SD} DD) 2 ~ ~ 2 2 > =) 2 2 WEEEPEECEELETy. \\ Sharing the Results to pull everything wal in Initial gos ing for your argument, itis time think about how to arrange your argument and how it to your audi You! your thetorical Pratt TN ms een orca? A Gaarusn tation that will communi results in a way that will suit your nd persuade your audience, In the h scenario on the follow Kristi has s could pr As you read, co format y assignment. arranging your Ort ias Meena Cates CorcoranKsistia senior in college, i taking ahistory course. Kristi’ history professor has y assigned a family history project and asked 7 students to think of a unique approach that i they might take to writing their families’ histories, Kristi is also engaged to be married, and she has asked her professor if she could write a combined history of her two families {her birth family and her in-laws), looking at the intersections between them. f The audience consists of Kristi’ professor, but she also plans to share her project with both families, Kristi needs to investigate the histories ofboth families to find points of intersection, She woul like to develop a visual representation ofthe history to ‘accompany her written research report; she thinks that looking at family photographs Would be a good staring point for identifying patterns of intersection between the ‘wo families, She needs to talk to members of both families and also find photo graphs that will demonstrate connections. How could Krist present thetesuts’of her research visually? How might she organize the photographs, and what form do you think the Presentation might take? How might she connect the visual representation with her essay? Can you imagine another way Kristi might approach this research project, given the purpose and audience forthe research? VEEN 6 Ba eG‘As you consider possible pattems of organization for your research project, you will want to chaose the organizational strategy that will best support your claim, purpose, and audience. The pattern of arrangement you choose depends on abalance between the reasoning of your argument and your rhetorical situation (your purpose, audience, and topic). Since you have already been constructing the reasoning for your argument in terms of your rhetorical situation, you now need to do two things 1. Decide ona patter of arg effect iment (evaluation, definition, proposal, cause and 2. Determine how to organize the argument that you are constructing (most important to least important, least important to most important, 0 chronological In Kristis case, she decides to start her research by asking that members of both families pull out old photo albums and other "boxes" of memorabilia. After going through and picking out the photos and other documents that were sturdy enough to withstand being scanned, she starts trying to group them into like piles. She looks for connections between them and tries a number of arrangements Fits she tries making, piles based on the family members in the photos (Figure 11.1). Then she tres organiz- ing the photos based on theme (Figure 11.2). Ten she considers a chronological orga- nization. By just spending time with the photos, the “evidence” of her family history, she gets to know the “data” better and she starts to construct an arrangement pattern for her project, (GRANDPARENTS: ‘most pictures are of them together (23) THE BERRY FAMILY Gristpher 6) Figure 1.1 cluserMapothe cures rit Found Based on Fay Memb lesurer phos epee)| 208, Sharing the Results Figure 1.2 ster tap ofthe Petes eis Found sed on Tere pico the Clustering her photos helps Kristi understand the types of photos she has accu ‘mulated and gives her some ideas about the visual arrangement of her project (which she decides to construct in Mictosoft PowerPoint’). Once she starts clustering based ‘on the theme/topic, she sees that the two families have several shared experiences, traditions, and values. Based on this finding, she writes a few interview questions and ‘wonders if this might provide an organization for her final project. She could compare and contrast some of the families shared experiences, but she would need to find out more information to determine i this pattern of argument would work for her research, Then she would need to determine how to arrange the various details in her argument as she compares and contrasts shared experiences, ‘Once you've identified your thesis and reasons, consider doing some of the listing and clustering activities found in the appendix to help with this process. Once you have {grouped the information and evidence associated with each reason in your argument, you will need to start thinking about the order in which you will present the informa: tion you found during your research. There area variety of common argument pattems associated with specific types of arguments and lines of reasoning, You might chooselone of these common argument pi just start with one and then adapt itto fit your argument and rhetorical stuati terns for your researched argument, or you could Although there are a variety of types of arguments, the vast majority of them fal into the following four categories: evaluations, definitions, proposals, and cause-and-effect arguments. More sophisticated or complex arguments, usually associated with more complex research questions and issues, often include more than one of these types of argument. As you read through the following descriptions, frst think about your thesis or argumentative claim. Does it pear to clearly ft into one of these categories? If yes, you might want to follow the argument pattern outlined. If not, facus on each line of reasoning: does itfitinta one of these categories? If yes, you might want that section of your argument to follow the argument pattern outlined, tion In evaluations people judge an object against a specific set of criteria For example, movie reviews evaluate a movie based on the criteria provided by the reviewer. However, ifyou don't agree with the reviewer's criteria of “what makes a good movie," you might not agree with the evaluation, Therefore, evaluation arguments become two-layered arguments: the fist layer argues fora specific set of criteria, and the second layer argues for how a specific object meets that set of criteria, Here's an outline of what an evaluative argument might look like Claim: A specifi object is.a good/bad example afa specific group Section 1: Deseribe the frst evaluative criterion Gustify the eritesion if needed) and apply the criterion to the specific objec Section 2: Deseribe the second evaluative citerion justify the eriterion if needed) and apply the exterion to the specific abject Section 3: Describe the third evaluative eriterion (justly the erterion if needed) and apply Repeat this pattern as often as needed, depending on the number of evaluative criteria inyour argument, son and C Sometimes arguments pit one specific object against another, or group of others, by comparing and contrasting them. reviewer might compare Pirates ofthe Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006) to the first Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003). Or, instead, the reviewer might compare Dead Man's Chest with a varlety of pirate movies that came before it. the comparison and contrast requires a set of criteria, or categories, on F example, a film wich to base the comparison, so itis also a type of evaluation. A comparison and con- trast argument can be structured in two ways, the first arranged based on the criteria and the second arranged according to the objects being compared or contrasted. Claim: claim compares or eontrass one specific abject in relation to another (or others). Section 1: Describe the frst evaluative evterion (justify the exterion if needed) and apply the evtetion to al te objects being compared contrasted Section 2: Describe the second evaluative criterion (justify the citerion ifneeded) and apply he criterion Co ll the objects being compared/contrasted Section 3: Describe the third evaluat criterion (justify the criterion if needed) and apply the criterion to all the objects being eompared/eontrased210 Sharing the Results oR Claim: A cian compares or contrasts one specific object in relation to another (or others). ion 1: Establish and argue forthe set of erie Section 2: Deseribe one of the objects in terms ofall the evaluative eritri Section 3: Describe another objuet in terms of all the evaluative titerin, Section 4 (f needed): Deseribe another object in terms of al the evaluative criteria, Depending on the goal of your argument, one of these patterns might fit better than the others. You can decide which pattern might work best by considering tion of your argument will need the most development. Definition In an argument of definition, the author makes a claim aby ific object fits ina category an evaluation of wh of specific objects fit together to make a specific category (comparison of multiple objects to develop common criteria). Therefore, the argument might be arranged in {wo different structures, For example, in the first instance, an author might claim that ® specific object, an electronic book, still remains a "book" based on the definition of “book” The argument is then arranged around the specific elements of the definition inother words, the criteria for "book: hhowa spe- at a specific object i) or how a group Claim: A specific objet is (ors not) a part of group based on the defnition ofthe Section 1; State the first eritetion for definition of the group and specific evidence for the objeet demonstrating thal criterion Section 2: State the second criterion fora definition ofthe group and specific evide the object demonstrating that criterion Section 3: State te thied criterion for a definition ofthe group ane specific evidence forthe ‘object demonstrating that eriterion Inthe second type of definitional argument, the author has a group of objects that he or she then compares, and possibly contrasts, to identify 2 common group of elements the objects share that make a definition forthe group. For example, an author might make claim to define the concept of a’book by looking at the common elements of different 'ypes of texts that could be considered "books to include ebooks and printed books Claim: The common elements ofa group aF objects foe the definition ofthe category objects Section 1: Deseribe the frst common efement and pravide evidence from all the objeets in the grou Section 2: Describe the scand comtiion element and provise evidence from all the objets Section 3: Describe the third common element and provide evidence fom all the objects in the group, For either of these patterns, you would include as many sections as you needed, based (on the numberof criteria or common elements you need to include in your argument. Proposal. In some arguments, itis appropriate to propose a plan for action that will solve 2 problem identified in the argument. Such arguments generally contain twoa2 Sharing the Results ~4 a and pieces of evidence. Depending on the subject, the pieces of evidence might be ° presented chronologically as well é Sometimes an author chooses to start with oo | the least important reason and build toward the most important. Such an organiza, e tional structure leaves the audience with the most important, or most convincing, « feason and pieces of evidence in mind as he or she finishes reading the argument. This é | ay iespecilyeffectve ora long argument because audivne menos ees “tune ou during the middle ofthe argument Thisstotegy mightnet Sescafctwerr resistant eadesthinktisa weak argument ram these shen theyll ee econ | If the author really needs to keep the audi tence engaged and convinced from the beginning of the argument, he or she might begin with the most importa treason and then present the remaining reasons that further support the one main, most important reason. fan author goes with this orga: nizational strategy, he or she will e-emphasize that first, and most important, reason during the conclusion section to motivate and persuade the audience to agree with the argument. 'n both of these organizational structures, an author might use a variation in order to place strong reasons both at the beginning and at the end. For example, an author . ‘addressing a somewhat resistant audience might put the strongest argument at the ¢ end, but he or she might put the second most compelling argument at the beginning convince the audience to continue reading r n Depending on your topic, t might make sense to present your evidence and reasons chronologically If Krist! is making an argument e that her two families share certain values and experiences, for example, she might ‘want to present the evidence of her argument by chronologically describing events = in the families'histories. Krist could use an argument patter of camparison and con- trast (comparing the two families) but then present the evidence forthe argument chronologically, 7 Develop an Outline € Using the vanous src preserted here, youite nat certain in your chief argu: evlop a0 outline for your argument. Sart mentpaten or gaan ty ing ant ‘= with your daim and list your reasons and evi- set of structures and develop a second outline ¢ dence: er you have produced the ote, for your argument, Descbe what stucal describe what structural pa Setar (FEMS yo Patterns you used for this second outline and ed and why you dlcuss why you used the. used them, Share your outlines} with a classmate o ¢ “ You can develop your outline a friend, Ifyou developed more than one, ask “Hives, | 88 2 formal outline, sentence which argument or organizational pattem c cutie, scratch out She preferred and wi.5 Although introductions and conclusions are sometimes considered the most important parts of your argument (ie, you can't persuade people to change their minds if you . can't even persuade them to read the argument), many authors write, or atleast revise, 3 these sections ofthe argument last. Generally, bath introductions and conclusions carry a large amount of responsibilty for the effectiveness of arguments. People tend to use ethos (arguments developed from personal authority) and pathos (emotion-based arguments) more blatantly in introductions and conclusions, The introduction needs to motivate the audience to continue to read, or listen to, the argument, Similarly, the conclusion needs to motivate the audience to go out and do something with the infor. mation. Both introductions and conclusions have other work to doas well, however, and it's important to keep these multiple responsibilities in mind as you write, | ! Good writers know they need to motivate their audience, both to read the document and to take Bacon on the argument. By his pon in the proces, you hae naowed your audience enough J shat you havea very god idea about who the are and what they cae about, To ep constuct BO ctzoductios and conclson that motnate your ede, answer the flowing questions about J your primary auience eee eee | | question’ ‘topic? What could change from the status topic What could change from the status even more? Ancient rhetors claimed there were three possible sections for an introduction and, ased on the rhetorical situation, you could include any one, or all, of the three parts. to prepare the audience for receiving the message. in other words, the author needs to make sure the audien: ment. The second se is sincerely engaged in hearing the argu tion includes a brief introduction to or history of the topic, and the third section outlines the argument. Depending on your rhetorical situation, you ‘might include one or more of these sections in your introduction, Regardless of which ctions are included, you need to carefully understand the purpose and audience of the argument to develop a powerful intraduction,the Results Many contemporary scholarly writers start with showing how their research ident fies a gap in what is known about an issue. In other words, they demonstrate that no ‘one else has asked a specific research question (oranswered it suficienty). By identity. ing the research gap, the author implies that his or her answer to the question wil fill ‘the gap. Introducing the gap, or problem, that your research is going to fil is one way to get your readers’ attention and motivate them to continue reading, For example, Krist could explain that looking at the histories of the two families together provides insight that Isnt possible if their histories are written in isolation. Indeed, she might be able to make connections with her families’ shared histories and larger historical events or trends. She can introduce her family history, and her method of looking at both histories together, as filling a gap in the knowledge of either family’s individual history, Her research will enrich the families understanding of their individual and shared histories. Draft an éffective Introduction u rat your introduction, keep your argument and te audience tions to help draft your induction ur rhetarical situation in mind—especially the purpose of au are addressing, Freewrit in response to the following 1 Whyisthis topic important? How does know? What do they need to know to it affect the audience the community understand your perspective How ing wil your paper be? How Whats the audience’ stand onthe ompiex wil your argument be? Do you issue? How doesit ifr fom yours need to give the audience a road map to their perspectives diferent fom yours, Prepare ther for your argument how might you show respect for their perspective so that they might read Once you have drafted your responses to these questions ook forthe most compelling yours? oint in what you wrote. Copy and paste that 1. Whatisyourauthovityon this topic? below what you wrote or eve ighight it or Who arethermajr‘layesthat write ce tf out witing ma notebook}, and citalkaboat histor What we thr then freeviie abo That ies. fo anther strevats and pone: of autora 5 mites sts someting yoo cud dev 7 could try this looping activity a couple of times. 2. Does your audience know the topic, or ; hat you tink you ishistory well What do they eady could develop nto your introduction An important thing to remem with the introduction, Aithou 0 not has ris that you raft might help you to start with the introduction, most kely you will revise it radically before completing the final version. Similarly, you de ot have to wait to write your conclusion to start writing your il after you've written the entire paper Sometimes it helps to write a draft of your conclusion earlier to continue reminding