Infrared Gas Analyzers: Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) techniques for the measurement of various

gases rely on the energy absorption characteristics of a particular gas in the infrared region. In a simple
NDIR instrument, Infrared energy passes through two identical tubes and falls on a detector. The first tube
is the reference cell and is filled with a non-absorbing gas such as nitrogen. The second tube is the
measurement cell and contains the gas sample to be analyzed. Energy in the region of interest is
absorbed by the gas in the measurement cell, attenuating the energy passing through the cell and falling
on the detector. This attenuated energy is compared to the un-attenuated signal from the reference cell.
The difference is proportional to the amount of absorbing gas in the measurement cell.
Application Techniques: A simple method to make the comparison easily with analog electronics is to
use a "chopper wheel" assembly which prevents the energy from both cells from falling on the detector
simultaneously. As the wheel spins, energy from the reference and measurement cells fall on the detector
alternately, producing an AC signal with a magnitude proportional to the difference in energy.

An important enhancement to this basic technique is Gas Filter Correlation (GFC). A rotating, gas-filled
filter wheel contains two chambers. One chamber is filled with the species of interest while the other
contains an optically inert gas (i.e. Nitrogen). This filter wheel is interposed between the IR source and the
single sample chamber. As the wheel rotates, the light passes through one side, then the other as well as
the sample chamber. IR energy in the region of interest is attenuated by one side of the wheel, but not the
other. As a result, the difference in energy is inversely proportional to the amount of the species in the
sample chamber. This has the advantage of providing more sensitivity at lower measured concentrations.
Interferent species present in the gas sample attenuate both the sample and reference signals equally
and will not be measured.
The flame ionisation detector (FID) is the automotive emissions industry standard method of measuring hydrocarbon (HC)
concentration.

The sample gas is introduced into a hydrogen flame inside the FID. Any hydrocarbons in the sample will produce ions when
they are burnt. Ions are detected using a metal collector which is biased with a high DC voltage. The current across this
collector is thus proportional to the rate of ionization which in turn depends upon the concentration of HC in the sample gas.
The ionization process is very rapid, so the slow time response of conventional FIDs is mainly due to sample handling. A
typical slow analyzer might have a response time of 1-2 seconds.
The Combustion HFR fast response FID analyzers use conventional detection principles and a unique patented sampling
system to give millisecond response times.

The Combustion fast FID consists of a main control unit (MCU) and two remote sampling heads (which house the FIDs). The
dual channel nature of the instrument enables simultaneous real-time measurement in two locations allowing, for example,
evaluation of catalyst performance.

The Flame Ionization Detector

Introduction
The flame ionization detector (FID) is the most sensitive gas chromatographic
detector for hydrocarbons such as butane or hexane. With a linear range for 6 or 7
orders of magnitude (106 to 107) and limits of detection in the low picogram or
femtogram range, the FID is the most widely and successfully used gas
chromatographic detector for volatile hydrocarbons and many carbon containing
compounds.
Limitations
Molecules that contained only carbon and hydrogen respond best in this detector but
the presence of "heteroatoms" in a molecule, such as oxygen, decreases the detector's
response. For instance, the FID's methane response (CH 4) is fabulous but
formaldehyde's (CH2O) is quite poor. Therefore, highly oxygenated molecules or
sulfides might best be detected using another detector instead of the FID. Sulfides
determination by the flame photometric detector and aldehydes and ketones analyzed
with the photoionization detector are alternatives to the use of the FID for those

molecules.
Detector Construction
As the animations available here show

(www.shsu.edu/~chm_tgc/sounds/sound.html) the FID is constructed of a small

volume chamber into which the gas chromatograph's capillary column in directly
plumbed.
Usually the small diameter capillary is fitted directly into the bottom of the detector's
flame jet. The gaseous eluents from the column are mixed with separately plumbed in
hydrogen and air and all are burned on the jet's tip. After the fuel (H 2) and oxidant
(O2 in air) are begun, the flame is lit using a electronic ignitor, actually an electrically
heated filament that is turned on only to light the flame.
The charged particles created in that combustion process create a current between the
detector's electrodes. One electrode is actually the metallic jet itself, another is close
by and above the jet. The gaseous products leave the detector chamber via the
exhaust. The detector housing is heated so that gases produced by the combustion
(mainly water) do not condense in the detector before leaving the detector chimney.
Makeup Gases
The total volume of gas in the FID that yields the most sensitive and widest linear
response is not the same volume of gas when the column effluent flow (~ 1 mL/min)
and hydrogen and air flows are flowing; these gases' total flow into the detector is too
small. Another way to say this is that the optimum column flow to maintain the best
chromatography and the best fuel and oxidant flows for the best flame conditions--all
added together--don't create the best gas flow for the FID detector's design. This
means that to maintain the best analytical conditions, additional gas must be
constantly flowed into the detector. This gas makes up the additional needed gas flow
and so is termed makeup gas. Since the makeup gas needs to be inert so that its
addition doesn't upset the fuel and oxidant balance and since it needs to be added in

relatively large amounts (~30+ ml/min in some detector designs), nitrogen is usually
the gas of choice. Helium would work also but is a nonrenewable resource and more
expensive. All gas flows are controlled by adjustable gas regulators.

Ignition and Shut Down

The process of lighting the FID goes like
this: fuel is turned on at a predetermined
flow rate (controlled by the H2 tank's
pressure regulator); air on; ignitor is lit and
the flame ignited. After the flame is
confirmed burning, makeup gas flow is
turned on. The flame stabilizes within an
hour or less and then is routinely left on
continuously to maintain the lowest signal background and therefore produce the
lowest detection limits. Some labs with high sample throughputs keep FID flames
burning continuously, only shutting the fame off when gas tanks need be replaced. GC
column carrier is also obviously keep constantly flowing.

The most common method of evaluating beneficial impacts of environmental policies is cost-benefit analysis
(CBA). In the present review, CBA methods for air pollution impacts are reviewed. Three types of air pollution
effects are identified, including health, productivity, and amenity. Market valuation, stated preference methods,
and revealed preference methods are identified for valuing benefits. Three types of costs are deseribed,
including private sector costs, societal costs, and governmental regulatory costs. A benefits valuation approach
based on Freeman's principals is described. A costs valuation approach based on U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and Dixon et al. principals is deseribed. Limitations associated with estimates of benefits
and costs are summarized. Input assumptions and results are compared for several existing air pollution control
analyses. The importance of CBA in environmental policy studies is discussed. Our conceptual approaches
should be useful in analyses of urban air pollution impacts and air pollution prevention policies.