Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks
Advanced Computer
Networks
UNIT - II
Bharati Vidyapeeths Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63 by Vishal Jain
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Learning Objectives
In this Unit we will discuss :
Network Layer
ARP, RARP
ICMP
Routing Algorithms and Protocols
Router Operation and Configuration
Internetworking
IPV4 Protocol
IPV6 Protocol
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Network Layer
Network Layer is responsible for host-to-host delivery and

for routing the packets through the routers.
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U2.1
ARP
Address Mapping
ARP Protocol
ARP Package
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ARP and RARP
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ARP and RARP

Position of ARP and RARP in TCP/IP protocol suite
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U2.2
ARP
ARP associates an IP address with its physical address. On a
typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a
link is identified by a physical or station address that is usually
imprinted on the NIC.
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ARP
It may be noted that the knowledge of hosts IP address is not
sufficient for sending packets, because data link hardware
does not understand internet addresses. For example, in an
Ethernet network, the Ethernet controller card can send and
receive using 48-bit Ethernet addresses. The 32-bit IP
addresses are unknown to these cards. This requires a
mapping of the IP addresses to the corresponding Ethernet
addresses. This mapping is accomplished by using a
technique known as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
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ARP
An ARP request is broadcast to all stations in the network
An ARP reply is an unicast to the host requesting the
mapping
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U2.3
ARP
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ARP
ARP Packet
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ARP
Encapsulation of ARP packet
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U2.4
ARP
Four cases using ARP
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ARP
Example
A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical address
B2:34:55:10:22:10 has a packet to send to another host with
IP address 130.23.43.25 and physical address
A4:6E:F4:59:83:AB (which is unknown to the first host). The
two hosts are on the same Ethernet network. Show the ARP
request and reply packets encapsulated in Ethernet frames.
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ARP
Note that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and
that the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte
boundary. That is why we do not show the regular 4-byte
boundaries for these addresses. Also note that the IP
addresses are shown in hexadecimal.
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U2.5
ARP
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Proxy ARP
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ARP Package
This ARP package involves five modules:
1. a cache table,
2. queues,
3. an output module,
4. an input module,
5. and a cache-control module.
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U2.6
ARP Package
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Summary
Delivery of packet to a host or router requires two levels of
addresses : logical and physical.
A logical address identifies a host or router at the network
level. TCP/IP call this logical address an IP address.
A physical address identifies a host or router at the physical
level.
ARP protocol is used to find physical address given a logical
address.
ARP request is broadcast to all devices on the network.
ARP reply is unicast to the host requesting the mapping.
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RARP
Introduction
RARP Protocol
RARP Package
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U2.7
RARP
The TCP/IP protocols include another related protocol
known as reverse ARP, which can be used by a computer
such as a diskless host to find out its own IP address. It
involves the following steps:
Diskless host A broadcasts a RARP request specifying
itself as the target
RARP server responds with the reply directly to host A
Host A preserves the IP address in its main memory for
future use until it reboots
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RARP
RARP finds the logical address for a machine that only
knows its physical address.
The RARP request packets are broadcast;

the RARP reply packets are unicast.
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RARP
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U2.8
RARP Packet
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RARP Packet
Encapsulation of RARP packet
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Summary
RARP is used to find the logical address for a machine that
only knows its physical address.
RARP request is created and broadcast on the local network.
Another machine on the local network that knows all the IP
addresses will respond with a RARP reply.
Requesting machine must be running at RARP client
program.
Responding machine must be running at RARP server
program.
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U2.9
ICMP
Introduction
Messages
Debugging Tools
ICMP Package
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ICMP
To make efficient use of the network resources, IP was
designed to provide unreliable and connectionless besteffort datagram delivery service. As a consequence, IP has
no error-control mechanism and also lacks mechanism for
host and management queries. A companion protocol
known as Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), has
been designed to compensate these two deficiencies.
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ICMP
Position of ICMP in the network layer
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ICMP
ICMP encapsulation
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ICMP
ICMP Messages
ICMP messages are divided into error-reporting

messages and query messages. The error-reporting
messages report problems that a router or a host
(destination) may encounter. The query messages get
specific information from a router or another host.
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ICMP
ICMP Messages
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U2.11
ICMP
ICMP messages
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ICMP
Message Format
An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a
variable-size data section.
Although the general
format of the header is different for each message
type, the first 4 bytes are common to all.
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ICMP
Message Format
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U2.12
ICMP
ERROR REPORTING
IP, as an unreliable protocol, is not concerned with error
checking and error control. ICMP was designed, in part, to
compensate for this shortcoming. ICMP does not correct
errors, it simply reports them.
ICMP always reports error messages to the

original source.
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ICMP
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ICMP
Contents of data field for the error messages
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U2.13
ICMP
Destination-unreachable format
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ICMP
Destination-unreachable format
Destination-unreachable messages with codes 2
or 3 can be created only by the destination host.
Other destination-unreachable messages can be
created only by routers.
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ICMP
Source-quench format
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U2.14
ICMP
A source-quench message informs the source
that a datagram has been discarded due to
congestion in a router or the destination host.
The source must slow down the sending of
datagrams until the congestion is relieved.
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ICMP
One source-quench message is sent for each

datagram that is discarded due to congestion.
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ICMP
Time-exceeded message
Whenever a router decrements a datagram with a

time-to-live value to zero, it discards the datagram
and sends a time-exceeded message to the
original source.
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U2.15
ICMP
When the final destination does not receive all of

the fragments in a set time, it discards the
received fragments and sends a time-exceeded
message to the original source.
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ICMP
code 0 is used only by routers to show that the

value of the time-to-live field is zero. Code 1 is
used only by the destination host to show that not
all of the fragments have arrived within a set time.
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ICMP
Time-exceeded message format
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U2.16
ICMP
Time-exceeded message format
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ICMP
Parameter-problem
A parameter-problem message can be created by

a router or the destination host.
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ICMP
Parameter-problem message format
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U2.17
ICMP
Redirection concept
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ICMP
Redirection concept
A host usually starts with a small routing table

that is gradually augmented and updated. One of
the tools to accomplish this is the redirection
message.
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ICMP
Redirection message format
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U2.18
ICMP
Redirection message
A redirection message is sent from a router to a

host on the same local network.
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ICMP
QUERY Messages
ICMP can also diagnose some network problems

through the query messages, a group of four
different pairs of messages. In this type of ICMP
message, a node sends a message that is answered
in a specific format by the destination node.
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ICMP
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U2.19
ICMP
An echo-request message can be sent by a host

or router. An echo-reply message is sent by the
host or router which receives an echo-request
message.
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ICMP
Echo-request and echo-reply messages can be

used by network managers to check the operation
of the IP protocol.
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ICMP
Echo-request and echo-reply messages can test

the reachability of a host. This is usually done by
invoking the ping command.
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U2.20
ICMP
Echo-request and echo-reply messages
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ICMP
Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply
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ICMP

messages can be used to calculate the round-trip
time between a source and a destination machine
even if their clocks are not synchronized.
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U2.21
ICMP
The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

messages can be used to synchronize two clocks
in two machines if the exact one-way time
duration is known.
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ICMP
message format
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ICMP
Mask-request and mask-reply message format
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ICMP
Router-solicitation message format
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ICMP
Router-advertisement message format
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ICMP
Debugging Tools
Two tools that use ICMP for debugging:
1. ping
2. traceroute.
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U2.23
ICMP
Example
$ ping fhda.edu
PING fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 56 (84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1): icmp_seq=0 ttl=62 time=1.91 ms
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ICMP
The traceroute program operation
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ICMP
Example
We use the traceroute program to find the route from the
computer voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu. The
following shows the result:
$ traceroute
fhda.edu
traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets

1 Dcore.fhda.edu (153.18.31.254) 0.995 ms 0.899 ms 0.878 ms
2 Dbackup.fhda.edu (153.18.251.4) 1.039 ms 1.064 ms 1.083 ms
3 tiptoe.fhda.edu (153.18.8.1) 1.797 ms 1.642 ms 1.757 ms
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U2.24
ICMP
ICMP Package
To give an idea of how ICMP can handle the sending and
receiving of ICMP messages, an ICMP package made of two
modules: an input module and an output module.
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ICMP
ICMP Package
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Summary
ICMP send five types of error reporting messages and four
types pairs of query messages to support the unreliable and
connectionless Internet Protocol.
ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
Packet InterNet Groper (Ping) is an application program
that uses the services of ICMP to test the reachablity of a
host.
A simple ICMP design can consist of an input module that
handles incoming ICMP packets and an output module that
handles demands for ICMP services.
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U2.25
Routing Algorithms
Introduction
Routing Protocols
Unicast Routing Protocols
Multicast Routing protocols
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Routing Algorithms
Unicast Routing Protocols:
RIP, OSPF, and BGP
1. intra and inter domain routing

2. distance vector routing and RIP
3. link state routing and OSPF
4. path vector routing and BGP
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Routing Algorithms
Intra and Inter Domain Routing Protocols
Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to

as intradomain routing.
Routing between autonomous systems is referred to

as interdomain routing.
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U2.26
Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
Distance Vector Routing
In distance vector routing, the least cost route between any

two nodes is the route with minimum distance. In this
protocol each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum
distances to every node
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U2.27
Routing Algorithms
In distance vector routing, each node shares its

routing table with its immediate neighbors
periodically and when there is a change.
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Routing Algorithms
In distance vector routing, each node shares its

routing table with its immediate neighbors
periodically and when there is a change.
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Routing Algorithms
Distance vector routing tables
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U2.28
Routing Algorithms
Initialization of tables in distance vector routing
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Routing Algorithms
Updating in distance vector routing
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Routing Algorithms
Two-node instability
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U2.29
Routing Protocol
RIP
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an
intradomain routing protocol used inside an autonomous
system. It is a very simple protocol based on distance
vector routing.
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Routing Protocol
RIP
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the
most commonly used Interior Gateway Protocol on
internal networks which helps a router dynamically adapt
to changes of network connections by communicating
information about which networks each router can reach
and how far away those networks are. Although RIP is
still actively used, it is generally considered to have been
obsolete by Link-state routing protocol such as OSPF.
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Routing Protocol
RIP uses the services of UDP on

well-known port 520.
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U2.30
Routing Protocol
Example of a domain using RIP
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Routing Protocol
RIP message format
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Routing Protocol
Request messages
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U2.31
Routing Protocol
RIP timers
RIP uses certain timers to regulate its performance. The
biggest drawback to a RIP router is the broadcast it makes.
RIP uses numerous timers to regulate its performance.
These include a routing-update timer, a route-timeout timer,
and a route-flush timer. The routing-update timer clocks the
interval between periodic routing updates, each router
periodically transmits it entire routing table to all the other
routers on the network. Generally, it is set to 30 seconds,
with a small random amount of time added whenever the
timer is reset.
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Routing Protocol
RIP timers
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Routing Protocol
RIP version 2 format
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U2.32
Routing Protocol
RIP version 2 format
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2) RIP Version 2 adds a "network
mask" and "next hop address" field to the original RIP
packet while remaining completely compatible with RIP.
Thus RIPv2 routers can coexist with RIP routers without
any problems.
The subnet mask field contains the network bit mask
associated with the destination; it also allows the
implementation of CIDR addressing. This will allow RIP to
function in a variety of environments, which may implement
variable subnet masks on a network.
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Routing Algorithms
Link State Routing
In link state routing, if each node in the domain has the entire
topology of the domain, the node can use Dijkstras
algorithm to build a routing table.
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Routing Algorithms
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U2.33
Routing Algorithms
Link state knowledge
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Routing Algorithms
Dijkstra algorithm
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Routing Algorithms
Example of formation of shortest path tree
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U2.34
Routing Algorithms
Routing table for node A
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Routing Protocol
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is another Interior
Gateway Protocol. It is a routing protocol developed for
Internet Protocol (IP) networks by the Interior Gateway
Protocol (IGP) working group of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). The working group was formed in 1988
to design an IGP based on the Shortest Path First (SPF)
algorithm for use in the Internet. OSPF was created
because in the mid-1980s, the Routing Information Protocol
(RIP) was increasingly incapable of serving large,
heterogeneous internetworks. OSPF being a SPF algorithm
scales better than RIP.
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Routing Protocol
OSPF
The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is an intra

domain routing protocol based on link state routing. Its
domain is also an autonomous system.
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U2.35
Routing Protocol
OSPF also has the following features:
Advertise about neighborhood: Instead of sending its
entire routing table, a router sends information about its
neighborhood only.
Flooding: Each router sends this information to every
other router on the internetwork, not just to its neighbors. It
does so by a process of flooding. In Flooding, a router
sends its information to all its neighbors (through all of its
output ports). Every router sends such messages to each of
its neighbor, and every router that receives the packet
sends copies to its neighbor. Finally, every router has a
copy of same information.
Active response: Each outer sends out information about
the neighbor when there is a change.
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Routing Protocol
OSPF packets are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
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Routing Protocol
Areas in an autonomous system
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U2.36
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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U2.37
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
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U2.38
Routing Protocol
OSPF common header
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Routing Protocol
Link state update packet
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Routing Protocol
LSA general header
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U2.39
Routing Protocol
Router link
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Routing Protocol
Router link LSA
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Routing Protocol
Link types, link identification, and link data
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U2.40
Routing Protocol
Example - Give the router link LSA sent by router 10.24.7.9
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Routing Protocol
This router has three links: two of type 1 (point-to-point) and
one of type 3 (stub network).
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Routing Algorithms
Path Vector Routing
Path vector routing is similar to distance vector routing.

There is at least one node, called the speaker node, in
each AS that creates a routing table and advertises it to
speaker nodes in the neighboring ASs..
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U2.41
Routing Algorithms
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Routing Algorithms
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Routing Protocol
Border Gateway Protocol
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an inter domain routing

protocol using path vector routing. It first appeared in 1989
and has gone through four versions.
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U2.42
Routing Protocol
BGP supports classless addressing and CIDR.
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Routing Protocol
BGP uses the services of TCP

on port 179.
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Routing Protocol
Internal and external BGP sessions
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U2.43
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
BGP packet header
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Routing Protocol
Open message
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U2.44
Routing Protocol
Update message
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Routing Protocol
Keepalive message
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Routing Protocol
Notification message
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U2.45
Routing Protocol
A message can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.

Let us clarify these terms as they relate to the
Internet.
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Routing Protocol
Unicast :-
the router forwards the received packet

through only one of its interfaces
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Routing Protocol
Multiicast :- the router may forward the received packet
through several of its interfaces
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U2.46
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
Emulation of multicasting through multiple

unicasting is not efficient and may create long
delays, particularly with a large group.
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Routing Protocol
In unicast routing, each router in the domain has

a table that defines a shortest path tree to
possible destinations.
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U2.47
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
In multicast routing, each involved router needs

to construct a shortest path tree for each group.
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Routing Protocol
In the source-based tree approach, each router

needs to have one shortest path tree for each
group.
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U2.48
Routing Protocol
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Routing Protocol
In the group-shared tree approach, only the core

router, which has a shortest path tree for each
group, is involved in multicasting.
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Routing Protocol
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U2.49
Routing Protocol
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Summary
A metric is the cost assigned for passage of a packet
through a network.
A router consults its routing table to determine the best path
of a packet.
An autonomous system is a group of networks and routers
under the authority of a single administration.
RIP and OSPF are popular intra domain routing protocols
used to update routing table in an AS.
RIP use three timers.
BGP is an inter autonomous system routing protocol used
to update routing tables.
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Router Operation
Introduction to Routers
Overview of Router Modes
Router Interfaces
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U2.50
Router Configuration
Overview of Router Configuration
Static Routing
Dynamic Routing
Default Routing
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IPV4 Protocol
Introduction
Datagrams
Fragmentation
IP Package
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IPV4 Protocol
IP is an unreliable and connectionless best-effort delivery
service protocol. By best effort we mean that there is no
error and flow control. However, IP performs error detection
and discards a packet, if it is corrupted. To achieve
reliability, it is necessary to combine it with a reliable
protocol such as TCP. Packets in IP layer are called
datagrams. The IP header provides information about
various functions the IP performs.
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U2.51
IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
A packet in the IP layer is called a datagram, a variablelength packet consisting of two parts: header and data.
The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains
information essential to routing and delivery.
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IPV4 Protocol
IP Datagram
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U2.52
IPV4 Protocol
Service type or differentiated services
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IPV4 Protocol
The precedence subfield was designed, but never

used in version 4.
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IPV4 Protocol
Types of service
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U2.53
IPV4 Protocol
Multiplexing
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IPV4 Protocol
Protocols
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IPV4 Protocol
Fragmentation
The format and size of a frame depend on the protocol
used by the physical network. A datagram may have to
be fragmented to fit the protocol regulations.
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U2.54
IPV4 Protocol
Fragmentation
Each network imposes a limit on maximum size, known
as maximum transfer unit (MTU) of a packet because of
various reasons. One approach is to prevent the
problem to occur in the first place, i.e. send packets
smaller than the MTU. Second approach is to deal with
the problem using fragmentation. When a gateway
connects two networks that have different maximum and
or minimum packet sizes, it is necessary to allow the
gateway to break packets up into fragments, sending
each one as an internet packet. The technique is known
as fragmentation.
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IPV4 Protocol
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
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IPV4 Protocol
MTUs for some networks
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U2.55
IPV4 Protocol
Fragmentation Example
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
OPTIONS
The header of the IP datagram is made of two parts: a
fixed part and a variable part. The variable part
comprises the options that can be a maximum of 40
bytes.
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U2.56
IPV4 Protocol
OPTION Format
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IPV4 Protocol
Categories of Option
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IPV4 Protocol
No Operation Option
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U2.57
IPV4 Protocol
Record Route Option
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IPV4 Protocol
Record Route Concept
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IPV4 Protocol
Time Stamp Concept
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U2.58
IPV4 Protocol
Checksum
The error detection method used by most TCP/IP
protocols is called the checksum. The checksum
protects against the corruption that may occur during the
transmission of a packet. It is redundant information
added to the packet.
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IPV4 Protocol
Checksum
To create the checksum the sender does the following:
The packet is divided into k sections, each of n bits.
All sections are added together using 1s complement
arithmetic.
The final result is complemented to make the
checksum.
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IPV4 Protocol
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U2.59
IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
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IPV4 Protocol
IP Package
IP software package to show its components and the
relationships between the components. This IP package
involves following modules.
1. Header-Adding Module
2. Processing Module
3. Queues
4. Routing Table
5. Forwarding Module
6. MTU Table
7. Fragmentation Module
8. Reassembly Table
9. Reassembly Module
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U2.60
IPV4 Protocol
IP Components
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IPV4 Protocol
MTU Table
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IPV4 Protocol
Reassembly Table
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U2.61
Summary
IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol responsible for
source-to-destination delivery.
Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams.
A datagram consists of a header (20 to 60 bytes) and data.
The maximum length of a datagram is 65535 bytes.
MTU is the maximum number of bytes that a data link
control can encapsulate. MTU is vary from protocol to
protocol.
The options section of the IP header is used for network
testing and debugging.
The error detection method used by IP is the checksum.
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IPV6 Protocol
Introduction
Packet Format
Transition from IPV4 to IPV6
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IPV6 Protocol
The network layer that is present in use in commonly
referred to as IPv4. Although IPv4 is well designed and has
helped the internet to grow rapidly, it has some
deficiencies, These deficiencies has made it unsuitable for
the fast growing internet. To overcome these deficiencies,
Internet Protocol, Version 6 protocol has been proposed
and it has evolved into a standard.
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U2.62
IPV6 Protocol
Important features of IPv6 are highlighted below:
IPv6 uses 128-bit address instead of 32-bit address to
provide larger address space
Uses more flexible header format, which simplifies and
speeds up the routing process
Basic header followed by extended header
Resource Allocation options, which was not present in
IPv4
Provision of new/future protocol options
Support for security with the help of encryption and
authentication
Support for fragmentation at source
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 has these advantages over IPv4:
1. larger address space
2. better header format
3. new options
4. allowance for extension
5. support for resource allocation
6. support for more security
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Address
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Datagram
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IPV6 Protocol
IPv6 Datagram
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IPV6 Protocol
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet header
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IPV6 Protocol
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IPV6 Protocol
IPV6 Extension Header
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IPV6 Protocol
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IPV6 Protocol
Comparison between
IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers
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Summary
IPV6, the latest version of Internet Protocol., has a 128-bit
address space, a revised header format, new options, an
allowance for extension, support for resource allocation, and
increased security measures.
IPV6 uses hexadecimal colon notation with abbreviation
methods available.
An IPV6 datagram is composed of a base header and a
payload.
ICMP6, like version 4, report errors, handles group
memberships, updates specific router and host tables, and
checks the viability of a host.
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Conclusion
Network Layer
ARP
Address Mapping
ARP Protocol
ARP Package
Routing Algorithms and Protocols

Introduction
Routing Protocols
Unicast Routing Protocols
Multicast Routing protocols
Router Operation and Configuration
RARP
Introduction
RARP Protocol
RARP Package
ICMP
Introduction
Messages
Debugging Tools
ICMP Package
IPV4 Protocol
Introduction
Datagrams
Fragmentation
IP Package
IPV6 Protocol
Introduction
Packet Format
Transition from IPV4 to IPV6
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Objective Type
1. Network layer is responsible for ____ to ____ delivery.
2. ARP is used to find ______ address to _______ address.
3. RARP is used to find _________ address to ____ address.
4. An autonomous system is a _______ of network.
5. BGP is a _________ protocol.
6. ICMP is a companion to the _______ protocol.
7. _______ and _______ are two types of ICMP messages.
8. In IPV4 address is of _____ bits.
9. In IPV6 address is of _____ bits.
10. Router works on _____ layer.
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Short Questions
1. Which layer determines path selection in an internet
work?
2. What is one method mapping network addresses to
MAC addressed?
3. What is one method mapping MAC address to
network address.
4. What do you mean by Encapsulation.?
5. What do you mean by BGP ?
6. What is fragmentation in IP protocol ?
7. What are the various roles played by the Network
Layer?
8. Compare link-state and distance vector routing
algorithms.
9. Compare IPV4 and IPV6 header fields.
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Short Questions
10)Explain the following ICMP messages
11)Write a Short note on RARP header.
12)Explain debugging tools in ICMP.
13)Explain different types of messages in ICMP.
14)How does ARP protocol work when a packet is to be
sent?
15)Explain the working of RARP.
16)Write the commands for configuring the router for
giving address to various interfaces. Give commands
for establishing connection between two networks &
communicating between them using some protocol.
Save the configuration. Write commands for seeing
other commands. How will you give password to a
router?
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Long Questions
1. Draw IPV4 header and explain in detail.
2. A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical
address Ox B23455102210 has a packet to send to
another host with address 130.23.43.25 and physical
address Ox A46EF45983AB. The two hosts are on
the same Ethernet network. Show ARP request and
reply packet encapsulated in Ethernet frame.
3. Explain RIP protocol in detail.
4. Draw and differentiate between IPV 4 and IPV 6
header.
5. Compare ARP and RARP. Give their respective
operations.
6. Explain various parameters set during router
configuration.
7. Explain ARP package
8. Explain RARP package
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Long Questions
9. Explain the types of BGP messages. Explain the
various fields involved.
10. Explain the various query messages in ICMP. Also
draw and explain the packet formats.
11. Describe the various links in OSPF.
12. What are the various components of a CISCO
Router? Explain them briefly.
13. Discuss the header of the Internet Protocol (IP).
Explain how fragmentation is done in IP with the help
of an example. What is the need of fragmentations?
14. What is proxy ARP? Explain with the help of an
example.
15. What are the problems associated with RIP? How can
these problems b overcome. Explain with the help of
example.
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References
Main Reading Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, TCP/IP Protocol Suit, TMH, 4th Edition
2. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communication and Networking,
TMH, 3rd edition
Reference Books:
1. Black U, Computer Networks-Protocols, Standards and
Interfaces, PHI, 1996.
2. Stallings W., Data and Computer Communications, 6th Ed.,
PHI, 2002.
3. Stallings W., SNMP, SNMPv2, SNMPv3, RMON 1 & 2, 3rd
Ed., Addison Wesley,1999.
4. Laurra Chappell (Ed), Introduction to Cisco Router
Configuration, Techmedia, 1999.
5. Tananbaum A. S., Computer Networks, 3rd Ed., PHI, 1999.
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MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

Network Layer is responsible for host-to-host delivery and

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

ARP and RARP

ARP and RARP

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

The RARP request packets are broadcast;

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

ICMP messages are divided into error-reporting

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

ICMP always reports error messages to the

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

One source-quench message is sent for each

Whenever a router decrements a datagram with a

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

When the final destination does not receive all of

code 0 is used only by routers to show that the

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

A parameter-problem message can be created by

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

A host usually starts with a small routing table

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

A redirection message is sent from a router to a

ICMP can also diagnose some network problems

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

An echo-request message can be sent by a host

Echo-request and echo-reply messages can be

Echo-request and echo-reply messages can test

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

Timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

The timestamp-request and timestamp-reply

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

traceroute to fhda.edu (153.18.8.1), 30 hops max, 38 byte packets

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

1. intra and inter domain routing

Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to

Routing between autonomous systems is referred to

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

In distance vector routing, the least cost route between any

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

In distance vector routing, each node shares its

In distance vector routing, each node shares its

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

RIP uses the services of UDP on

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks

MCA-309, Advanced Computer Networks