Original article

Antibacterial activity of capsaicin-coated

wool fabric

Textile Research Journal

82(6) 584590
! The Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/0040517511426608
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Xin Liu1, Tong Lin1, Bixian Peng2 and Xungai Wang1,3

Abstract
Fabrics made from natural fibers, such as wool and cotton, are susceptible to attacks from micro-organisms, which may
damage the fabrics and harm the human body. Antimicrobial finishing of natural textile products may involve harmful and
non-environmentally friendly chemicals. In this study, a natural antibacterial agent, capsaicin, was coated on the surface of
wool fabrics by a sol-gel process. The antibacterial properties of coated fabrics were evaluated against test bacteria
Escherichia coli according to the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) method and standard American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E2149-01. Compared with the control group (sol-gel coated
fabric without capsaicin), the capsaicin-coated fabric inhibited bacterial growth markedly after 24 hours incubation at
37 C. The antibacterial efficiency after laundry washes was also investigated. Good durability to washing of capsaicin on
fabric was achieved by the sol-gel coating technique.

Keywords
antibacterial, capsaicin, sol-gel coating, wool fabric

Fabrics made from natural bers, such as wool and

cotton, are susceptible to attacks from micro-organisms,
because some microbes can thrive under conditions provided by these fabrics. Infestation by microbes can cause
cross infections by pathogens and development of odor
where the fabric is worn next to the skin,1 especially for
fabrics used in hospitals and hotels, which may damage
the fabrics and harm the human body.
With increasing awareness of the importance of a
hygienic health lifestyle, antimicrobial nishing of natural textile products has received much attention in
recent years.210 Several textile nishing techniques
for antibacterial purposes have been developed.
For example, a precursor biocidal agent, dimethylol
dimethylhydantoin (DMDMH), was applied to cotton
and cotton/polyester fabrics, followed by a chlorine
bleaching treatment to impart the fabrics with a durable antimicrobial functionality. Polymeric biguanide
was also used as an antimicrobial agent to improve
the deodorization function and antimicrobial abilities
of cotton fabrics.7 Cotton fabrics treated with chitooligosaccharide (COS) and N-(2-hydroxyl) propyl-3trimethyl ammonium chito-oligosaccharide chloride
(HTACC) also showed an eective antimicrobial function.6 Besides organic chemicals, inorganic materials,
such as nano-sized ZnO, were also used, and the

nished fabrics showed good antibacterial performance

as well.4
However, many of the treatments involved harmful
and non-environmentally friendly chemicals. For example, the inorganic nanoparticles may gain entry into
human systems through inhalation, ingestion or
dermal routes, and exert deleterious eects on the cardiovascular system.11 The antibacterial works have
been focused on cotton or cotton/synthetic blends.
Since more and more next-to-skin knitwear has been
made from ne/superne wool, the antibacterial properties of wool fabrics have also become important.
Capsaicin (N-vanillyl-8-methyl-6-(E)-noneamide), a
colorless crystalline compound derived from the genus

1
Centre for Material and Fibre Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong,
Australia.
2
Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing, China.
3
School of Textile Science and Engineering, Wuhan Textile University,
Wuhan, China.

Corresponding author:
Xungai Wang, Centre for Material and Fibre Innovation, Deakin
University, Locked bag 20000, Geelong VIC 3220, Australia
Email: xwang@deakin.edu.au

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585

capsicum, is the active component of chili peppers.12

The chemical structure of capsaicin is shown in
Figure 1. Capsaicin has been found to deplete substance P a neurochemical that transmits pain, consequently desensitizes the sensory nerve endings giving a
paradoxical antinociceptive eect.13 Thus it is normally
used in cream as a paradoxical counterirritant and topical analgesic ingredient to relieve the pain of peripheral
neuropathy, herpes and arthritis.1416 Recently, capsaicin has also been found to possess antibacterial
properties.
Capsaicin has been used as an anti-fouling agent for
marine boats.17 The feasibility of using capsaicin as a
green biological pesticide in agriculture and green additive in cable and construction materials to prevent
damage by animals has been claimed;18 however, no
evidence is available to prove these claims. No reports
on the application of capsaicin in textiles can be found
in the scientic literature.
The sol-gel process is to convert chemical compounds to a gel state solid material by crosslinking
reactions (hydrolysis, condensation and polymerization) in a suitable solvent medium, and then the solvent
is removed to leave a porous structure.19,20 It has been
established that hybrid silica from a sol-gel process contains a huge number of nano-sized pores. These tiny
pores provide ideal hosts for functional compounds. In
our previous work21 we demonstrated that silica
embedded with photochromic dye can be coated onto
wool fabrics to impart the substrates with a very fast
photochromic transformation when irradiated under
the sun.

O
H3CO

CH3

C
NH
CH3

OH

Figure 1. Chemical structure of capsaicin.

O
H3C

Si
O

In this study, we used silica as a matrix to encapsulate capsaicin to produce an antibacterial coating on
wool fabrics by means of a sol-gel technique. We then
examined the antibacterial performance of the coated
fabrics and how this performance was aected by laundry washes of the fabrics.

Experimental details
The wool fabric, obtained from AIM Sports Pty. Ltd,
Australia, was an undyed, double jersey knitted interlock, with 245 g/m2 fabric weight and a construction of
12 stitches per cm in the wale direction and 10 stitches
per cm in the course direction. The fabric was made
from bers that had been shrink-proof treated by a
chlorine-Hercosett process at the top stage. This
type of wool fabric was selected because wool is normally shrink-proof treated for use in next-to-skin
knitwear.
The silica sol gel was synthesized by an established
method reported elsewhere.22,23 Briey, octyltriethoxysilane (OTES; Degussa) and 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS; Aldrich) were mixed
together, and then tetraacetoxysilane (TAS, as a catalyst) was added to the silane mixture and stirred vigorously for 30 min. Ethanol, facilitating the condensation
reaction of silanes, was then mixed with the silane solution. Water was added drop-wise at 1 ml/min to allow
the hydrolysis reaction, and the mixture was stirred at
room temperature for a further 24 hours to make a
transparent and homogeneous sol-gel solution. The
structures of the silanes are shown in Figure 2. The
moles of the reactants used in preparation of silica sol
gel are 16, 16, 1, 160 and 100 for OTES, GPTMS, TAS,
ethanol and water, respectively. Capsaicin (TIPC, CAS,
99% purity) of dierent concentrations was nally dissolved in the sol-gel solution. Concentrations of 0.01
and 0.04 mol/l for fabric 1 and fabric 2 were used,
respectively, which are equivalent to 1.1% and 3.7%
owf concentrations of capsaicin.
To apply the solution, an ethanol-washed wool
fabric (size of 20  20 cm2) was immersed in 30 ml capsaicin contained sol-gel solution for 15 min, and then

OCH3

CH3
O

CH2(CH2)6CH3
CH3

Octyltriethoxysilane
(OTES)

Si
OCH3

3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane
(GPTMS)

Figure 2. Chemical structures of selected silane precursors.

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OCH3

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Textile Research Journal 82(6)

padded with one dip-and-nip (100% wet pick up) using

a Werner Mathis Laboratory Pad Mangle to get a uniform coating on the fabric. The coated fabric sample
was air dried for 48 hours. Simultaneously, the sol-gel
coated fabric without capsaicin was prepared as control-I. The uncoated original fabric was set as controlII. The dry pick up of sol-gel coatings on fabric is
calculated as the percentage of dry fabric mass dierence before and after coating.
The coated fabric (with 0.04 mol/l capsaicin) was
washed using Hydropal TN450 (1%) once at 45 C
and rinsed with cold water, namely 1-wash fabric.
The 1-wash samples were dried in air and went through
another two wash cycles to prepare the 3-wash samples.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of coated
and uncoated original fabrics were measured by a
Burker Vertex 70 FTIR Spectroscope in the attenuated
total reectance (ATR) mode. Four corners and the
middle section of full-sized fabric samples were scanned
and the average ATR intensities of spectra were used to
evaluate the chemical bands of the surface coatings and
also to check the uniformity of the coatings.
The antibacterial activities of the capsaicin-coated
fabrics were tested against the gram-negative bacteria
Escherichia coli (ATCC 11229, USA) using the
American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists (AATCC) Parallel Streak Method24 (Static
test). The Tryptone Soya agar solution (CM0131,
Oxoid, pH 7.2) was sterilized at 120 C in the autoclave for 20 minutes and then poured onto disposable
sterilized Petri dishes (90 mm diameter) for solidication. The Escherichia coli stock solution was streaked
on one Petri dish, cultured for 24 hours at 37 C, and
then a fully grown single colony was selected and cultured for 24 hours in sterilized Tryptone Soya Broth
(CM0989, Oxoid); several tubes of culture solution
were prepared in this way for the following tests.
Then the culture solution was diluted with soya broth
at a ratio of 1:9 to a concentration of 6  107 cfu/ml as
the initial test solution. The optical density (OD) of the
diluted suspension was used to estimate the bacteria
concentration, as the OD value is proportional to the
number of bacteria cells in one milliliter solution, viz 1
OD & 8  108 bacteria cells/ml. The OD value of 1 ml
dilution was measured by a Cary 300 ultraviolet-visible
(UV-Vis) spectrophotometer at 550 nm wavelength.
One loopful of the diluted inoculums was streaked
onto a Petri dish in ve parallel lines using a 4 mm
inoculating loop, and the fabric samples (large fabrics
were cut into small sample pieces of 2.5  5 cm2) were
gently pressed transversely across the ve inoculum
streaks. Plates were incubated at 37 C for 24 hours
and the zones of inhibition and interruption of
growth along the streaks were examined for incubated
Petri dishes.

Glutaraldehyde (GA)/osmium tetroxide (OsO4) was

used for xation and stabilization of bacteria for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation. A piece
of sample (size 2  3 cm2) was cut from the tested
fabric, and rinsed with 0.01 M phosphate buered
saline (PBS) solution (pH 7.4) three times. The
sample was then xed in 5 ml 2.1% GA/PBS (wt/vol)
solution for 2 hours. The xed sample was stained with
2 ml 2% OsO4 solution for 20 minutes and with 1 ml
1% aqueous solution of tannic acid for another 10 minutes. The sample was then rinsed with 2 ml 20% aqueous ethanol solution three times, and nally freeze dried
for 24 hours. The surface morphology of the coated
fabric and bacteria was examined by a scanning electron microscope (LEO SEM S440, Germany). The
operating voltage of the scanning electron microscope
was controlled at 10 kV.
In addition to the above static test, the coated fabric
was also subjected to a dynamic test.25 The antimicrobial activity of a substrate-bound antimicrobial is
dependent upon the direct contact of microbes with
the active chemical agent. The antimicrobial activity
of the treated specimen was determined by shaking
the coated samples (180 rpm, 37 C) in a concentrated
bacterial suspension for a 4 hour contact time, then for
6 and 18 hour contact times. The test suspension was
collected at each time interval. The number of viable
organisms in the suspension was determined by measuring the OD using a spectrophotometer and the percentage reduction of bacteria was calculated based on
counts dierence between control-I and capsaicincoated fabrics.
Dierent concentrations of capsaicin (0.0004, 0.002,
0.004, 0.007, 0.01 and 0.04 mol/l) were also prepared
just in soya broth (2 ml for each) and then mixed with
0.1 ml bacteria suspension (6  107 cfu/ml) and cultured
under the same conditions as above for 4 and 18 hours.
The bacteria growth was then examined by measuring
the OD values of each cultured suspension after it was
diluted 10 times. Lower OD values indicate fewer
bacteria.
For either the static test or dynamic test, duplicates
of subsamples were evaluated for each group. The
results of OD values were averaged.

Results and discussion

To synthesize transparent and homogenous sol-gel
solutions for the fabric coating, the amounts of reactants and reaction conditions were carefully chosen
according to the recommendations from the previous
studies.22,23 The precursors OTES and GPTMS were
used because this silane system can provide fabric
with a soft handle after coating. Once coated, a transparent and well-attached silica coating layer was

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587

formed on the wool fabric. The amount of silica coating

pickup on the fabric is given in Table 1.
The presence of capsaicin in the silica matrix can be
veried by the FTIR spectra (Figure 3). For the original
wool fabric, the spectrum showed two dominant vibration bands around 1655 cm1 (C O stretch) and
1550 cm1 (N-H bend), and a weak band at
1470 cm1 (C-N stretch), which represent amides I, II
and III, respectively. There are strong peaks in the C-H
stretching regions at 2930 and 2850 cm1. All these
bands indicate that wool ber is made of the complex
polyamide chains that are formed from the carboxylic
group and the amino group of dierent amino acids by
crosslinking. The S-O stretching bands near 1040 cm1
may result from the oxidation step in the chlorineHercosett treatment for wool fabric. When the
fabric was coated with the silica, several very pronounced bands appeared at 1100, 930 and 790 cm1.
These correspond to the vibration absorption bands
Table 1. The silica-coating pick up on wool fabrics
Sample
Fabric 1
Fabric 2
Control-I

Capsaicin/sol
gel (mol/l)

Fabric
size (cm2)

Silica dry
pickup (%)

0.01
0.04

20  20
20  20
20  20

54.1%
53.0%
51.0%

of Si-O-Si groups and Si-OH vibration,26 resulting

from hydrolysis and condensation reactions in sol-gel
processes. The O-H and N-H groups in the capsaicin
structure are observed clearly near 36003100 cm1 in
the capsaicin-coated fabrics, the component of O-CH3
is seen at 2931 cm1 and the C O stretch and N-H
band in capsaicin piled up with the same bands of
wool fabric at 16501550 cm1. The broad peak at
around 3350 cm1 is mainly originated from N-H
vibration. For the fabrics that were coated with capsaicin-containing sol-gel solution, this peak was obviously
higher than that of both the untreated wool fabric and
the fabric coated with only sol-gel solution without
containing any capsaicin. The peak at 1655 cm1, the
typical characteristic vibration of amide groups, also
showed the same trend. This suggested that the coating
H O
layer contained N C moieties, which should be from
the capsaicin molecules added. Since these peaks
showed no reduction after laundry, capsaicin in the
coating layer should have a high washing durability.
This high washing durability can be explained by the
small pores (less than 2 nm) of the silica, which can eectively prevent the fast release of capsaicin molecules
from the coating layer during washing. The same spectra of each group measured on dierent locations of
fabric indicated the uniform coatings by padding.
Figure 4 shows an example of the results from the
parallel streak method. The fabric coated with

Si-O-Si (1100)
C-H (2931)

0.55
0.50

N-H (3352)

S-O (1040)

C=O (1655)
N-H (1550)

C-H (2847)

O-H(3614)

Si-OH (930)

C-N (1470)

0.45

Si-O-Si (790)

(Sol-Cap-3W)

ATR intensity

0.40
0.35

(Sol-Cap-1W)

0.30
0.25
0.20

(Sol-Cap-UW)
0.15
0.10

(Sol-coated)

0.05

(Original fabric)

0.00
3500

3000

2000

1500

1000

500

Figure 3. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of wool fabric and capsaicin-sol-gel treated fabrics before and after laundry
washes (Sol-Cap-UW: unwashed capsaicin sol-gel coated fabric, Sol-Cap-1 W: capsaicin sol-gel coated fabric-1 wash, Sol-Cap-3 W:
capsaicin sol-gel coated fabric-3 washes, ATR: attenuated total reflectance).

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Figure 4. (a) Fabric sample placed on five inoculums streaks. (b) Heavy bacterial growth (arrow areas) underneath control-I fabric
(sol-gel coated). (c) No bacterial growth under capsaicin-coated fabric.

Figure 5. Morphology of untreated and coated fabrics and Escherichia coli after contact with fabrics.

4hours
6hours
18hours

0.9
0.8
OD values at 550nm

capsaicin inhibited bacteria growth under the covered

area. In comparison, there was a moderate to heavy
growth under the control-I sample (sol-gel coated,
without capsaicin). To understand if the antibacterial
activity of capsaicin is inhibitory or bactericidal, the
morphology of Escherichia coli from dierent samples
was investigated (Figure 5). On the surface of the
untreated and the coated wool bers, it can be seen
that Escherichia coli cells with agella (long, thin structures) are plump and each individual bacterium is
columniform or oblong shaped. With the presence of
capsaicin, large amounts of collapsed or non-viable
bacteria were found on the capsaicin-coated fabric.
This suggested that capsaicin inhibited the normal bacteria growth process. Because no inhibition zone was
found along the fabric edges, the antibacterial function
could be due to the chemical reactions between bacterial cells and components of capsaicin. It has been
reported27 that when special polycationic components
are non-diusibly embedded within a silica matrix
layer, interaction between positively charged biocidal
additives and negatively charged microbial cell
membranes can cause leakage of protein and other intracellular constituents, which interrupts microbes proliferation and colonization. Therefore, immobilization of
biocides in such a coating matrix oers a long-term antimicrobial protection for the coated substrate. It might
also avoid the transfer of biocide chemicals to the users.

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Original

Control

Fabric 1

Fabric 2

Figure 6. Optical density (OD) values of Escherichia coli cultures in soya broth medium incubated with fabric samples at
different time intervals (Original: untreated fabric, Control-I:
sol-gel coated without capsaicin, Fabric 1: coated with 0.01 mol/l
capsaicin-sol gel, Fabric 2: coated with 0.04 mol/l capsaicin-sol gel).

The eects of capsaicin concentration and contact time on antibacterial activity were examined
(Figure 6). Within the rst 4 hour incubation, there
was a slower bacterial growth on the treated fabrics
(Fabrics 1 and 2) compared to the control-I (sol-gel
coated fabric only) and the control-II (uncoated original fabric). The dierences between samples were small.
With the culturing time increased to 6 hours, expanded

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589

bacteria growth was observed for all the groups.

However, after 18 hours, Fabric 2 exhibited the highest
reduction in microbe growth, while the original group
was nearly saturated with a full growth of bacteria.
Increasing the capsaicin concentration in the coating
layer resulted in a large reduction in the number of bacteria (39% reduction of Fabric 2 versus 20% of Fabric 1).
With wool bers, nutrient substance (i.e. wool
protein) may promote bacteria growth. However, a
reduction in the bacterium number indicated the antibacterial function of capsaicin. A higher concentration
of capsaicin in the coating showed better antibacterial
eciency.
The antibacterial activity of capsaicin not encapsulated in silica was evaluated by dynamic tests. As shown
in Figure 7, with the presence of capsaicin, increasing
the capsaicin concentration in the culture medium
resulted in a relatively small reduction in the bacteria
number after the rst 4 hours of culture. However, a
signicant reduction of the bacteria number was found
after 18 hours of culture. The minimum capsaicin

concentration showing antibacterial ability was

0.004 mol/l in this study. These results, along with
those for the coated fabrics, suggest that capsaicin is
a relatively mild antibacterial agent.
The antibacterial eciency of capsaicin-coated wool
fabric before and after laundry washing was compared
(Table 2). For the capsaicin-coated fabrics, the eciency of antibacterial activity was higher than the
other groups. There was a slight decrease in the antibacterial eciency after a few washes, but the antibacterial ability still remained. Because of the low melt
point (6065 C) of capsaicin, the sample was not heat
cured after sol-gel coating. This could result in partial
removal of the coating layer when samples were
washed. More research work on the durability of the
coating under severe washing and abrasion conditions,
and further quantitative analysis (e.g. high-performance
liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry
(HPLC-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography/
electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry
(HPLC-ESI/MS)28,29) on the capsaicin content should
be carried out in the future.

0.9

0.8
OD values at 550nm

Conclusions

4 hours
18hours

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
0.005

0.000

0.005

0.038

0.039

0.040

0.041

We have demonstrated that capsaicin embedded homogeneously in a silica matrix can form an antibacterial
coating on wool fabrics. This silica from a sol-gel process could be an ideal host for the capsaicin molecules
for prolonged antibacterial eect. The laundry washes
resulted in some reduction in the antibacterial eciency, but capsaicin was still attached to the bers
after laundering. More studies are warranted to
broaden the capsaicin concentration range and improve
the coating durability.

Capsaicin concentrations in soya broth (mol/l)

Acknowledgement
Figure 7. Direct contacts of bacteria with capsaicin at different
concentrations.

The authors would like to thank Ms Kate Sanders,

Ms Rebecca Baulch, Mr Matthew Connolly and Mr Timothy

Table 2. Antibacterial efficiency of capsaicin-coated wool fabric before and after washing.
Fabric sample
Original (Control-II)
Sol-coated (Control-I)
Capsaicin coated (Fabric 2)
1-wash (Fabric 2)
3-wash (Fabric 2)

Contact time (h)

Bacteriaa growth
b

24
24
24
24
24

Heavy
Moderate to heavy growthc
No growthd
Slight growthe
Slight growthe

The growth of bacteria in the nutrient medium under fabric specimen.

Full growth along streaks under the specimen.
c
Compare to heavy, growth reduced to half.
d
Clear of bacteria growth.
e
Slight growth compared to no growth.
b

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Antibacterial activity
No effect
insufficient effect
strong
Limit of efficiency
Limit of efficiency

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Textile Research Journal 82(6)

Sanders from the School of Life and Environmental Sciences

at Deakin University for their great help and kind oer to use
their lab facilities. We would also like to thank Mr Jian Fang for
his assistance with the SEM work.

Funding
This research received no specic grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial or not-for-prot sectors.

Conflict of interest statement

None declared.

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