THE VIKING DECEPTION

PBS Airdate: February 8, 2005

Go to the companion Web site
NARRATOR: In 1492, Columbus discovered America and for nearly 500 years, there cou
ld be no fact more certain. Columbus and his discovery were inscribed in textboo
ks, recited by school children and celebrated by nations. Then, in the 1960s, hi
story changed forever when we learned that America was not discovered by Columbu
s; America was discovered by the Vikings.
The proof? A wrinkled piece of parchment called the Vinland Map, claimed by expe
rts to be the first to depict America, and it dates to 1440, half a century befo
re Columbus' famous voyage. But is the Vinland Map real?
GARMAN HARBOTTLE (Brookhaven National Laboratory): If it's a fake, it was done b
y a master of forgery.
THOMAS CAHILL (University of California, Davis): It's too complicated. It's too
beautiful. I think it's real.
NARRATOR: From the moment it surfaced, scientists have subjected the map to an e
xhaustive series of forensic tests, but even they are divided over its authentic
ity.
KATHERINE BROWN (University College London): If it is genuine, it's a fascinatin
g historical document. If it's not genuine, it's the biggest con trick that's be
en pulled on cartographical society in a very, very long time.
NARRATOR: At stake: millions of dollars, the careers of esteemed scholars and sc
ientists, and the reputation of one of America's most revered institutions.
ROBIN CLARK (University College London): We can see no option but the fact that
this must be a forgery, a modern twentieth century forgery.
NARRATOR: From ancient libraries in Nazi occupied Austria to space age labs in C
alifornia, the race is on for the truth. Is the Vinland Map fake or real? Can sc
ience provide the answer? Up next on NOVA, The Viking Deception.
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NARRATOR: Here at the showpiece Beinecke Library, Yale keeps the Vinland Map saf
e for future study. Once, it had been proclaimed the map that changed history, c
hallenging the gospel that Columbus discovered America and revealing the Vikings
as the first Europeans to visit the New World. But today, the map is only acces
sible to select scholars who are investigating it, not for its historical value,
but rather, to determine its authenticity.
ALICE PROCHASKA (Yale University Librarian): We don't take a position on the Vin
land Map. I believe very strongly that we are here to make material available fo
r scholars to use. As far as it's being real or fake is concerned, that is for t

he scholars who study it to determine.

NARRATOR: If they determine it's real, it's the most valuable map in the world;
if it's fake, it's a worthless piece of parchment.
London, the year 1957: two book dealers arrive at the British Museum. One is J.I
. Davis, an Englishman, the other, an Italian named Enzo Ferrajoli. Ferrajoli an
d Davis are hoping the museum experts will authenticate an intriguing volume the
y are offering for sale. The bulk of the book is a medieval manuscript called th
e Tartar Relation.
The Tartar Relation is an account of a 13th century Papal mission to gather inte
lligence on the court of the Mongol rulers with their great military capability.
The manuscript Ferrajoli and Davis are offering was transcribed by monks in the
15th century and bound together with a world map that appears to illustrate the
text. To the east of Europe, the map shows lands conquered by the Mongols, the
Himalayas, and even the island of Japan. But to the west of Europe, it reveals I
celand, Greenland, and a new world, one that until then had never been seen on a
map, a distant island in the North Atlantic labeled "Vinlanda," where America l
ies.
KIRSTEN SEAVER (Author, Maps, Myths and Men): Here it was in black and white. An
d it showed America in relation to recognizable parts of the world such as Afric
a and Asia and the Scandinavian countries, Great Britain no question where it was.
NARRATOR: Was this map evidence that the Vikings set foot on America before Colu
mbus? At the time, the only hint this could be true were two Norse chronicles ca
lled the Vinland Sagas.
KIRSTEN SEAVER: The word saga means telling oral tales. And they were stories, o
ral histories that were partly passed down for the edification of the next gener
ation. Some of them were for entertainment more than anything.
NARRATOR: The Vikings were the greatest explorers of the Middle Ages. Their stur
dy ships and seafaring skills took them far from their Scandinavian homelands an
d across harsh North Atlantic Seas. By 870 they had reached Iceland; a century l
ater they colonized Greenland. And now this map not only depicts Vinland where A
merica is, it also includes a short inscription above Vinland describing its dis
covery by the Vikings. Suddenly the Vinland Map cast doubt on 500 years of textb
ook history.
GARMAN HARBOTTLE: I was taught that Columbus discovered the New World; so was ev
ery other child the world across. And so this, then, was revolutionary in that s
ense.
NARRATOR: In 1957, when book dealers Ferrajoli and Davis brought the map to the
British Museum, it was the first serious evidence besides the sagas that the Vik
ings had discovered America. The Vinland Map looked so good, two of the museum's
experts were convinced it was genuine. But the head of the Manuscript Departmen
t, Bertram Schofield, had doubts. He was troubled that Ferrajoli would not revea
l anything about the map's previous history.
In fact, Ferrajoli's charm did mask a darker past. He was a fascist who, during
the Spanish Civil War, had fought with General Franco's troops. Some claim he ha
d a reputation for shady deals.
ELOY FERNNDEZ CLEMENTE (University of Saragossa): He knew very well who he could
buy just with little gifts invitations to lunch, good cigars, good spirits and win
es. In other words, he knew perfectly what everybody's price was in order to win
their trust.

NARRATOR: Bertram Schofield refused to give the British Museum's stamp of approv
al to the Vinland Map. Without authentication, Ferrajoli and Davis would not be
able to ask a high price. They decided to try another strategy.
Geneva was one of the hubs of the European rare book trade. One Swiss dealer, th
e firm of Nicolas Rauch, was holding a series of auctions of books and manuscrip
ts relating to the discovery of America. But without proof that it was genuine,
Rauch would not sell the Vinland Map. He did, however, introduce Ferrajoli to a
young American dealer, Laurence Witten.
KENNETH NEBENZAHL (Rare book dealer): He was extremely knowledgeable. He was a l
inguist, familiar with most Western European languages. He was a Latinist. And h
is catalogue descriptions were erudite. He was a very knowledgeable dealer.
NARRATOR: Away from the close scrutiny of the sales room, Ferrajoli offered Witt
en the Vinland Map. Despite the map's lack of a proper pedigree, Witten, as he l
ater wrote in a publication for Yale, was captivated.
VOICE OVER READING FROM LAURENCE WITTEN RECOLLECTION Whatever the Vinland Map an
d the Tartar Relation may ultimately prove to be, I fell under their spell in 19
57.
NARRATOR: Witten paid Ferrajoli $3,500 for the Vinland Map volume. In 1957, that
was big money, but if he could prove that the Vinland Map was drawn before Colu
mbus arrived in America in 1492, he stood to make a fortune.
At his home near Yale, where he had been a graduate student, Witten turned detec
tive. He started by trying to date the manuscript with which the map was bound,
the Tartar Relation. The Tartar Relation was mainly written on paper, and Witten
discovered faint watermarks of an ox's head. By finding the watermark in a refe
rence book, he could show that the paper had been made in 1441. This indicated t
hat the Tartar Relation was an authentic medieval manuscript, but the map was dr
awn on parchment, animal skin, and had no identifying watermark. What was its da
te?
Witten's strategy was to prove that the Vinland Map had always been bound with t
he Tartar Relation, which scholars generally agree is authentic. While examining
them he found an important clue, wormholes. If he could show that the holes eat
en by bookworms lined up from one document to the next, it would prove the Vinla
nd Map and the Tartar Relation had always been bound together and had to be conn
ected in time. But try as he might, Witten could not make the wormholes line up.
Witten had come to a dead end.
A year later, his fortunes would be transformed by a remarkable coincidence. A f
riend from Yale's Stirling Library brought Witten part of a well-known medieval
history by a Dominican Friar named Vincent of Beauvais. It was called the Specul
um Historiale or Mirror of History.
That night, after dinner, he sat down with the manuscript and compared it to the
Tartar Relation and the Vinland Map. Immediately, he was struck by an amazing c
oincidence.
VOICE OVER READING FROM LAURENCE WITTEN RECOLLECTION My adrenaline began to flow
as it dawned on me that the wormholes through the Vinland Map exactly matched t
hose at the front of Vincent de Beauvais's Speculum, while the ones in the Tarta
r Relation just as perfectly matched those at the end of the same volume. As far
as I was concerned, the Vinland Map was authenticated then and there, beyond an
y reasonable shadow of doubt.

NARRATOR: It now appeared that the Vinland Map had once been part of a medieval
volume containing two authentic ancient documents. The map was at the front of t
he volume, next came the Speculum Historiale, and finally, the Tartar Relation.
Bookworms had eaten through the manuscripts, leaving the wormholes as evidence l
inking the map with the Speculum and the Speculum with the Tartar Relation. Witt
en was convinced. The Vinland Map was real.
Witten offered it for sale to Yale University. Alexander Vietor, the curator of
the map collection, turned to one of the university's wealthiest and most genero
us alumni for help. Billionaire Paul Mellon was intrigued by the idea that one m
ap could radically rewrite history. The exact price he paid has never been revea
led, but in return for what has been estimated as hundreds of thousands of dolla
rs, according to Alexander Vietor's wife Anna, Mellon set one crucial condition,
secrecy.
ANNA GLEN VIETOR (Alexander Vietor's Wife): Well, he wanted it to burst on the w
orld, and everybody would be thrilled, and this would change all history. So my
husband came back and said, "You've got to keep it a secret and not tell anybody
about it, because I'll be in great trouble with Mellon."
NARRATOR: Yale selected three scholars to quietly try to authenticate the map. W
hile they were working, a remarkable find lent further support to the Vinland Ma
p's message that the Vikings were the first Europeans to reach America.
Since 1960, Norwegians Helge and Anne Stine Ingstad had been searching the Canad
ian coast for evidence of a Viking presence. At the fishing village of L'Anse au
x Meadows in Newfoundland, they were taken to the remains of what locals describ
ed as an Indian camp. The Ingstads began excavating.
Over the
cal 11th
r doubt.
ked like

following years, they uncovered the remains of what appeared to be typi

century Viking buildings. And the artifacts inside them left no room fo
The only people who produced bronze ringed pins and iron nails that loo
these were the Vikings.

The Ingstad's announcement provided the archaeological proof that the Vikings ha
d beaten Columbus to America.
By 1965, Yale was prepared to reveal its closely guarded secret to the world. Th
e three scholars had completed a lavish book in preparation for the Vinland Map'
s unveiling. The only decision that remained was the exact date for the launch.
Yale's benefactor, Paul Mellon, was consulted.
ANNA GLEN VIETOR: Everybody in those days had a featherweight diary, and Mellon
got his out. "I'm going to be shooting, I'm going to be fishing, I'm going to be
...," and so forth and so on. And suddenly, on October 11th, he was going to be
at a meeting up near New Haven, and so he said that would be the perfect time.
NARRATOR: Mellon's choice of date could not have been more provocative. October
11th was the eve of Columbus Day, the holiday commemorating Columbus' discovery
of America.
The launch party was a lavish affair. Its centerpiece was an ice sculpture of a
Viking longboat created by Yale's chefs. As ambassadors mingled with academics,
Alexander Vietor playfully donned a helmet sent as a gift by the King of Norway.
The Vinland Map was toasted as a crowning achievement for Yale and its billiona
ire benefactor.
But from the press and certain sectors of the public, news of the map was greete
d with hostility.

MICHAEL HENCHMAN (Brandeis University): The public was firmly convinced that Col
umbus had discovered America, because that's what they'd learned in school. And
suddenly they were told that it was not Columbus who discovered America but the
Vikings. And particularly, the Italian Americans were very upset that Columbus h
ad been removed from center stage.
JOHN LA CORTE (President Italian American Historical Society, Newsreel Footage)
The twenty one million Americans will resent this great insult to Columbus, espe
cially released on a day that we're honoring him.
NARRATOR: Beyond bruised pride and public outrage, there were serious concerns a
bout the secrecy surrounding the map prior to its unveiling.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: Authenticating the map is a very big task. It requires one to
have a lot of knowledge about orthography, paleography, material science, histor
y, and in particular, Old Norse history. And it was really ridiculous to think t
hat any three people could pass a professional judgment on all these aspects.
NARRATOR: A year after the map's formal unveiling, Yale, with the Smithsonian In
stitution, held a conference, inviting a wider range of specialists to examine t
he map. These scholars pointed out strange anomalies and raised serious question
s. Why was the Viking's own Scandinavian homeland drawn so crudely? Why was Gree
nland accurately portrayed as an island even though it was not circumnavigated u
ntil the late nineteenth century? And perhaps the most damaging piece of evidenc
e to challenge the Map's authenticity? The fact that Vikings had never been know
n to make maps their navigation skills relied instead on their knowledge of the en
vironment.
SIR ROBIN KNOX-JOHNSTON (National Maritime Museum, UK): They'd have been far mor
e aware of what was going on around them. If it suddenly clouded over and you co
uldn't navigate, what direction was the wave coming in? Well, just keep the wave
the same aspect as the boat and we know we're going to stay on course. Whereas
we link up to a satellite to know where we are, they would use all these natural
things around them to say "Look, I'm about here."
KIRSTEN SEAVER: They had their sailing knowledge in their heads and they conceiv
ed of their world...not in terms of drawing diagrams that other people could see
. There's literally not a single map that shows any kind of cartographical drawi
ngs from the Norse in the Middle Ages.
NARRATOR: As the chorus of doubt around the map's legitimacy grew, Yale decided
that scientific tests might help prove the Vinland Map real. At New Years, 1967,
the map, the Speculum and the Tartar Relation were flown to London, back to the
British Museum.
There, all three manuscripts were examined under ultraviolet light. The test rev
ealed that inks from the Tartar Relation and Speculum Historiale absorbed the ul
traviolet light and, therefore, appeared deep black, but the lines on the Vinlan
d Map did not appear black. Instead, they fluoresced. Scientists at the British
Museum reported that the ink on the Vinland Map was not the same as the ink used
in the other two authenticated manuscripts, or, for that matter, any other docu
ments of the period. So what was it?
Yale had the map flown back to the U.S., and contacted the Chicago firm of McCro
ne Associates. Dr. Walter McCrone was famous for pioneering the use of the micro
scope for forensic analysis. He achieved international fame for investigating th
e mysteries surrounding the deaths of Napoleon and Beethoven, and for uncovering
evidence that the Shroud of Turin, with its image of Jesus, was a fake.
Now McCrone and his colleague Anna Teetsov turned their investigative skills on

the Vinland Map. Under low magnification, they found that the outlines on the ma
p seemed to consist not of a single line, but two, one on top of the other.
ANNA TEETSOV (McCrone Associates): There was a yellow line, and wandering back a
nd forth, was a black line or little pieces of black pigment. The yellow line wa
s very distinct while the black line was flaking off.
NARRATOR: McCrone asked Teetsov to lift tiny samples of the yellow line for anal
ysis. With the polarized light microscope Teetsov can control the angle of the l
ight passing through the substance, and identify it by the special way it refrac
ts and absorbs that light. On the Vinland Map, when the light was shone onto the
map's surface, the yellow ink particles appeared white. But when the light was
shone through the map, the yellow ink appeared dark. These unique refractive qua
lities were a vital clue to the ink's ingredients.
ANNA TEETSOV:
like anatase.

It was kind of a unique material. It would have to be something

NARRATOR: Anatase is a form of titanium dioxide that occurs naturally as a miner

al ore. When refined, its reflective properties make it ideal as an ingredient f
or paints and pigments.
Anna Teetsov scraped off a particle from the yellow line of the map and examined
it under much greater magnification. She used a Transmission Electron Microscop
e, which gives a very precise image of particle size and shape. Jagged irregular
particles of widely varying size, like these, signify natural anatase ground by
hand from mineral ore.
But the samples McCrone took from the Vinland Map were a different shape. The ye
llow particles were nearly all the same size and had rounded edges. This indicat
ed that the anatase was synthetic, and synthetic anatase was not widely produced
until 1917.
ANNA TEETSOV: We knew from then on that we weren't dealing with an ancient map
, it was a modern ink.
NARRATOR: McCrone and Teetsov sent their report to Yale: if the ink was modern t
hen the Vinland Map was likely a forgery. The careers of eminent scholars were t
hreatened. The relationship between Yale and its generous benefactor was straine
d. The reputation of one of the world's most illustrious institutions was tarnis
hed. And the most valuable map in the world was in danger of becoming a valueles
s fake.
Yale sought a second opinion.
Since the late 1970s, a team at the University of California at Davis, headed by
physicist Thomas Cahill, had been using nuclear technology to identify airborne
pollutants. He had successfully used the same technology to analyze a Gutenberg
Bible. Now, on the recommendation of the Smithsonian and the FBI, Yale hired Ca
hill to see if his technique could shed light on the Vinland Map.
Shielded inside a 10-foot concrete shell is the cyclotron. It uses an immensely
powerful magnet to accelerate protons to enormous speeds. The protons are then f
ocused in a beam down a steel tube. When the beam strikes an object it generates
a unique signature that measures the amount of each element that is present.
THOMAS CAHILL: The sensitivity is very great. In principal, we can see down to t
housandths of a millionth of a gram of material.
NARRATOR: Over two days in 1985, Cahill's team took over 100 readings from the w

hole of the Vinland Map.

THOMAS CAHILL: Location 28. Ink, Vinlandia. Start.
NARRATOR: First, they analyzed sections containing both ink lines and parchment.
THOMAS CAHILL: Beam on.
NARRATOR: Then they measured blank parchment.
THOMAS CAHILL: Beam off.
In the case of the Vinland Map, we have parchment and very small amounts of ink
on it. One has to know what the parchment looks like compositionally to be able
to subtract the ink from it. So we always went ahead and measured the parchment
right next to the ink line. Take the two measurements, subtract out the parchmen
t, what's left over is the ink.
NARRATOR: Cahill could then produce a list of elements in the map's ink. Walter
McCrone had reported large concentrations of titanium, or anatase, but Cahill wa
s astonished to find hardly any.
THOMAS CAHILL: Well the big surprise was, when we first did the analysis of the
ink, that we saw almost no titanium. We had been expecting tons of titanium. It
wasn't there. The results, in fact, contradicted the McCrone results directly.
NARRATOR: Cahill argued that if anatase, a form of titanium dioxide, were presen
t in the ink, he should have seen much more titanium in his results. He suggeste
d that the particles that McCrone had analyzed may have been contaminated, perha
ps by flakes of modern paint that had fallen from the ceiling.
THOMAS CAHILL: A small amount of material like that on the map could have been p
icked up as a crystal and then analyzed and looked like modern paint. It might h
ave been modern paint.
NARRATOR: But Anna Teetsov of McCrone Associates is adamant that her samples cam
e directly from the yellow lines on the map.
ANNA TEETSOV: A lot of the particles were still attached to tiny little fragme
nts of parchment. They were directly glued onto the parchment.
THOMAS CAHILL: So you have two techniques, both highly credible, which seemed to
be in direct contradiction.
NARRATOR: The question remained, what was the yellowish pigment in the ink that
McCrone and Anna Teetsov had identified? Is it what McCrone suspected, anatase i
n its modern synthetic form, which could only mean the Vinland Map is a forgery?
Or are there other secrets hidden within the ink?
BRODY NEUENSCHWANDER (Calligrapher): The ink is the correct brown for a centurie
s old map, and exactly how the writer achieved that seems to be a little bit of
a puzzle.
NARRATOR: Brody Neuenschwander is an art historian and calligrapher who can writ
e in the style of ancient scribes. He's putting his skills to work to discover h
ow a medieval manuscript could be faked.
BRODY NEUENSCHWANDER: I originally started with an interest in medieval manuscri
pts and was very interested in learning to imitate medieval styles of writing. I
t's also the case that you can't really write a proper medieval letter if you do

n't understand the inks that they used.

NARRATOR: In the Middle Ages, the most commonly used ink was called iron gall. I
ron gall ink was cheap and easy to make. Galls are growths caused by the larvae
of insects in oak trees. These were crushed to a fine powder and boiled in water
to make a solution that looked like tea. Gum arabic, a kind of glue, was mixed
with ferrous sulfate, a mineral containing iron.
BRODY NEUENSCHWANDER: The thing that makes ink...ink is the reaction between the
iron in the ferrous sulfate and the tannin from the oak tree. These produce a r
usting reaction on the page. The tannin and the iron together are oxidizing on t
he page and actually burning the letter into the surface.
NARRATOR: In fact, the English word ink comes from the Greek, enkaiein, which me
ans to burn in. This burning process, over time, causes the iron gall ink to cha
nge color.
BRODY NEUENSCHWANDER: The strokes of the pen will leave a grayish mark, and with
in an hour or two that will blacken, and within the next year or two it will bla
cken completely. But, within the next century or two, it will start to go brown.
NARRATOR: Many medieval manuscripts have been stained brown by iron gall corrosi
on, including the Tartar Relation and the Speculum Historiale, the manuscripts t
hat had been bound with the Vinland Map. But the ink on the Vinland Map was not
iron gall.
McCrone's theory was that a forger tried to simulate the browning effect of iron
gall corrosion by overlaying a black ink on a yellow pigment. McCrone says that
yellow pigment contains anatase, a modern synthetic, which can only mean the ma
p is a forgery.
Cahill counters that he finds almost no titanium, an essential component of anat
ase. He concludes that anatase is not part of the ink, and the map may be real.
The debate on whether the Vinland Map is genuine or not seemed to be at a stands
till, and the answer hinged on the composition of the ink. If the Vinland Map in
k contains modern anatase, the map's a fake.
Can a new scientific technique resolve the debate about the ink once and for all
?
In the summer of 2002, Professor Robin Clark and chemist Katherine Brown were in
vited to Yale to test the Vinland Map using a technique called Raman microprobe
spectroscopy. Today, Katherine Brown demonstrates the technique at Maggs Brother
s in London, one of the world's largest and oldest antiquarian book dealers.
KATHERINE BROWN: Raman microscopy is a scientific technique that uses lasers to
identify materials. What happens is that a single colored laser light is focused
on the material, on the surface. The materials themselves change that light and
it comes out multicolored, which forms a spectrum. The spectrum that's produced
is unique to the material that's producing it, so it acts as a fingerprint by w
hich you can identify those materials.
NARRATOR: This 15th century manuscript has been illuminated, or colored, with a
variety of pigments. The Raman microprobe identifies them all: red is vermilion,
blue is lazurite, white is white lead. The ink itself is iron gall.
KATHERINE BROWN: Each molecule is different, and the spectrum that comes out is
unique to each type of molecule. It's absolutely accurate. We either know what t
he material it is or we don't.

NARRATOR: Besides its extreme accuracy, this technique has an added benefit.
KATHERINE BROWN: Raman microprobe spectroscopy is particularly good for examinin
g documents because it's non-invasive, it's non-destructive, so it causes no dam
age to the manuscript or document that you're examining, which is very important
if it's valuable.
NARRATOR: It was the perfect technique to settle the debate on the authenticity
of the most valuable map in the world. Brown and Clark shot their laser light at
the Vinland Map.
ROBIN CLARK:
In the Vinland Map, we confirmed that there was anatase on the y
ellowish-brown lines under the black. We could certainly detect that on the ink
but not on the body of the map.
NARRATOR: The presence of anatase in the ink and not on the parchment, and the f
act, already established by McCrone, that the anatase was synthetic could only m
ean one thing.
ROBIN CLARK:
It wasn't something which could have fallen off the ceiling. It
was deliberately placed as part of the ink. That confirmed absolutely what McCro
ne had found.
KATHERINE BROWN: The only conclusion that we could draw from the evidence that w
e saw is that the Vinland Map was produced sometime after about 1920.
NARRATOR: So what does all this evidence add up to? The lack of any other maps m
ade by the Vikings, McCrone's findings that the ink on the Vinland Map contains
synthetic anatase manufactured after 1917, and now Brown and Clark's confirmatio
n.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: To date, every conceivable test that could be done has been do
ne, and the conclusion today is that the map is a fake.
KATHERINE BROWN: It's a modern forgery.
NARRATOR: But if the Vinland Map is a fake, who is the forger? Can science help
solve another mystery at the heart of the Vinland Map story?
One man seems central, Italian book dealer Enzo Ferrajoli. It is through Ferrajo
li that the Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation come together. And later it was
revealed that Ferrajoli was involved in brokering the Speculum Historiale. Ferra
joli made Spain his adopted country, and it is there where important clues to th
e forgery can be found.
The Cathedral of La Seo, in the city of Saragossa, contains one of Spain's great
est libraries. In 1957, a scholar noticed that manuscripts he had previously con
sulted had disappeared. An investigation revealed that over a hundred priceless
texts were missing. The police swiftly arrested their prime suspect, Enzo Ferraj
oli.
At a special tribunal, the prosecution claimed that Ferrajoli had charmed the li
brarians, who allowed him to roam at will through their collection.
ELOY FERNNDEZ CLEMENTE: Apparently, Ferrajoli took away the books very slowly. So
me he would borrow and wouldn't return. But other books, he would smuggle away h
idden in newspapers, in a bag or a briefcase. And then, of course, the perfect s
ystem was to destroy the record cards, so nobody could ask for these books. The
answer from the archivists was, "These books are not here because they don't app

ear in the index."

NARRATOR: Ferrajoli was convicted of the theft and sentenced to eight years and
a day. He was released early due to ill health.
No one knows if the Tartar Relation and Speculum Historiale were among the docum
ents stolen from Saragossa, but a new witness has come forward with even more in
criminating evidence about Enzo Ferrajoli's past.
Diego Gmez Flores is a retired rare book dealer. He was born in France, but emigr
ated to Spain after World War II. Gomez first met Enzo Ferrajoli in Barcelona, a
nd remembers a day in the mid-50s when Ferrajoli gave him a lift in his distinct
ive Fiat Topolino. Ferrajoli bragged that he had obtained the manuscript of the
Tartar Relation and bound it together with a map.
DIEGO GMEZ FLORES (Rare book dealer): He said they had folded it and placed it in
the binding. In order to pass it off as authentic, the map had to be bound in.
So it was the form in which they were able to sell the book, as if the map was p
art of the book.
NARRATOR: Gmez's account suggests that the Vinland Map was originally a separate
parchment and that Ferrajoli bound it together with the Tartar Relation to incre
ase its value. But Gomez's recollection leaves one key question unanswered: wher
e did Ferrajoli get the map?
Historian Kirsten Seaver has spent ten years scouring European archives, searchi
ng for the origins of the forgery.
KIRSTEN SEAVER: Once I was convinced that the map was a fake, I started looking
at all the likely suspects in Europe. It had to be somebody with the right kind
of knowledge, and I narrowed it down to one man.
NARRATOR: Seaver's research led her to believe that Father Joseph Fischer, an Au
strian Jesuit priest, had the means, opportunity and motive to create such a mas
terpiece of deception. From 1895 to 1939, Fischer lived and taught at Austria's
prestigious Stella Matutina, a college that attracted students from throughout E
urope including Sherlock Holmes author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Irish novelist
James Joyce.
Fischer was an authority on world maps of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
In 1902, he published a book professing a radical new theory, one that challeng
ed 500 years of history. Father Fischer was the one of the first to propose that
the Vikings were the true discoverers of America.
KIRSTEN SEAVER: Father Fischer certainly had a fondness for discovering maps tha
t showed the first of something. He discovered the first map with the name Ameri
ca. He also believed that there was, of course, a Norse discovery of America and
that the Norse had left a record of where they had been when they sailed to Vin
land.
NARRATOR: Although Father Fischer never found such a map, Seaver has uncovered e
vidence that suggests he had the basic materials and equipment to create his own
. His scholarly standing gave him access to blank parchment from medieval manusc
ripts; Fischer's father was a painter who could have taught him how to mix pigme
nts to make ink look older.
Seaver has even discovered similarities between Fischer's handwriting and the te
xt on the Vinland Map.
KIRSTEN SEAVER: There are two kinds of handwriting on the Vinland Map, both of t

hem have enough pointers to Father Fischer to make it worth investigating on tha
t alone.
NARRATOR: But what would have been Father Fischer's motivation? Seaver contends
that Fischer believed so firmly that the Vikings discovered America that in the
mid-1930s he set out to create the map that he thought should exist.
KIRSTEN SEAVER: He would not have looked upon it as falsifying the cartographic
record. I also doubt very much that he made the map deliberately for others to s
ee. I think it was an essentially a private exercise.
NARRATOR: But Father Fischer's private scholarship was about to collide with wor
ld history. For in 1938, German forces marched into Austria, seized Stella Matut
ina College, evicted the priests and confiscated everything of value including a
rt, rare books and, Seaver believes, Father Fischer's Vinland Map.
Hitler's campaign of world conquest was fueled by a belief in an Aryan master ra
ce, embodied by Germans who traced their cultural roots to the Vikings. In the h
ands of the Nazis, the Vinland Map would be a historic claim to America and a po
werful political weapon.
If Seaver is right, Father Fischer used his knowledge of ancient maps and Viking
history to draw the Vinland Map on an authentic piece of medieval parchment. Fi
scher's Vinland Map was then confiscated by the Germans, and after their defeat,
the map found it's way into the hands of known fascist and Nazi sympathizer, En
zo Ferrajoli. A first step in determining if Father Fischer was the actual forge
r is to see if the parchment on which the Vinland Map is drawn is medieval in or
igin.
One way to date parchment is by carbon-14 analysis. Since parchment is smoothed
animal skin, this technique uses the regular decay of carbon atoms to arrive at
a date within a probable range of accuracy. The only problem is the process dest
roys the sample. But Yale agreed to let a group of scientists under the directio
n of Garman Harbottle cut the smallest sliver from the map.
GARMAN HARBOTTLE: Here was this thing worth many millions of dollars. It was hor
ribly unnerving. I was a nervous wreck during the time the thing was going on. I
calculated later that the value of the piece we sliced off was forty or fifty t
housand dollars and, of course, one doesn't do that lightly, one does it very ca
refully.
NARRATOR: Harbottle sliced a thin sliver from the map into six samples. The firs
t sample tested dated to the 1950s. Thinking the modern date a mistake, perhaps
due to contamination or a poor attempt at conservation, Harbottle's team cleaned
off the surface of the remaining samples with acetone.
GARMAN HARBOTTLE: Acetone, which should have no effect on parchment at all, was
extracting about 30 percent of the weight. In other words, the weight of the par
chment was one third foreign matter. That's a lot, 30 percent.
NARRATOR: With the foreign matter removed, he then tested the remaining parchmen
t samples. Instead of 1950, these dated to around 1440. Harbottle concluded that
the Vinland Map was drawn on authentic medieval parchment. But other scientists
were puzzled by the discrepancy.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: When I first heard about the results from this, what I heard w
as crazy. One measurement had said that the map was modern and the other measure
ment had said that the map was old.
NARRATOR: What could account for such radically different test results? One poss

ible answer is a crude attempt at conservation carried out in the 1950s. Another
answer lies in a centuries old process for turning rough animal skin into finis
hed parchment by adding a coating that provides a smooth writing surface.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: Somebody took an old piece of parchment, dating back to 1440,
stripped off the surface, and replaced it with a new surface.
NARRATOR: This new surface could explain why the first sample, which was not cle
aned with acetone, dated to 1950. The body of the parchment is ancient but the s
urface is modern.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: The map we see today was put down on the surface of the parchm
ent and therefore we can only conclude that the map was put on the parchment sin
ce 1950.
NARRATOR: These findings suggest that a forger took an ancient parchment, resurf
aced it in the 1950s, and, upon it, drew the infamous Vinland Map. If true, this
would eliminate Father Fischer who died in 1944 as a suspect. Ferrajoli remains at
the center of the mystery, but any information he had about the identity of the
forger went to the grave with him in 1966.
For nearly fifty years, the Vinland Map has been both celebrated and damned. Whe
n it first appeared, it challenged the gospel that Columbus discovered America a
nd proclaimed the Vikings as the earliest Europeans to visit the New World. It's
ironic that, even though the Vinland Map is most likely a fake, we now know, th
rough archeological evidence, that the Vikings were the first. So why does the d
ebate over the Vinland Map refuse to die?
GARMAN HARBOTTLE: The Vinland Map is still discussed as though it was a life and
death matter. I think this is just a very natural human trait to argue over the
se things. I don't think the argument will ever stop.
ROBIN CLARK:
I think it's all part of the scientific ethos, that we're intere
sted in knowing answers to questions and finding out what's true and then dismis
sing speculation that is clearly not true.
MICHAEL HENCHMAN: Scientific data has shown that it's a fake. The scientists are
just reluctant to accept it.
NARRATOR: Even now, new studies are underway, but it is unlikely they will settl
e the debate.
KATHERINE BROWN: Science doesn't really deal in truths. But science does deal in
facts. How you choose to interpret those facts is up to you. Given the facts th
at we have seen with the Vinland Map, I conclude that it's a forgery; other peop
le still disagree.