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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
APPLIED METALLURGY
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 A Brief Description of the Welding Process
Welding is a joining process in which joint production can be achieved with the use of
high temperatures, high pressures or both. In this lecture, only the use of high
Transverse and longitudinal contractions resulting from welding can lead to distortion if
the hot weld metal is not symmetrical about the neutral axis of a fabrication [2]. A typical
angular rotation in a single V butt weld is shown in Figure 4a. The rotation occurs because
the major part of the weld is on one side of the neutral axis of the plate, thus inducing
greater contraction stresses on that side. This leads to a distortion known as cusping in a
plate fabrication, as shown in Figure 4b. Weld distortion can be controlled by pre-setting
or pre-bending a joint assembly to compensate for the distortion or by restraining the weld
to resist distortion. Examples of both these methods are shown in Figure 5. Distortion
problems are most easily avoided by using the correct weld preparation. The use of nonsymmetrical double sided welds such as those shown in Figure 2e and 2i accommodates
distortion. The distortion from the small side of the weld (produced first) is removed when
the larger weld is put on the other side. This technique is known as balanced welding.
Weld metals with a low susceptibility to solidification cracking (low sulphur and
phosphorous) are available for most structural steels, but cracking may still arise in the
following circumstances:
a. If joint movement occurs during welding, e.g. as a result of distortion. A typical
example of this is welding around a patch or nozzle. If the weld is continuous, the
contraction of the first part of the weld imposes a strain during solidification of the rest
of the weld.
The methods of avoiding hydrogen cracking involve removing or limiting one of the three
factors which are necessary for it to occur. Hydrogen cracking can be avoided by choosing
a material which does not harden in the HAZ or weld metal with the particular welding
process employed. The likelihood of hardening in the HAZ is controlled by the cooling
rate after welding and the hardenability of the parent steel. The hardenability of a steel is
governed by its composition. A useful way of describing hardenability is to assess the total
contribution to it of all the elements that are present in the steel. This assessment is done
by an empirical formula which defines a carbon equivalent value (CEV) and takes account
of the important elements which affect hardenability. A typical formula for the CEV
(accepted in British Standards) is shown below:
CEV =
As a general rule, hardening in the HAZ can be avoided by using a steel with a CEV of
less than 0,42 although it should be noted that the welding process parameters influence
this value.
Increasing the heat input rate of the welding process (where possible) is beneficial since it
results in a slower cooling rate after welding and therefore a lower likelihood of hardening
in the HAZ. For the same reason, there is a less risk of hydrogen cracking when welding
thin plates and sections, since the cooling rate in the HAZ is less than in thick sections.
1. Select the appropriate heat input (arc energy) on the horizontal scale.
2. Move vertically to intersect the appropriate combined thickness line for the joint
design in question.
3. Move horizontally from the intersection point to read off the pre-heat temperature
for the CEV of the steel being welded.
Cracking normally occurs in the parent metal close to the outer boundary of the HAZ. The
cracks have a characteristic stepped appearance with the 'threads' of the steps being
parallel to the rolling direction of the steel plate. In contrast to hydrogen cracking, lamellar
tears are not necessarily confined to the HAZ. In some cases, cracking can occur at the
mid-thickness of a plate if it is restrained by a weld on both sides.
Lamellar tearing arises because the through-thickness ductility of the plate is reduced by
the presence of planar inclusions lying parallel to the plate surface. All common structural
steels contain large numbers of inclusions which consist of non-metallic substances
produced in the steelmaking process, e.g. sulphates and silicates. These inclusions are
formed as spheres, grain boundary films, or small angular particles in the steel ingot as it
cools down after casting. When the ingot is rolled to make steel plate the inclusions
deform into discs parallel to the plate surface. Different types of inclusions deform in
different ways and break up during rolling. The form, distribution and density of
inclusions in a rolled plate determine the through-thickness ductility. Only a small
proportion of steel plates have a sufficiently low through-thickness ductility to be
susceptible to lamellar tearing.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
A structural steel can only be considered to be weldable if joints in the steel behave
satisfactorily in service.
In order to achieve adequate levels of performance in structural applications, the
integrity of the welded joint must be good. A high level of integrity can only be
achieved if the welded joint microstructure possesses sufficient ductility to resist
residual stresses, which arise from the welding thermal cycle, without cracking.
The chemical compositions of both the weld and parent metals (carbon equivalent
value), together with the parameters of the welding process (heat input and cooling
rates), are influential in determining joint ductility.
The level of impurity elements, such as sulphur, phosphorous and hydrogen, is a
particularly significant factor in determining whether crack formation will occur
during welding.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Hicks, J. G., "Welded Joint Design", BSP Professional Books, 1979.
[2] Pratt, J. L., "Introduction to the Welding of Structural Steelwork", Steel Construction
Institute, 3rd rev. ed. 1989.
[3] Baker, R. G., "The Welding of Pressure Vessel Steels", The Welding Institute, 1973.