actual quakes
may be "played back" on structures in order to analyze their responses.
Acceleration vs. time record of the 1940 Imperial Valley, California earthquake at
the El Centro Station (this is one of the most popular earthquake records)
Although it may seem like a gruesome way to achieve it, we advance our level of
competency in design every time there is a severe earthquake that results in some
major structural damage to buildings. Engineering societies (e.g. Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute of Oakland, California) and other groups routinely
send investigating teams to the sites of major quakes to report on the effects on
buildings in the area. Of particular interest are the effects on recently built structures,
because these buildings are, in effect, full-scale tests of the validity of our most recent
design techniques. Each new edition of the building codes reflects some of the results
of this cumulative growth of knowledge gained from the latest disasters.
This section has been developed based on the by Ambrose's and Vergun's book
(see Resources section for the complete reference).
General Effects of Earthquakes
The ground movements caused by earthquakes can have several types of damaging
effects. Some of the major effects are:
Ground shaking, i.e. back-and-forth motion of the ground,
caused by the passing waves of vibration through the ground;
Soil failures, such as liquefaction and landslides, caused by
shaking;
Surface fault ruptures, such as cracks, vertical shifts, general
settlement of an area, landslides, etc.
Additional damage can be caused by fires or gas explosions started by the shaking or
by flooding from failures of dams, etc.
Although all these possible effects are of concern, structural engineers are directly
concerned about the effects of ground shaking to building structures.
Abstract
Context:
Damages and loss of life sustained during an earthquake results from falling structures and flying glass and objects.
To address these and other problems, new information technology and systems as a means can improve crisis
management and crisis response. The most important factor for managing the crisis depends on our readiness before
disasters by useful data.
Aims:
This study aimed to determine the Earthquake Information Management System (EIMS) in India, Afghanistan and
Iran, and describe how we can reduce destruction by EIMS in crisis management.
Results:
Findings showed that EIMS in India (Disaster Information Management System), Afghanistan (Management
Information for Natural Disasters) and Iran are decentralized. The Indian state has organized an expert group to
inspect issues about disaster decreasing strategy. In Iran, there was no useful and efficient EIMS to evaluate
earthquake information.
Conclusions:
According to outcomes, it is clear that an information system can only influence decisions if it is relevant, reliable and
available for the decision-makers in a timely fashion. Therefore, it is necessary to reform and design a model. The
model contains responsible organizations and their functions.
Keywords: Crisis management, destruction, earthquake, information systems, natural disaster
INTRODUCTION
Iran, because of extent, geographical situation and climatic variety, is one of the damageable countries of the world.[1]
Natural disasters, for example earthquake, are an unexpected event that cause damage and destruction to human life
and health, and the injured persons without others assistance are not able to meet their need. Earthquakes in Iran
and neighboring regions (e.g., India, Turkey and Afghanistan) are closely connected to their position within the
geologically active Alpine-Himalayan belt[25] [Table 1]. This crisis happens in an especial situation that changes all
of the daily affairs of disastrous society, such as people earning, city services, communication system and community
public needs and people health.[6] Earthquake Information Management System (EIMS) is a system that records,
collects, keeps, retrieves and analyzes inputs and alters the reports and required earthquake information (EI) and
renders it to the right people and organization to manage earthquake outcomes.[7]
Table 1
Deadliest earthquakes by year, 19952005
Information is not an end in itself, but a means to better decisions in policy design, planning, management,
monitoring and evaluation of programs and services, including damage of disasters reduction.[8] Unfortunately,
information systems in most countries are inadequate in providing the needed management support. Earthquake loss
estimates are forecasts of damage and human and economics impacts that may result from future earthquakes. These
estimates are based on current scientific and engineering knowledge.[9] The earthquake loss estimation
methodology is a system that uses mathematical formulas and information about building stock, local geology and
the location and size of potential earthquakes, economic data and other information to estimate losses from a
potential earthquake. EIMS uses Arc GIS (Geographical Information System) to map and display ground shaking, the
pattern of building damage and demographic information about a community. Once the location and size of a
hypothetical earthquake is identified, EIMS will estimate the violence of the following: ground shaking, the number of
buildings damaged, the number of injured persons, the amount of damage to transportation systems, disruption to
the electrical and water utilities, the number of people displaced from their homes and estimated cost of repairing
projected damage and other effects.[1013] An estimate of losses from future earthquakes is essential to preparing for
a disaster and facilitating good decision making at the local, regional, province and national levels of government. An
EIMS can estimate earthquake losses, providing vital tools for the following:
1)
Land-use planning and facility site decisions (e.g., a map-based analysis of the potential intensity of ground shaking
from a postulated earthquake that identifies those parts of the community that will experience the most violent
shaking and the buildings at greatest risk of damage).
2)
Prioritization of retrofit or abatement programs (e.g., an estimate of building damage that provides the basis for
establishing programs to mitigate or strengthen buildings that may collapse in earthquakes by providing estimates of
damages and casualties).
3)
Regional, province and local emergency response and contingency planning (e.g., estimates of casualties and of
damage to buildings and utilities).
4)
5)
Medical and relief agency preparedness and response (e.g., estimates of casualties and homelessness).
Assistance planning.[11]
In this research, our important questions were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Management System that was extracted from JCAHO; Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organization, AHIMA; American Health Information Management Association and CCHSA; Canadian Council on
Health Services Accreditation,[14] and then made synthetic forms. The questionnaire was designed to determine
viewpoints and opinions of experts to set weights for every characteristic of the EIMS. In the first phase of data
collection, validity of forms and questionnaire was approved too. The source of information contained Internet,
personnel, documentations, journals and books. Data included EI sources, method of recording, storing, retrieving,
analyzing, interpreting, distributing of EI, national and international levels usage, and so on.
Data were gathered from the Internet, personnel, journals and books. Criteria Rating Technique[15] and descriptive
method were used to analyze findings.
Standard characteristics of the Information Management System were selected as criteria. In the second stage, for
comparing characteristics of EIMS, experts opinions were selected to set weights (the relative importance of each
criterion from 1 was low until 10 was high) by brainstorm decision criteria and measured mean of experts opinions to
set weights for each of them in Table 1. Rating was established (ratio = weight of each criteria divided by sum). Then,
scales (positive = 4, moderate = 3, not access = 2, negative = 1) and scores (score = ratio*scale) for selected countries
were calculated.
RESULTS
Findings showed follow answers for our questions.
When can EIMS be useful?
1)
2)
3)
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
1)
Information Technology,
Information System,
Mass media,
Cell phone,
Capital,
Human resources.
Usage of EIMS:
Impossibility of fast and easy retrieval, extract and access of information for managers and all related users;
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
1)
Assessing and monitoring function and plans before and after earthquakes;
Institute joint commission from related governmental and non-governmental sectors and organizations;
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Recognize and determine registration, collection and storage methods and administrators;
7)
8)
9)
Recognize and determine, distribute and issue of information methods and administrators;
10)
11)
Institutions on the 18th of January 2002 at the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. SRISTI
participated in the relief and rehabilitation work in Kutch. However, the relief work suffered immensely due to lack of
information and proper planning. When we tried to get answers to important questions that were cropping up for
instance, whether there is a database on the distribution of available resources and expertise with individuals,
institutions and corporations all we got in response was a blank. This pointed to the urgent necessity of building a
system for disaster mitigation and for documenting experiences of individuals and organizations, which might act as a
knowledge resource and help in better coordination in case of future disasters. Thus, SRISTI initiated an effort to
build a Disaster Management Information System. Through this initiative, we are trying to develop a databasedriven information system for Disaster Management Authorities (DMA) in various states, NGOs and other
organizations. We appealed to NGOs, relief workers, DMAs and individuals to share their experiences and volunteer
services and resources to the online database maintained at our website. The database currently contains more than a
thousand volunteers who have offered to volunteer their services and resources in time of emergency. About 700
organizations and institutions indexed on the site, besides other resources and web links. The DMIS is a voluntary
activity run with contributions in terms of time and services by SRISTI volunteers, NGOs and, above all, civil society
institutions across the world. All the information shared with us is accessible to all, except where the volunteer has
chosen to limit accessibility only to the relevant authorities.[17]
About EIMS: In Afghanistan, findings showed that Afghanistan is in danger of many natural disasters. Therefore, it
needs to have a DIMS, especially EIMS. Disaster management is a legal attempt that needs miscellaneous
information, different locations and tenses, and this information must have a true format to be in access of key staff in
deciding. The temporary project of Management Information for Natural Disasters in Kabul province and Kunduz
province in Afghanistan has been doing well for 8 months. Aims of this temporary project were expanding a crisis
information management system. Also, it updates and gives information to governments. This project has increased
Afghanistan's ability in crisis management nationally, supporting educated people and city renewing services by
building governmental organizations in management information for natural disasters. Natural disaster management
in these two provinces is mostly based on estimating the amount of damages and concentrated rescue operations, and
there is no system to avoid or decrease the amount of damages by natural disasters. Before or after disaster,
management is very weak in these countries and they are dependent on UN or NGO. Information source in the
process of collecting EIMS includes human forces and geographical informative systems that are a dangerous area
and shows locations with high potential danger. In this system, the satellite has an important part in recognizing
crisis locations distance.[18] To record collected information, a team of Information System Unit is educated to
record in puts portions, information and management of stations of informative system of disaster management, and
they will record the information. Structure of DIMS special earthquake is not useful in many parts of the country. The
most important problem is lack of exact information (not in time).
In Iran, the EIMS showed absence of timely reporting of most of the data before, during and after earthquakes,
Defective, insufficient and inaccurate registration of data, declaration and publishing different and contradictory
population statistical reports by related organizations and weakness to use reliable information to support the
prevention systemic planning. In order to make suitable EI in Iran, we need to provide and support managers. To
improve current situation of EIMS, we need to design a midified model of EIMS.[1] The modified model contains;
responsible organizations, their functions, and flow-work that were approved by the Delphi Technique.
Table 2 denotes the highest sum of score relative to India and the lowest relative to Iran. The weakness issues are
respectively concluded: EI stores systematically, no parallel and repeated activities by various organizations and
accessibility of EI easy and fast in EIMS criteria in Iran. In the range of ranks, Afghanistan and India were classified
in the very good range and Iran in the moderate range.
Table 2
EIMS characteristics evaluating in selected countries
DISCUSSION
Mass media is imperative in communicating news and information to the public. Responsible journalism can also
help clear inaccurate rumors and influence public's attitude toward preparing for disasters. Moreover, press coverage
of old disasters may be a good source of data where official records do not exist. However, the present study has
revealed that the press has largely failed in terms of disaster mitigation and preparedness guidance. It seems that
media is more interested in giving disastrous news than informing the public. Turkish media had been more
influential in urging both the public and the officials in getting ready for the coming earthquakes. Television appears
to be a better tool for this purpose.[19]
The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) as a governmental organization responsible for issuing EI and tsunami
forecasts had developed an early earthquake notification system in Japan. At present, JMA issues the following kinds
of information successively when a large earthquake occurs: (1) prompt report of occurrence of a large earthquake
and major seismic intensities caused by the earthquake in about 2 min after the earthquake occurrence, (2) tsunami
forecast in around 3 min, (3) information on expected arrival times and maximum heights of tsunami waves in
around 5 min and (4) information on a hypocenter and a magnitude of the earthquake, the seismic intensity at each
observation station, the times of high tides in addition to the expected tsunami arrival times in 57 minutes. To issue
the above information, JMA has established an advanced nationwide seismic network with about 180 stations for
seismic wave observation and about 3400 stations for instrumental seismic intensity observation, including about
2800 seismic intensity stations maintained by local governments.[20]
Beginning in the late 1950s in the world, planners started to develop and use computerized models, planning
information systems and decision-support systems to improve performance. They have found tools to enhance their
analytical, geospatial technologies that differ from one country to another. The industrialized information societies
are well adapted to this technology. They use it in many fields; the governments apply urban information systems in
all aspects of the planning process, including data collection, storage, data analysis and presentation, planning and
policymaking, communication with the public, policy implementation and administration. The United States is the
pioneer in this field; they began working with urban information systems in the 1970s. Canada and Australia have
developed systems; also European countries like France, Germany and Holland have been successful in applying
these technologies. Turkey is a latecomer in this field because of financial problems, the other priorities and the lack
of technical expertise and different mentalities of the administrators. But today, urban information system is a
popular magic word in the local governments. The first initiative of local governments like Bursa and Ayden cities
began to use urban information systems in the mid-1990s, and then the other three metropolitan municipalities,
Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir, made studies about digitizing the maps, plans and creating inventories about their cities.
In this section, first, Turkey examples and their studies about urban information systems are explained, then the
other world examples are described for their different uses and applications. In the earthquake management section,
there is a disaster management cycle showing the actions and preparedness. The phases are based in this cycle. The
preparedness and mitigation phases have more emphasis. Because it is believed that besides advice and instructions
given to the public, raising awareness for the earthquake risk is necessary for the management levels and the
residents, the technological tools help in this process. But, the management, including protection and recovery, is
completed with the interrelated system.[21]
CONCLUSION
The first effort to systematically collect and analyze data in developing countries should be undertaken by national
program managers. Based on the investigation of the current situation in India, Afghanistan and Iran, we need to
have EIMS because of the following reasons:
1)
2)
3)
Control and manage natural disasters (rapid availability and retrieval EI);
4)
5)
6)
7)
Analyze information and render reports and define strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities;
Coordinating activities between government and non-government sectors and other related sectors to use EI;
8)
Determining causes of deaths and health priorities and planning to decrease mortality after earthquake in the future;
9)
Using outcomes for determining cause of earthquake mortalities and other related problems to prevention in the
future;
10)
Formulating strategies to diseases incidence prevention and decrease of controllable deaths after earthquakes on
wards.
After an earthquake, a rapid response to a damaging earthquake will reduce loss of life, lessen complications from
injuries and secondary damage and loss and expedite relief to victims.
Reliable and up-to-date information can have an impact on the destruction factors and prevent them. Because of the
financial and human damages of disasters, establishing a general, scientific and practical management network is
necessary.
Figure 1 demonstrates a proposed model that shows the process of relationships between organizations related to
EIMS in Iran. In this model, duty and function of every organization is determined. These duties are classified
according to registering and collecting earthquake data, storing and processing, analyzing and distributing and using
issued EI.
Figure 1
The proposed model that shows process of relationships between organizations related to EIMS in Iran
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Misses Z. Moradi, Mahshid Fattahi and N. Nematolahi for helping to fulfill this
research.
Footnotes
Source of Support: Nil
Conflict of Interest: None declared
Article information
J Educ Health Promot. 2012; 1: 27.
Published online Aug 22, 2012. doi: 10.4103/2277-9531.99963
PMCID: PMC3577382
Sima Ajami
Department of Health Information Technology, Health Management and Economics Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan,
Iran
Address for correspondence: Sima Ajami, Associate Professor, Department of Health Information Technology, Health Management and Economics
Research Centre, School of Medical Management and Information Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, P.O.Box: 81745-346,
Iran. E-mail: Ajami/at/mng.mui.ac.ir
Copyright : 2012 Ajami S.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Articles from Journal of Education and Health Promotion are provided here courtesy of Medknow Publications
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Plate Tectonics
Earth's outer layer is broken into pieces called tectonic plates which are about 100km thick and are constantly moving towards,
away from or past each other. For example, the plate containing Australia and India is moving north at the rate of 7cm a year,
causing an intracontinental collision with the Eurasian Plate in the Himalayas. That is why these mountains are so high. Because
continents are part of these plates, they also move. An earthquake occurs when the rocks break and move as a result of stresses
caused by plate movements.
Most earthquakes occur on the boundaries between plates, where one plate is forced under another such as happens off island
chains such as Japan, Indonesia or the Solomon Islands, or past another as occurs in California and New Zealand. Some regions
have more earthquakes than others with 80 per cent of all recorded earthquakes taking place around the edge of the Pacific Plate,
including New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Japan, Canada, USA and South America.
In areas where plates collide, earthquakes can occur down to depths of 700km. In areas where plates slide past each other, such as
California or New Zealand, earthquakes are shallower. Shallow earthquakes also occur where plates are pulling away from each
other along under sea ridges, and the oceans are growing bigger, like the plate margin between Australia and Antarctica.
Intraplate Earthquakes
Earthquakes that do not occur on plate margins are called intraplate earthquakes. All earthquakes on mainland Australia and
Tasmania are intraplate. On studying these intraplate earthquakes in various continents, seismologists have found that most of
them are caused by thrust faulting due to the rocks being squeezed or compressed. It seems that the movement of the tectonic
plates causes the rocks away from their margins to be compressed. Intraplate earthquakes are not as common as those on plate
margins, but major earthquakes with magnitudes of 7.0 or more do happen occasionally.
Volcanic Earthquakes
Molten rock, called magma, is stored in reservoirs under volcanoes. As this magma moves upwards, it can fracture the rock it
squeezes through, causing earthquakes, usually with magnitudes not much greater than 5.0. Sometimes the magma collects in a
high level reservoir prior to a volcanic eruption and as it moves around it causes bursts of continuous vibration, called volcanic
tremor. Because of these precursors, seismographs (earthquake recorders) are very useful for monitoring volcanoes to give warning
of an impending eruption.
similar sized earthquakes, called an earthquake swarm, happens over months without being followed by a significantly larger
mainshock. This limits the usefulness, at this stage, of foreshocks in earthquake prediction.
Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that may occur after the mainshock, in the same area. They are caused by the mainshock area
readjusting to the fault movement, and some may be the result of continuing movement along the same fault. The largest
aftershocks are usually at least half a magnitude unit smaller than the mainshock and the aftershock sequence may continue for
months or years after the mainshock. Not all earthquakes have aftershocks the magnitude 5.6 Newcastle earthquake in 1989 only
had one aftershock, which was very small with a magnitude of 2.1. Occasionally, small earthquakes with magnitudes between 3.0
and 3.5 have aftershocks. This has been observed in the Dalton-Gunning area, north of Canberra.
Effects of Earthquake
The effects of an earthquake include fire, loss of lifes, tidal waves that cause tsunami, avalanches, flooding, broken gas
lines and destroy of roads and bridges. Other effects include building damages and spilling of hazardous chemicals.
The effect of an earth quake is dependent on its strength and magnitude. An earth quake strong in both strength and
magnitude leads to the destruction of property, landslides and tsunamis if the area is close to a water body. Mild earth
quakes cause minimal damage like cracks on building walls and swaying of buildings.
The effects of earthquakes include: avalanches, tidal waves (tsunamis), fires, flooding, death, building damage,
destruction of infrastructures, broken gas lines and spills of hazardous chemicals. An earthquake is the consequence
of an abrupt release of energy in the Earth's crust that generates seismic waves.
The effects of earthquakes include: direct shaking of manmade structures such as buildings and bridges, landslides
and liquefaction due to the stress of seismic waves and tsunamis off the coasts of affected regions. Tsunamis typically
have waves that reach up to 10 meters.
The effects of earthquakes include damage to buildings and in worst cases the loss of human life. The effects of the
rumbling produced by earthquakes usually leads to the destruction of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams.
They can also trigger landslides.
Some of the most visible effects of an earthquake are damage to buildings and roads and death. Other effects include
broken gas lines, fires and in some cases a tsunami.
The effects of earthquakes produce extreme damages. Some of the massive earthquake cause massive damage. For
instance loss of property and lifestyles and deformed ground surfaces is also another damages with brings a country
that has been affected to a stand still in development. Exposure to deep minerals and formation of new minerals is
also an effect of earthquakes.
Most earthquake-related deaths are caused by the collapse of structures and the
construction practices play a tremendous role in the death toll of an earthquake. In
southern Italy in 1909 more than 100,000 people perished in an earthquake that struck
the region. Almost half of the people living in the region of Messina were killed due
to the easily collapsible structures that dominated the villages of the region. A larger
earthquake that struck San Francisco three years earlier had killed fewer people (about
700) because building construction practices were different type (predominantly
wood). Survival rates in the San Francisco earthquake was about 98%, that in the
Messina earthquake was between 33% and 45%) (Zebrowski, 1997). Building
practices can make all the difference in earthquakes, even a moderate rupture beneath
a city with structures unprepared for shaking can produce tens of thousands of
casualties.
Although probably the most important, direct shaking effects are not the only hazard
associated with earthquakes, other effects such as landslides, liquefaction, and
tsunamis have also played important part in destruction produced by earthquakes.
Geologic Effects on Shaking
The first step in preparing structures for shaking is to understand how buildings
respond to ground motions- this is the field of study for earthquake and structural
engineers.
When the ground shakes, buildings
respond to the accelerations
transmitted from the ground through
the structure's foundation. The
inertia of the building (it wants to
stay at rest) can cause shearing of
the structure which can concentrate
stresses on the weak walls or joints
in the structure resulting in failure
or perhaps total collapse. The type
of shaking and the frequency of
shaking depends on the structure.
Tall buildings tend to amplify the
motions of longer period motions
when compared with small
buildings. Each structure has a
Taller buildings also tend to shake longer than short buildings, which can make them
relatively more susceptible to damage. Fortunately many tall buildings are constructed
to withstand strong winds and some precautions have been taken to reduce their
tendency to shake. And they can be made resistant to earthquake vibrations.
In many regions of limited resources and/or old structures, the structures are not very
well suited to earthquake induced strains and collapse of adobe-style construction has
caused thousands of deaths in the last decade. The worst possible structure for
earthquake regions is the unreinforced masonry (which is common in the St. Louis
area).
Estimating Hazards
Preparing structures (either new or old) for earthquakes is expensive and the level of
investment is a social and political decision. The choice of building design is a
compromise between appearance, function, structure, strength, and of course, cost.
Standards are instituted through the establishment of Building Codes, which regulate
the design and construction of buildings. Most of our building codes are designed to
protect first the building occupants, and second the building integrity. Building codes
are usually drafted to meet the demands of the expected shaking in a given region that
are summarized by seismologists and earthquake engineers in hazards maps. Hazard
maps are constructed by examining
The earthquake history of the region to estimate the
probability of an earthquake
structure behave as a single stiff unit that moves with the ground, or you construct a
strong and flexible structure that distorts but doesn't break and absorbs some of the
shaking energy. Either approach can be expensive so we cannot build all our
structures to withstand the largest possible earthquake. We must make compromises
and accept some risk (this is not unlike the risks that we accept every day, driving on a
freeway, flying in an airplane, living in flood-prone regions, tornado "alley",
hurricane-prone regions, etc.).
We need different levels of resistance for different classes of structures. Critical
structures such as hospitals, power, water-treatment, and chemical plants, dams, etc.
must not only survive the shaking, but must remain in operation. These structure
require the largest investment of resources to insure that they can provide services
following an earthquake.
More general requirements for other structure include having our buildings
Sustain little damage in small-to-moderate quakes (M < 5.5)
Sustain some repairable damage for moderate quakes (5.5 < M
< 7.0)
Not collapse in large earthquakes (M > 7.0)
To insure that we meet these goals we can take a number of steps, beginning with
thoughtful and responsible planning and zoning laws. Since we know that sites with
soft, water-saturated foundations are prone to damage, we should resist the temptation
to build on those sits and we should certainly not put critical structures on such sites,
and avoid building on these sites at all if possible. If that's not possible, try to compact
the soft sediments before the constructing or anchor the structure in the basement.
We can take a number of steps to strengthen buildings including using steel frame
construction, adequately securing the structure to the ground through a solid
foundation, incorporating shear walls and or cross-bracing into the structure, or more
sophisticated approaches such as using rubber or steel pads to isolate the structure
from the shaking.
We have talked above seismic waves and how they vibrate the ground which can lead
directly to the collapse of structures. There are other, secondary effects that are caused
by earthquakes, most often a result of strong shaking. A simple example common in
many earthquakes are landslides. The shaking causes regions of the rock and soil to
slide downhill. The same material would eventually fail with increased time, but
earthquakes trigger many slides that do much bit of damage.
Landslides and Liquefaction
Buildings aren't the only thing to fail under the stresses of seismic waves. Often
unstable regions of hillsides or mountains fail. In addition to the obvious hazard posed
by large landslides, even non lethal slides can cause problems when they block
highways they can be inconvenient or cause problems for emergency and rescue
operations.
In the 1811-12 earthquakes the sand blows were enormous and covered large regions
of the Missouri bootheel. Liquefaction can cause other problems as the soil loses it
ability to resist shear and flows much like quick sand. Anything relying on the
substrata for support can shift, tilt, rupture, or collapse.
Tsunamis
A sudden offset changes the elevation of the ocean and initiates a water wave that
travels outward from the region of sea-floor disruption. Tsunamis can travel all the
way across the ocean and large earthquakes in Alaska and Chile have generated waves
that caused damage and deaths in regions as far away as California, Hawaii and Japan.
The speed of this wave depends on the ocean depth and is typically about as fast as a
commercial passenger jet (about 0.2 km/s or 712 km/hr). This is relatively slow
compared to seismic waves, so we are often alerted to the dangers of the tsunami by
the shaking before the wave arrives. The trouble is that the time to react is not very
long in regions close to the earthquake that caused the tsunami.
In deep water tsunamis are not large and pose no danger. They are very
broad with horizontal wavelengths of hundreds of kilometers and
surface heights much much smaller, about one meter.
Tsunamis pose no threat in the deep ocean because they are only a meter or so high in
deep water. But as the wave approaches the shore and the water shallows, all the
energy that was distributed throughout the ocean depth becomes concentrated in the
shallow water and the wave height increases.
When a tsunami approaches the shore, the water depth decreases, the
front of the wave slows down, the wave grows dramatically, and surges
on land.
Typical heights for large tsunamis are on the order of 10s of meters and a few have
approached 90 meters (about 300 feet). These waves are typically more devastating to
the coastal region than the shaking of the earthquake that caused the tsunami. Even
the more common tsunamis of about 10-20 meters can "wipe clean" coastal
communities.
Deadly tsunamis occur about every one to two years and they have at times killed
thousands of people. In 1992-93 three large tsunamis occurred: one in Japan,
Indonesia, and Nicaragua. All struck at night and devastated the local communities.
The 1946 Scotch Point Lightstation Tsunami
At 1:28AM, April 1, 1946, about 150 km (100 miles) south of Unimak Island in the
Aleutians, a large earthquake offset the ocean floor and rattled a lightstation operated