YP FT EE OS EESteel Plate Engineering Data—Volume 1 Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage Revised Edition—1992 ‘The material presented in this publication Is for general Information only and should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for any given application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended {a8 a representation or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute—or of any other person named herein—that this information is suitable for any general or Particular use or of freedom from infringement of any patents. Anyone making use of this information assumes all lability arising from such use. Published by AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE In cooperation with and editorial collaboration by STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC. Revised December 1992Acknowledgements publication on carbon steel plate materials and tanks for liquid storage, the American Iron and Stee! Institute retained Mr. 1.E. Boberg as author. For his skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. The American Iron and Steel Institute established a Task Force to produce and supply a special section on stainless steel tanks to this publication, and wishes to acknowledge its, appreciation to this group for a commendable effort. F the preparation of the original version of this technical ‘The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association and representatives from the member steel producing companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and updating, the material for publication in this current edition. Appreciation is expressed to the American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Petroleum Institute and the American Water Works Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the illustrative material in this manual appears through their courtesy. American Iron and Steel Institute It is suggested that inquiries for further information on designs of steel tanks for liquid storage be directed to: Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc., 3158 Des Plaines Avenue, Des Plaines, IL 60018. AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE 1101 17th Street N.W., Suite 1300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4700 PRINTED IN USA 1992Introduction the usual design of tanks for liquid storage. For unusual applications, involving materials or liquids not covered within these pages, nor referenced herein, designers should consult more complete {reatments of the subject material. For information related to design of bulk storage vessels, refer to SPFA publication "USEFUL INFORMATION ON THE DESIGN OF STEEL BINS AND SILOS” by John R. Buzek Ts purpose of this publication is to provide a design reference for Part | contains general information pertaining to all types of carbon plate eels, This section may seem elementary to the metallurgist or to one who is thoroughly familiar with steel industry terminology, practice and classification. For others, it should be helpful to an understanding of what follows, Part II deals with the particular carbon steels applicable to tanks for liquid storage. Part Ill covers the design of carbon steel tanks for liquid storage. Part IV covers materials, design, and fabrication of stainless steel tanks for liquid storage. It has been revised for this publication by the Committee of Stainless Steel Producers of American Iron and Steel Institute. Inquiries for further information on design of steel tanks should be directed to Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.Part | Part II Part III Part IV Contents Materials—General . 1 Materials—Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage . 7 Carbon Steel Tank Design .... 9 Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage ........ 27Part | Materials—General aa == Designation ost of the steel! specifications referred to in PU its eset erin ck ot ASTM Standards, Part 4, which can be obtained from the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Each ASTM specification has a number such as ‘A283, and within each specification there may be fone or more grades or qualities. Thus an example of a proper reference would be “ASTM designation ‘A283 grade C.” In the interest of simplicity, such a reference will be abbreviated to “A283-C.” ASTM standards are issued periodically to report new specifications and changes to existing ones having a suffix indicating the year of issue such as ‘*A283-C-79.” Thus a summary such as is provided here may gradually become incomplete, and it is important that the designer of steel plate structures have the latest edition of ASTM standards available for reference. Definitions At least a nodding acquaintance with the terminology of the steel industry is essential to an understanding of steel specifications. This is especially true because, in common with many other industries, a number of shop and trade terms have become so thoroughly implanted in the language that they are Used instead of more precise and descriptive technical terms. The following discussions may be of assistance. Steelmaking Processes Practically all steel is made by the open hearth furnace process, the electric furnace process or the basic oxygen process. ASTM specifications for the different steels specify which processes are permissible in each case. Steelmaking Practice The steels with which we are concerned are either strand cast, or cast into ingots which may be hot rolled to convenient size for further processing or alternatively ingots may be hot rolled directly into plates. In most steelmaking processes, the principal chemical reaction is the combination of carbon and oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this reaction is not removed, the gaseous products continue to evolve during solidification in the ingot. Cooling and solidification progress from the outer rim of the ingot to the center, and during the solidification of the rim, the concentration of certain elements increases in the liquid portion of the ingot. The resulting product, known as RIMMED STEEL, has marked differences in characteristics across the section and from top to bottom of the ingot. Control of the amount of gas evolved during solidification is accomplished by the addition of a deoxidizing agent, silicon being the most commonly used. If practically no gas evolved, the result is KILLED STEEL, so called because it lies quietly in the ingot. Killed steel is characterized by more Uniform chemical composition and properties than other types. Although killed steel is a quality item, the end result is often not so specified by name, but rather by chemical analysis. Other deoxidizing elements are used, but in general, a specified minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis indicates that a steel is “fully killed.” The term SEMIKILLED designates an intermediate type of steel in which a smaller amount of deoxidizer is added. Gas evolution is sufficiently reduced to prevent rimming action, but not sufficiently reduced to obtain the same degree of uniformity as attained in fully killed steels. This controlled evolution of gas during solidification tends to offset shrinkage, resulting in a higher yield of usable material from the ingot. As a practical matter, therefore, plates originating from ingots are usually furnished as semikilled steel unless @ minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis is specified. Chemical Requirements A discussion of the effects of the many elements added to steels would involve a metallurgical treatise far beyond the scope of this work. However, certain elements are common to all steels, and it may be of help to briefly outline the effects of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur on the properties of steel CARBON is the principal hardening element in steel, and as carbon increases, hardness increases.Tensile strength increases, and ductility, notch toughness and weldability generally decrease with increasing carbon content. MANGANESE contributes to strength and hardness, but to a lesser degree than carbon Increasing the manganese content generally decreases ductility and weldability, but to a lesser degree than carbon. Because of the more moderate effects of manganese, carbon steels, which attain part of their strength through the addition of manganese, exhibit greater ductility and improved toughness than steels of similar strength achieved through the use of carbon alone. PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus can result in noticeably higher yield strength and decreases in ductility, toughness, and weldability. In the steels under discussion here, it is generally kept below a limit of 0.049% on heat analysis. SULFUR decreases ductility, toughness, and weldability, and is generally kept below a limit of 0.05% on heat analysis. HEAT ANALYSIS is the term applied to the chemical analysis representative of a heat of stee! and is the analysis reported to the purchaser. It is usually determined by analyzing, for such elements ‘as have been specified, a test ingot sample obtained from the front or middle part of the heat during the pouring of the steel from the ladle. PRODUCT ANALYSIS is a supplementary chemical analysis of the steel in the semifinished or finished product form. It is not, as the term might imply, a duplicate determination to confirm a previous result Carbon Steel Steel is usually considered to be carbon steel when: 1. No minimum content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other element added to obtain desired alloying effect; 2, When the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, copper 0.60, silicon 0.60; 3. When the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40%. There are some exceptions to these rules in High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels. Alloy Steel Steel is usually considered to be alloy when either: 1. A definite range or definite minimum quantity is required for any of the elements listed above in (1) under carbon steels, or 2. The maximum of the range for alloying elements exceeds one or more of the limits listed in (2) under carbon steels. ‘Again, the HSLA steels demonstrate some ‘exceptions to these general rules. High Strength Low Alloy Steels These steels, generally with specified yield point of ‘50 ksi or higher and containing small amounts of alloying elements, are often employed where high strength or light weight is desired. Mechanical Requirements Mechanical testing of steel plates includes tension, hardness, and toughness tests. The test specimens and the tests are described in ASTM specifications ‘AG, A20, A870, and A673. From the tension tests are determined the TENSILE STRENGTH and YIELD POINT or YIELD STRENGTH, both of which are factors in selecting an allowable design stress, and the elongation over either a 2” or 8” gage length. Elongation is a measure of ductility and workability. Toughness is a measure of ability to resist brittle fracture. Toughness tests are generally not required unless specified, and then usually because of a low service temperature andior a relatively high design stress. Conditions under which impact tests are required or suggested will be discussed in connection with specific structures. ‘A number of tests have been developed to demonstrate toughness, and each has its ardent proponents. The test most generally accepted Currently, however, is the test using the Charpy V Notch specimen. Details of this specimen and method of testing can be found in ASTM-A370, “Mechanical Testing of Steel Products,” and in A20 and A673. Briefly described, an impact test is a dynamic test in which a machined, notched specimen is struck and broken by @ single blow ina specially designed testing machine. The energy expressed in foot-pounds required to break the specimen is a measure of toughness. Toughness decreases at lower temperatures. Hence, when impact tests are required, they are usually performed near temperatures anticipated in service. Grain Size Grain size is affected by both rolling practice and deoxidizing practice. For example, the use of aluminum as a deoxidizer tends to produce finer grains. Unless included in the ASTM specification, or Unless otherwise specified, steels may be furnished to either coarse grain or fine grain practice at the producer's option. Fine grain steel is considered to have greater toughness than coarse grain steels. Heat-reated fine grain steels will have greater toughness than as-rolled fine grain steels. The designer is concerned only with the question of under what conditions is it justifiable to pay the extra cost of specifying fine grain practice with or without heat treatment in order to obtain improved toughness. Guidelines will be discussed in later sections, Heat Treatment POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT consists of heating the steel to a temperature between 1100F and x1250F,, furnace cooling until the temperature has reduced to about 600F and then cooling in air. Residual stresses will be reduced by this procedure. NORMALIZING consists of heating the steel to between 1600F and 1700F, holding for a sufficient time to allow transformation, and cooling in air, primarily to effect grain refinement. QUENCHING consists of rapid cooling in a suitable medium from the normalizing temperature. This treatment hardens and strengthens the steel and is normally followed by tempering. TEMPERING consists of reheating the steel to a relatively low temperature (which varies with the particular steel and the properties desired). This temperature normally lies between 1000F and 1250F. Through the quenching and tempering treatment, many steels can attain excellent toughness, and at the same time high strength and good ductility. To illustrate the effect of heat treatment on toughness and strength, refer to Figure 1-1. The numerical values shown apply only to the specific steel described. For other steels, other values would apply, but the trends would be similar. Referring to Figure 1-1, if the designer has selected a Charpy V Notch value of "x" ft-1bs, as desirable under special service conditions, it will be noted that the steel illustrated would not be acceptable at temperatures lower than about +35F in the as-rolled condition. In the normalized condition, the same steel would be acceptable down to about SSF, and if quenched and tempered, to about —80F together with an increase in carbon, manganese, or other hardening elements. Note, however, that heat treatment adds to the cost and is indicated only when service conditions indicate the necessity for increased toughness and/or increased strength, Classification of Steel Plates Plate steels are defined or classified in two ways. The first classification, which has already been discussed, is based on differences in chemical composition between CARBON STEELS, ALLOY STEELS and HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY STEELS. The second classification is based primarily on the differences in extent of testing between STRUCTURAL QUALITY STEELS and PRESSURE VESSEL QUALITY STEELS.* It should not be construed that these terms limit the use of a particular steel. Pressure vessel steels are often Used in structures other than pressure vessels, The distinction between structural and pressure vessel qualities is best understood by a comparison of the governing ASTM specifications. ‘ASTM designation A6, General Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates for Structural Use, covers a group of common requirements and tolerances for the steels listed therein, the chemical composition ‘escure vessol quality sools wore proviously Known as FLANGE ang FIRE-BOX quali, historially inherited terms used to define aitforences in tho extent of testing, but which have no present Gay significance insofar as the end use ofthe steel is concerned. and special requirements for which are outlined under separate specification numbers such as A36, A283, A514, etc. Similarly, ASTM designation A20, General Requirements for Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels, covers a group of common requirements and tolerances which apply to a list of about 35 steels, the chemical composition and special requirements for which are outlined under separate ASTM. specification numbers, Both A6 and A20 define tolerances for thickness, width, length, and flatness, but for the designer the important difference is in the quality of the finished product as influenced by the difference in the extent of testing. A general comparison of the two qualities follows: 1. Chemical Analysis — The requirements for phosphorus and sulfur are more stringent for pressure vessel quality than for structural quality Both A6 and A20 require one analysis per heat plus the option of product analysis. Product analysis tolerances for structural steels are given in A6. 2. Testing for mechanical properties. a) In general, all specifications for structural quality require two tension tests per heat, size bracket and strength gradation. A6 specifies the general location of the specimens. 5) In general all specifications for pressure vessel quality require either one or two transverse tension tests, depending on heat treatment, from each plate as rolled,” (and as heat-treated, if any). This affords a check on uniformity within a heat. Specification A20 also specifies the location from which the specimens are to be taken. 3. Repair of surface imperfections and the limitations on repair of surface imperfections are more restrictive in A20 than AG. Welding Inasmuch as practically all plate structures are fabricated by welding, a brief discussion of welding processes follows. Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a metallurgical bond between them. There are many different types of welding, but we are concerned only with arc welding. Arc welding is a fusion process in which the bond between the metals is produced by reducing the surfaces to be joined to a liquid state and then allowing the liquid to solidify. The heat required to reduce the metal to liquid state is produced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between the work to be welded and a metal wire which is called the electrode. The electrode may be consumable and add metal to the molten pool, or it may be nonconsumable and of a relatively inert metal, in which case no metal is added to the workpiece. "The term “Plate as rolled” refers fo the unit plate rolled from a slab or rectly from an ingot in relation to the number and: location of specimens, not to its condition,In the welding of steel plate structures, we are concerned principally with five variations of arc welding: 1. Shielded metal arc process (SMAW) 2. Gas metal arc process (GMAW) 3, Flux-cored arc process (FCAW) 4, Electrogas or Electrostag welding 5. Submerged arc process (SAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding In the early days of arc welding, the consumable electrode consisted of a bare wire. The pool of molten metal was exposed to and adversely affected by the gases in the atmosphere. It became obvious that to produce welds with adequate ductility, the molten metal must be protected or shielded from the atmosphere. This led to the development of the shielded metal are process, in which the electrode is coated with materials that produce a gas as the electrode is consumed which shields the arc from the atmosphere. The coating also performs other functions, including the possible adding of alloying elements as well as slag-forming materials which float to the top and protect the metal during solidification and cooling. In practice, the process is limited primarily to manual manipulation of the electrode. Not too many years ago, this process was almost universally used {or practically all welding. It is still widely used for position welding, i.e., welding other than in the down flat position. For the down flat position some of the later processes described below are much faster and hence less costly. Gas Metal Arc Welding In the gas-shielded arc welding process, the molten Pool of metal is protected by an externaily supplied gas, or gas mixture, fed through the electrode holder rather than by decomposition of the electrode coating. The electrode is @ continuous filler-metal (consumable) bare wire and the gases used include helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. In some cases, a tubular electrode is used to facilitate the addition of fluxes of addition of alloys and slag-forming materials. Some methods of this process are called MIG and COz welding. ‘The gas-shielded process lends itself to high rates of deposition and high welding speeds. It can be used manually, semi-automatically, or automatically Flux-Cored-Are Welding This is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a continuous filler-material (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained within the electrode. Additional shielding may or may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture, Electrogas or Electrostag Welding This process is a method of gas metal-arc welding or flux-cored-aro welding wherein molding shoes confine the molten weld metal for vertical position welding. Submerged Arc Welding ‘Submerged arc welding is essentially an automatic process, although semi-automatic applications have been used The arc between a bare electrode and the work is covered and shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material deposited on the work ahead of the electrode as it moves relative to the work. Filler metal is obtained either from the electrode or a supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding material is known as melt or flux. In submerged arc welding, there is no visible evidence of the arc. The tip of the electrode and the molten weld pool are completely covered by the flux throughout the actual welding operation. High welding speeds are achieved. It will be obvious that the necessity of depositing a granular flux ahead of the electrode lends itself best to welding on work in the down flat position. Nevertheless, ingenious devices have been developed for keeping flux in place, so that the process has been applied to almost all positions except overhead welding Weldability It will be observed from the above that all arc welding processes result in rapid heating of the parent metal near the joint to a very high temperature followed by chilling as the relatively large mass of parent plate conducts heat away from the heataaffected zone. This rapid cooling of the weld metal and heat-affected zone causes local shrinkage relative to the parent plate and resultant residual stresses. Depending on the chemical composition of the steel, plate thickness and external conditions, special welding precautions may be indicated. In very cold weather, or in the case of a highly hardenable material, pre-heating a band on either side of the joint will slow down the cooling rate. In some cases post-heat or stress relief as described earlier in this section is employed to reduce residual stresses to a level approaching the yield strength of the material at the post heat temperature. With respect to chemical composition, carbon is the single most important element because of its contribution to hardness, with other elements Contributing to hardness but to lesser degrees, It is beyond our scope to provide a definitive discussion on when special welding precautions are indicated. In general, the necessity is dictated on the basis of practical experience or test programs. dFigure 1-1 Typical Effect of Heat Treatment on Notch Toughness of a Fine-Grained C-Mn-Si Steel (1 Inch Thickness) CHARPY V-NOTCH, ENERGY ABSORPTION sera 00 pt 4.200 \ T T T T 1 T T T ‘TEMPERATURE-DEGREES FAHRENHEITPart Il Materials—Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage rere Introduction he intent of this publication is to provide T information that may be useful in the design of flat-bottom, vertical cylindrical tanks for the storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure. Considerable attention has been directed to tanks storing oll or water, which constitute most of the tanks built. However, suggestions have been included for storage of liquids meriting special attention, such as acid storage tanks. There are two principal standards in general use: American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 650 covering ‘"Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage,” and the American Water Works Association (AWWA) Standard D100 covering “Steel Tanks for Water Storage.” The abbreviations API and AWWA will be used for the sake of convenience. Both API and AWWA permit the use of a relatively large number of different steel plate materials. In addition, the basic API Standard 650 and AWWA Standard D100 Appendix C provide refined design rules for tanks designed at higher stresses in which the selection of steel is intimately related to stress level, thickness and service temperature, as well as, the type and degree of inspection. As a result, knowledge of available materials and their limitations is equally as important as familiarity with design principles. Useful information concerning plate steel in general has been covered in Part I. It is the purpose Of this section to assist in the selection of the proper steel or steels in the construction of tanks for liquid storage. Factors Affecting Selection of Steel Plate As you will learn in more detail in Part Ill of the Publication, both the AWWA and the API offer optional methods of shell design. The AWWA basic and the API Appendix A procedures are based on ‘simplified rules which use the same conservative allowable stress regardless of the plate grade used, The other design methods are based on refined procedures that take into account plate grade, service temperature, thickness and higher standards of Inspection. These procedures are represented by the AWWA Appendix C and API basic standards. It will be obvious that inasmuch as the simplified design provisions of both standards allow identical design stresses for any of the permissible steels, economic considerations will lead to the selection of the least expensive steel that will be satisfactory for the intended service, Steel selection is not so simple and straightforward in the case of tanks built in accordance with either the API or the AWWA refined design provisions. Unstressed portions of such tanks, including bottoms and roofs, will probably be furnished as A36 unless the purchaser specifies otherwise. The selection of material for shell demands further attention. The refined design provisions of both API and AWWA resulted from a desire to utilize newer and improved steels and modern welding and inspection techniques to build tanks of higher quality. The use of higher stresses demanded attention to other properties of steel, primarily toughness. An exhaustive discussion of toughness is beyond the scope of this work, but it can be pointed out that as the stress level increases and temperature decreases, toughness becomes more important. ‘At the stress level existing in API and AWWA simplified design criteria tanks, experience has demonstrated that the steels used in combination with the specific welding and inspection rules have been adequate for the service temperatures involved. Upon venturing into the field of higher stress levels, steels having greater toughness have been considered a necessary corollary. Thanks to research in metals, such steels are available. A number of factors enter into making a proper selection. For example, for any given steel, toughness generally decreases as thickness increases. The toughness of carbon steels is improved if part of the hardness and strength is obtained by a higher manganese content and lower carbon at the same strength level. Fine- grained steels exhibit greater toughness than coarse- grained steels; this can be accomplished in the deoxidizing process, and in heat treatment. Thus as thickness increases and service temperature decreases, more stringent attentionmust be paid to toughness from the standpoint of materials selection and fabrication, The steels permitted by API and AWWA Appendix C for use at these higher stress levels have statistically demonstrated that they do have adequate toughness for the thickness and temperature ranges shown. The API standard includes an Impact Exemption chart which establishes requirements for impact testing, based on thickness, temperature and type of material. In the final analysis the goal is to design the least expensive but acceptable tank for a given set of conditions. API and AWWA rules permitting higher design stresses afford a fairly wide selection of steels and stress levels to choose from, but they do present a problem of selection. A definitive treatment of economics is beyond the scope of this work. Basically, the factors involved are: 4. Cost of material 2. Weight of material as it affects freight and handling 3. Fabrication, erection and welding costs 4. Inspection costs None of these factors is necessarily conclusive in itself. In any given case, the lightest weight or lowest material cost may or may not be the least expensive overall depending on the relative importance of the factors listed above. The tank fabricator is usually in the best position to judge which steel or combination of steels will permit construction of the most economical, safe tank. It is generally unwise to specify a more expensive steel than can be justified by the application. There are material costs not associated with quality. The cost of plates will vary according to both width and thickness, and from this consideration tank. shell plate approximately 8" wide will generally be used. Particular situations may dictate the use of wider or narrower plates for all or part of a tank shell Although both the API and AWWA Standard permit the ordering of plates for certain parts of the tank on ‘a weight rather than thickness basis, there is no longer any economic advantage in doing so. The Future To this point, only those steels specifically permitted by API or AWWA have been discussed. Other steels, have been used to a minor extent by those thoroughly familiar with the problems involved. ‘Among these are the materials referred to in Part | as high strength low alloy steels, manufactured either as proprietary, trade named steels, or to ASTM specifications. Some of these steels offer the additional attraction of improved atmospheric corrosion resistance, thus eliminating the necessity for painting outside surfaces. As is the case with all high strength materials, the designer and user must assure themselves that factors other than strength (loughness for example) are properly allowed for in design and construction. For obvious reasons, all construction codes lag behind technical progress. The extensive research facilities of individual steel producers and American Iron and Stee! Institute are constantly searching for ways to better serve the needs of our modern economy. But before any construction standard such as those of API and AWWA can accept and permit a ew material, it must have been established that it is suitable for the structure in which it will be used Usually, but not always, acceptance by API and ‘AWWA implies prior acceptance by ASTM. Primarily this is because ASTM specifications clearly delineate the materials to be furnished, whereas any departure from ASTM requires that the standards involved spell ut the requirements in corresponding detail. New ASTM steels may or may not eventually find their way into the construction standards, depending on economics and the proven properties of the materials. It should be left to those who have acquired the necessary experience in tank design and construction to pioneer in the use of materials not approved by API or AWWA. The designer, the user, and the fabricator assume added responsibilities in working outside of recognized industry standards. On the other hand, such pioneering by qualified organizations in the past led to the progress represented by the refined procedures of Appendix C of AWWA D100 and API-650. As in the case of steels already approved by API and AWWA, time and experience will eventually lead to recognition of the steel or combination of steels that will yield the highest quality tank at least cost.Part Ill Carbon Steel Tank Design s_m=== Introduction art III will consider the design of flat bottom, p vertical, cylindrical, carbon steel tanks for the storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure and near ambient temperatures. Practically all tanks in the United States within the scope of this part are constructed in accordance with API 650 covering welded steel tanks for oil storage or AWWA. D100 covering welded steel tanks for water storage. Tanks of other shapes and subject to gas pressure in addition to liquid head; and tanks subject to extreme low or high temperatures present radically different problems. Consult ASME Section Vill, API 650 APPENDICES F & M, and API 620 for further information. ‘API 650 and AWWA D100 contain detailed minimum requirements covering inspection. Any attempt to summarize the inspection requirements of either standard would be voluminous and dangerously misleading. It will be the purpose of Part lil to discuss only those portions necessary to understand the various design bases. Anyone concerned with fabrication, erection, or inspection must obtain copies of the complete standards. There are basic differences between the standards of API and AWWA. API 650 is an industry standard especially designed to fit the needs of the petroleum industry. The oil tank is usually located in isolated areas, or in areas zoned for industry where the probable consequences of mishap are limited to the ‘owner's property. The owner is conscious of safety, environmental concerns and potential losses in his operations, and will adjust the minimum requirements to suit more severe service conditions. AWWA 0100 is a public standard to be used for the storage of water. The water storage tank is usually located in the midst of a heavily populated area, often on the highest elevation available. The consequence of mishap could not be tolerated in the Public interest. The API 650 and AWWA D100 standards have been in existence for many decades and the experience under them has been excellent. Before applying them to tanks storing liquids other than water of oil the designer should consider which philosophy best fits his circumstances. In either case the design standards provide minimum requirements for safe construction and should not be construed as a design manual covering all possible service conditions. General Design Formula for Tank Shells Membrane theory, as it applies to cylindrical tanks of large diameter, is elementary and needs no ‘explanation here. Starting with the basic premise that circumferential load in a cylinder equals the pressure times the radius, then expressing H and D in feet for convenience, the circumferential load at any level in a vertical cylinder containing water weighing 62.4#/cu. ft, can be expressed as: T=2.6 HD 34) where T = the circumferential load per inch of shell height H = depth in feet below maximum liquid level D = tank diameter in feet Then the minimum design thickness can be expressed a: tnenes) = 26HDG + ¢ 2) where G = contained liquid specific gravity S = allowable design stress in psi E = joint factor C = corrosion allowance in inches Obviously the ideal situation would be to vary the thickness uniformly from bottom to top, but since steel plates are rolled to a uniform thickness, any given course of plates is uniform throughout its width. Thus a course designed for the stress at its lower edge will have excess thickness at the top, which will help carry part of the load in the lower portion of the course above, API takes advantage of this and designs each course of plates for the stress existing one foot above the bottom of the course in question. AWWA designs on the basis of stress existing at the lower edge of each course. Application of other methods of shell design is permitted and explained in API 650 and AWWA 0100.Loads To Be Considered ‘As outlined in the preceding section, the thickness of the shell is determined by the weight of the product stored. However, there are other loads or forces. which a tank may have to resist and which are ‘common to both oil and water tanks, Wind — Wind pressure is assumed to be 30 psf on vertical plane surfaces which, when applying shape factors of 0.6 and 0.5 respectively, becomes 18 psf con the projected area of a cylindrical surface, and 15 pst on the projected area of a cone or surtace of double curvature as in the case of tank roofs. These loads are considered to be the pressure caused by a ‘wind velocity of 100 MPH. For higher or lower wind velocity, these loads are increased or decreased in proportion to the square of the velocity ratio, (V/100}2, where V is expected wind velocity expressed in miles per hour, Other standards for wind design may be specified such as ASCE 7-88 (formerly ANSI A58.1-1982), UBC, BOCA or SSBC. ‘Snow — Snow load is assumed to be 25 psf on the horizontal projected area of the roof. Lighter loads are not recommended even in areas where snow does not occur because of the live loads that must be resisted during construction and in service. Fixed roofs on tanks are not usually designed for non- symmetrical loads but if such load conditions are anticipated, these should be considered by the designer. Seismic — Because of their flexibility, flat-bottomed cylindrical steel tanks have had an excellent safety record in earthquakes. Steel has the ability to absorb large amounts of energy without fracture. Prior to the Alaskan earthquake of 1964, oil tanks had an almost perfect record of surviving all known western hemisphere earthquakes with essentially no effects other than broken pipe connections. In the ‘Alaskan quake, the horizontal oscillations of the tank contents caused vertical shell stresses of sufficient magnitude to permanently deform the shell in a peripheral accordion-lke buckle near the bottom. But again the properties of steel were sufficient to accommodate this deformation without fracture of the shell plates.* As a result of this satisfactory experience record, it is generally considered that earthquake is not an important consideration in oil tanks where the height- to-diameter ratio is generally small. The record of water tanks has been correspondingly good, but in the case of a standpipe ‘where the height-to-diameter ratio is high, the problem is obviously aggravated. AWWA D100 and API 650 contain recommendations for the seismic design of tanks, Seismic probability maps of the United States can be found in each. If applicable, local conditions should be investigated. UBC and ANSI standards may be specified but are not as design specific as AWWA D100 and API 650 for flat bottom, vertical, cylindrical tanks, Negative Pressure (such as partial vacuurn) — Most tanks of this nature at some time will be subject to a negative pressure (partial vacuum) by design or otherwise. Approximately one-half oz. per square inch negative pressure is Duilt into the shell stability formulae in AWWA D100 and API 650. AWWA D100 tanks are not usually designed for negative pressure but negative pressure due to the evacuation of water is considered in the venting requirements. Occasionally API 650 tanks are specified to resist a certain negative pressure, usually expressed in inches of water column, To meet these requirements the shell and roof must be designed to resist the specified negative pressure. It is left to the discretion of the designer to design for the negative pressure as part of the specified shell land roof loads or in addition to said loads. Part Ill of volume 2 provides design information for negative pressure on cylinders. Also if the negative pressure ‘occurs while the tank is empty, the weight of the bottom plate should be compared against the specified negative pressure. Top and Intermediate Wind Girders ‘Open top tanks require stiffening rings at or near the top of the shell to resist distortion or buckling due to wind. These stiffening rings are referred to as wind girders. In addition some tank shells of open top and fixed roof tanks require intermediate wind girders to prevent buckling due to wind. API 650 and AWWA D100 provide differing design requirements for intermediate wind girders and are explained in the ‘examples of Appendix A. The formula for maximum height of unstiffened shell is based on the MODIFIED MODEL BASIN FORMULA for the critical uniform external pressure on thin-wall tubes free from end loadings. Anchor Bolts The normal proportions of oll tanks are such (diameter greater than height) that anchor bolts are rarely needed. It is quite common, however, for the height of water tanks to be considerably greater than the diameter. There is a limit beyond which there is anger that any empty tank will overturn when subjected to the maximum wind velocity. As a good rule of thumb, if C in the following formula exceeds 0.66, anchor bolts are required: C= 2M where dw overturning moment due to wind, ft. Ib. diameter of shel in fest weight of shell and portion of root supported by shell, Ib. Design tension load per bolt = 4M — W ND WN 33) M qd w (6-4) where M and W are as above and N= number of anchor bolts D = diameter of anchor bolt circle, feet The diameter of the anchor bolts shall be determined by an allowable stress of 15000 psi on 10= r the net section at the root of the thread with appropriate stress increase for wind or earthquake loading. Because of proportionately large loss of section by corrosion on small areas, it is recommended that no anchor bolt be less than 1.25” in diameter. Maximum desirable spacing of anchors as suggested by API 650 and AWWA D100 is 10’-0. This spacing is a matter of judgment and should remain flexible to facilitate plate seams, nozzles and other interferences. For example, for a shell plate 10 pi feet long, it would be advantageous to use three anchors per plate and space the anchors at approximately 10.5 feet. Obviously the anchor bolt circle must be larger than the tank diameter, but care should be taken so interference will not occur between the anchor bolts land foundation reinforcing, Volume 2 part VII provides design rules for anchor bolt chairs. Corrosion Allowance ‘As a minimum for all tanks, bottom plates should be 1/4" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If corrosion allowance is required for bottom plates, the as-furnished thickness (including corrosion allowance) should be specified. The thickness of annular ring or sketch plates beneath the tank shell may be required to be thicker than the remainder of the bottom plates and any corrosion allowance should be specified as applicable to the calculated thickness or the minimum thickness. ‘API 650 and AWWA D100 specify minimum shell plate thicknesses based on tank diameter for construction purposes. If corrosion allowance is necessary, it should be added in accordance with the respective standard, A required minimum above those stated in the standards may also be specified, but it should be made clear if this minimum includes the necessary corrosion allowance. ‘As a minimum for all tanks, roof plates should be 9/16" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If Corrosion allowance is necessary it should be added in accordance with the respective standard. A required minimum greater than 3/16” in thickness may be specified; but it should be made clear if this minimum includes the necessary corrosion allowance. If corrosion allowance is necessary for root supporting structural members, it should be added in accordance with the respective standard. If a corrosion allowance requirement different from the standards is necessary, it should be made clear what parts of the structure require the additional thickness (lange or web, one side or both sides) and/or the minimum thickness necessary. API Standard 650 General ‘The following information is based on API 650, eighth edition. Anyone dealing with tanks should " obtain a copy of the complete standard. Shell Design APL requires that all joints between shell plates shall be butt welded. Lap joints are permitted only in the "oof and bottom and in attaching the top angle to tho shel API 650 offers optional shell design procedures. The refined design procedures permit higher design stresses in return for a more refined engineering design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels which demonstrate improved toughness. The probability of detrimental notches is higher at discontinuities such as shell penetrations. The basic requirements pertaining to welding, stress relief, and inspection relative to the design procedures are important Tank shells designed in accordance with refined procedures will be thinner than the simplified procedure, and thus will have reduced resistance to buckling under wind load when empty. The shell may or may not need to be stiffened, but must be checked. This is discussed in the section on wind girders. Bottoms ‘Tank bottoms are usually lap welded plates having a minimum nominal thickness of 1/4". After trimming, bottom plates shall extend a minimum of 1 inch beyond the outside edge of the weld attaching the bottom to the shell plates. The attachment weld shall be a continuous filet inside and out as shown in the following table of sizes: Maximum t of ‘Shell Plate Inches ‘36 over 216 to 3/6 over 34 to 1-114 over 1/8 to 1-316 * Maximum size Filet 1/2" Butt-welded bottoms are permissible, but because of cost, are seldom used except in special services. Butt-welded bottoms are usually welded from the top side only using backing strips attached to the underside. Welding from both sides presents significant construction difficulties in order to perform the work in a safe manner. Minimum size of Top Angle Except for open-top tanks and the special requirements applying to self-supporting roofs, tank shells shall be provided with top angles of not less than the following sizes: Minimum Tank Diameter Size o! Top Ang 36 foat and loss 2x 2x a6 ‘over 85 19 60 f. incl, 2x 2% 18 ‘ver 60 feet 3x9x 38Roofs The selection of roof type depends on many factors. In the oil industry, many roofs are selected to minimize evaporation losses. Inasmuch as the ordinary oll tank is designed to withstand pressures only slightly above atmospheric, it must be vented against pressure and vacuum. The space above the liquid is filed with an air-vapor mixture. When a nearly empty tank is filled with liquid this air-vapor mixture expands in the heat of the day and the resulting increase in pressure causes venting. During the cool of the night, the remaining air-vapor mixture contracts, more fresh air is drawn in, more vapor evaporates to saturate the air-vapor mixture, and the next day the cycle is repeated. Either the loss of valuable “light ends” to the atmosphere from filing, or the breathing loss due to the expansion- contraction cycle, is a very substantial loss and has led to the development of many roof types designed to minimize such losses. The floating roof is probably the most popular of all conservation devices and is included as Appendices to API Standard 650. The principle of the floating root is simple. It floats on the liquid surface; therefore there is no vapor either to be expelled on filling or to expand or contract from day to night, Inasmuch as all such conservation devices are represented by proprietary and often patented designs, they are beyond the scope of this discussion, which will be limited to the fixed roofs covered by API Standards. ‘API 650 provides rules for the design of several types of fixed roots. The most common fixed roof is the column supported cone roof, except for relatively small diameters where the added cost of a self-supporting roof is more than offset by saving the cost of a structural framing. The dividing line cannot be accurately defined because different practices and available equipment may affect the decision in any given case. if economy is the only consideration the Purchaser would be well advised to specify the size of tank and let the manufacturer decide whether or not to use a self-supporting roof. A self-supporting roof is sometimes desirable for special service conditions such as an internal floating roof, or where cleanliness and ease of cleaning are especially important All roofs and supporting structures shall be designed to support dead load plus a live load of not less than 25 pst. Roof plates shall have a minimum nominal thickness of 3/16 inch. Structural members shall have a minimum thickness of 0.17 inch. Roof plates shall be attached to the top angle with ‘a continuous fillet weld on the top side only: 1. If the continuous fillet weld between the root plates and the top angle does not exceed 3/16 inch and the slope of the roof at the top-angle attachment does not exceed 2 inches in 12 inches, and when the cross-sectional area of the root-to-shell junction does not exceed ‘A = —0.153W 8) ‘30,800 tan 8 where W = total weight of the shell and roof framing supported by the shell in pounds © = angle between the roof and a horizontal plane at the roof-to-shell juncture in degrees the joint may be considered to be frangible and, in case of excessive internal pressure, will ail before failure occurs in the tank shell joints or the shell-to-bottom joint. Failure of the roof-to- shell joint is usually initiated by buckling of the top angle and followed by tearing of the 3/16 inch continuous weld at the periphery of the roof plates 2, Where the weld size exceeds 9/16 inch, or where the slope of the roof at the top-angle attachment is greater than 2 inches in 12 inches, or when the cross-sectional area of the roof-to-shell junction exceeds the value calculated per equation 3-5, or where fillet welding from both sides is specified, emergency venting devices in accordance with API Standard 2000 shall be provided by the purchaser. The manufacturer shall provide a suitable tank connection for the device and the drawings should reflect the need for such a device to be supplied by the customer. The top angle may be smaller than previously noted when a frangible joint is specified, Supported Cone Roofs — Supported cone roofs are usually lap welded from the top side only with continuous full fillet welds, Plates shall not be aitached to supporting members, and shall be attached to the top angle by a continuous 3/16" fillet weld or smaller on the top side if specified by purchaser. ‘The usual slope of supported cone roots is 3/4” in 12". Increased slopes should be used with caution, The columns transmit their loads directly to the supporting soil through bases resting on but not attached to the bottom plates. Some differential settlement can be expected. A relatively tat roof will follow such variations without difficulty. As pitch increases, a cone acquires stiffness, and instead of smoothly following a revised contour, unsightly local buckles may develop. In general, slopes exceeding 1-1/2" in 12" may be undesirable. Rafters in direct contact with the roof plates may be considered to receive adequate lateral support from friction, but this does not apply to truss chord members, rafters deeper than 15", or roof slopes greater than 2" in 12” Rafters are spaced so that, in the outer ring, their centers are not more than 6.28 feet apart at the shell. Spacing on inner rings does not exceed 5.5 feet. All parts of the supporting structure shall be so proportioned that the sum of the maximum. calculated stresses shall not exceed the allowable 2 4 qaxe eae es oe om 6 a a a aw wf « ¥ Y stresses as stated in the appropriate section of API 650. Self-Supporting Roofs — Self-supporting cone, dome or umbrella roofs shall conform to the appropriate requirements of API 650 unless otherwise specified by the purchaser. Accessories ‘API 650 contains specific designs for approved accessories which include all dimensions, thicknesses, and welding details. For all cases, OSHA requirements must be satisfied. No details are shown, but specications are included for stairways, walkways and platforms. All such structures are designed to support a moving concentrated load of 1000 Ibs. and the handrail shall be capable of withstanding a load of 200 Ibs. applied in any direction at any point on the top rail Normally all pipe connections enter the tank through the lower part of the shell. Historically tank diameters and design stress levels have been such that the elastic movement of the tank shell under load has not been difficult to accommodate. With the trend to larger tanks and higher stresses, the elastic movement of the shell can become an important factor. Steel being an elastic material, the tank shell increases in diameter when subjected to internal pressure. The flat bottom acts as a diaphragm and restrains outward movernent of the shell. AS a result, the shell is greater in diameter several feet above the bottom than at the bottom. Openings near the bottom of the tank shell will tend to rotate with vertical bending of the shell under hydrostatic loading. Shell openings in this area, having attached piping or other external loads, should be reinforced not only for the static. conditions but also for any loads imposed on the shell connections by the restraint of the attached piping to the shell rotations. Preferably the external loads should be minimized or the shell connections relocated outside the rotation area. Tanks Other Than for Oil or Water There are many applications for steel tanks other than the storage of oil or water. Since most such applications are industrial in nature for which no industry standard has been developed, it is quite common to use API Standard 650 as a basis for design and construction. This is a logical approach Provided that problems peculiar to the contents stored are taken into account. Tanks designed to store liquitied gases at or near atmospheric pressure are beyond the scope of this document. However, those interested in such storage are referred to API 620 appendices R and Q. Molasses Tanks — Molasses presents no unusual problems other than the fact that its specific gravity is about 1.48, and the shell design must, of course, take this into account. It is quite common to require 13 such tanks to be built in accordance with API 650. lt must be remembered that the API Appendix A design stress of 21,000 psi at 85% joint factor is, predicated on the tank being full of water during test and that the actual stress in petroleum service is usually considerably less. Because molasses is heavier than water, the full design stress is present in service. Thus if the designer is depending on the long and successful record of tanks designed in accordance with API 650 Appendix A design, it would be more consistent with the true situation to use a somewhat lower design stress. On the other hand, on tanks built to the basic design of API 650 this difference between usual petroleum service stress and design stress does not exist. However, the addition of a corrosion allowance is required when warranted by service conditions. Acid and Caustic Tanks — To attempt a comprehensive discussion of the subject of storing acids and caustic solutions is beyond the scope of this work. While stainless steel or other high alloy materials are often required, some acids and caustic solutions can be stored successfully in carbon steel tanks, and the following discussion will be limited to such application. In the absence of personal experience, information concerning the corrosive properties of many common solutions can be found in chemistry and chemical engineers’ handbooks or in the publications of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. However, it should be noted that very small differences in content (such as slight impurities) or conditions can influence the corrosive effect of many chemicals. As an example, concentrated sulfuric acid does not attack carbon steel whereas dilute sulfuric acid is extremely corrosive. Thus concentrated sulfuric acid can often be safely stored in carbon steel tanks provided proper precautions are taken to cope with dilute acid that may form in the upper portions of the tank when acid fumes and water condensation meet in the vapor space. Thus one fundamental requirement for an acid tank is that the interior of the tank be smooth without crevices or pockets where dilute acid condensation can collect. Self-supporting roots are good practice. If the design of the roof or size of tank requires structural stiffeners, itis desirable that they be placed on the outside. If the roof is lap welded, it should be welded underneath as well as the top. The connection of the roof to the shell should eliminate any pocket which might exist at the top of a standard API tank, ‘When using Appendix A design basis of API 650, a lower design stress should be considered for the same reasons as given under ‘Molasses Tanks.” The tank user should specify the amount of corrosion allowance, if any required, for his particular purpose. In the case of carbon steel tanks storing caustic solutions, both the concentration and temperature are important. Carbon steel tanks should not be used if the combination of concentration and temperatureexceeds the following values and may in some cases be unsatisfactory below these limits: 50% and 120F 25% and 150F 5% and 200F It is most important to make sure that the specified design conditions are not exceeded in service. Automatic temperature controls are recommended. In addition to ordinary corrosion, the principal problem in caustic tanks is one referred to as “caustic embrittlement” or "stress corrosion cracking.” In the presence of high local stresses this type of corrosion can rapidly result in cracks and leaks. Local stress concentrations approaching the yield point can exist at shell penetrations, in the Vicinity of welds and at other details. In caustic service these are the points where stress corrosion racking can occur. Thus, in the case of caustic storage tanks, all fittings penetrating the shell or bottom, or any permanent attachments welded to the interior surface thereof, should be installed in a plate in the shop and the entire assembly thermally stress relieved. Essentially, this leaves only main seam welding to be performed in the field. Self-supporting roofs without structural members immersed in the tank contents are advisable. It is not necessary, however, to eliminate crevices and pockets as is recommended for acid tanks. For caustic tanks, a standard API roof is acceptable. Certain additional precautions in welding should be taken in both acid and caustic tanks. Lap welds in the bottom and the inside bottom-to-shell filet should be made in at least two passes. Since the bottom-to- shell weld usually consists of a fillet inside and out, it is advisable to provide a water stop (complete penetration) at each vertical shell joint so that if a leak does occur in the inside fillet, channeling will be limited to one plate length. All other shell joints should be designed for complete penetration and fusion. The inside passes should be made first. The later welding of outside passes will partially heat treat and reduce residual stresses in the inside weld. If anticipated corrosion indicates a bottom plate thickness greater than 3/8", the bottom should be butt welded and the same sequence followed: i.e. weld the inside passes first Inasmuch as all welds create locally high residual stresses, all brackets, welding lugs, etc. should be kept to a minimum, be located on the outside, and attached with small-diameter electrodes to limit the heat input and consequently the effect on the inside surface. When the corrosive attack is considered sufficiently severe to admit the possibility of local penetration, but not severe enough to warrant the expense of high alloy or clad steel plates, the tank is sometimes. supported on a structural grillage to permit inspection from the under side. 14 AWWA Standard D100 General The following information is based on the AWWA Standard D100 issued in 1984, Anyone dealing with tanks should obtain a copy of the complete standard. With the exception of shells, roofs and accessories, the comments made in connection with API tanks also apply to AWWA tanks and will not be repeated here in detail. Bottoms may be either lap or butt welded with a minimum thickness of 1/4 inch. AWWA does not specify top angle sizes, but the rules of API represent good practice. Shell Design AWWA D100 offers two different design bases, the standard or basic design and the alternate design basis as outlined in Appendix C. The alternate design basis permits higher design stresses, in return for a more refined engineering design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels with improved toughness. ‘AWWA D100 Appendix C includes steels of significantly higher strength levels and correspondingly higher design stress levels. This introduces new design problems. For example, for A517 steels, the permissible design stress of 38333 psi will result in reaching the minimum required nominal thickness several courses below the tank top. It would be uneconomical to continue the relatively expensive steel into courses of plates not determined by stress. The obvious answer is to use less expensive steels in the upper rings. To govern this transition, Appendix C adds the following requirements: “in the interest of economy, upper courses may be of weaker material than used in the lower courses of shell plates, but in no instance shall the calculated stress at the bottom of any course be greater than permitted for the material in that course. A plate course may be thicker than the course below it provided the extra thickness is not used in any stress or wind stability calculation.”” Compliance with this requirement will probably result in the course or courses immediately below the transition point being somewhat heavier than required by stress. Using a steel of intermediate strength level as a transition between A517 steel and carbon steel may help the situation. In any event the Use of two or more steels will result in plates of the same thickness made of different steels. Careful attention to plain marking for positive identification becomes very important. Consideration might be given to varying Plate widths for different materials of the same thickness to aid in identification in the event markings are lost. Roofs Whereas oil tanks are strictly utilitarian, a pleasing appearance is generally an important consideration in the case of water tanks. Since the roof line has anTTT | Important effect on appearance, this striving for beauty has led to a wide variety of roof designs. Often a self-supporting roof, such as an ellipsoid, will extend a considerable distance above the cylindrical portion of the shell, and the high water level will extend up into the roof itself. The resultant upward pressure on the roof is resisted by the combination of the roof dead load and the weld joint between the roof and shell ‘AWWA requires that for all roof plate surfaces in contact with water, the minimum metal thickness shall be 1/4”. Roof plate surfaces not in contact with water may be 3/16" As applied to rolled shapes for roof framing, the foregoing minimum thicknesses shall apply to the mean thickness of the flanges regardless of web thickness. Roof plates not subject to hydrostatic pressure from tank contents may be welded from the top side only with either a continuous full filet or butt joint weld with 90% joint penetration. Where roof plates are subjected to hydrostatic pressure, the roof may be continuous double lap welded or butt welded. Roof supports or stiffeners, if used, shall be in accordance with current specifications of the American Institute of Steel Construction covering structural steel for buildings, with the following ‘exceptions: 1. Roof plates are considered to provide the necessary lateral support by friction between roof plates and rafters to eliminate reduction in the basic allowable compressive stress, except where trusses and open web joists are used for rafters, or rafters having nominal depth greater than 15 in. or rafters having a slope greater than 2 in 12. 2. The roof, rafter and purlin depth may be less than fo. 600,000 times the span length in inches where fy is the maximum bending stress in psi, providing slope of the roof is 3/4 to 12 or greater. 3. The maximum slenderness ratio (L/1) for root support columns shall be 175. 4. Roof support columns shall be designed as secondary members 5. Roof trusses, if any, shall be placed above the maximum water level in climates where ice may form, 6. Roof rafters shall preferably be placed above maximum water level, although their lower ‘ends, where connected to the tank shell, may project below the water level. Accessories AWWA does not provide detailed designs of tank fitings, but specifies the following: 1. Two manholes shall be provided in the first ring of the tank shell. Manholes shall be either a 24" diameter or at least 18” x 22” when elliptical manholes are used. 2. The purchaser shall specify pipe connections, 15 sizes, and locations. Due to freezing hazard these connections are normally made through the tank bottom and as near to the shell as practical. A concrete valve box may be provided to permit access to piping. This valve box must bbe designed as a part of the ringwall It a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at least 4” high. If not required, then’the connecting pipe shall extend at least 4” above the tank bottom, The purchaser shall specify the overflow size and type. stub overflow is recommended in cold climates. If an overflow to ground is required, it should be brought down the outside of the tank and discharged onto a splash block ‘or other appropriate drainage structure. Inside overflows are not recommended. They are easily damaged by ice, and a failure in the overtiow will empty the tank to the level of the break. An outside vertical ladder shall begin 8 feet (or as specified) above the tank bottom and afford access to the root. Need for access to AWWA tanks is infrequent and a conscious effort is made to render access difficult for unauthorized personnel The contractor shall provide access to the root hatches and vents. The access must be reached from the outside tank ladder and fulfill the AWWA D100 requirements consistent with the roof slope or as specified by the purchaser. 7. A roof door or hatch whose least dimensions ‘are 24" x 15", with a curb 4” high, provided with a hinged door and clasp for locking shall be placed near the outside tank ladder. A second opening of at least 20" in diameter and with a 4” neck must be provided near the center of the tank. Additional openings may be required for ventilation during painting. Safety devices shall be provided on ladders as required by federal or local regulations, or as purchaser so specities. ‘Adequate venting shall be provided to accommodate the maximum filing and emptying rates. These rates should be specified by the purchaser. ‘Venting for outflow (partial vacuum condition) is based upon the unrestricted vent area and the pressure differential that can safely be allowed between the outside and inside of the tank. This differential is established by quantifying the strength of the roof and shell above and beyond other structural requirements; for example, the margin of extra strength of the shell against buckling with respect to the design wind load. Venting for inflow (pressure condition) is again based upon the restricted vent area and the pressure differential that can safely be allowed before lifting the roof plates. For example, if 3/16” roof plates are used, the pressure differential would be 7.65 PSF, 0.053psi, or 1.47 inches water column. If the differential is limited to the weight of the roof, the shell/root juncture does not become involved. The overstress in the shell would be minimal The equation for outtlow vent capacity is: BAX 110% Tx (3) -1)* co) where Q- = vent capacity n cube fet per second = minimum clear vent open area in square feet air temperature in degrees Rankine atmospheric pressure in psia pressure in tank during withdrawal in psia ‘The equation for inflow vent capacity is: cfnm on an 0286 Te Pa = Pi = Q=0 APPENDIX A Design Example For typical examples of tank design consider two tanks 150 foot in diameter by 40 feet nominal height with flat cone supported roots. Consider one tank per AWWA D100 and the other tank per API 650. See figure 3A-1 for tank dimensions, These examples are for illustration only and are Not to be used for an actual design or construction Design of similar tanks should be accomplished by ‘competent people experienced in the design of like structures and the use of applicable standards. For the AWWA tank consider Appendix C, shell design by equation 3-10 (AWWA D100), and zone one fixed percentage seismic loads. For the API 650 tank consider the standard (non ‘Appendix ), shell design by the variable point method, 1/16 inch corrosion allowance on the shell only, and zone one API 650 seismic loads, Consider design metal temperature (DMT) of 20°F, standard 100 mph wind loads, standard 25 PSF roof loads, a maximum liquid content height of 39-6, and a design specific gravity of 1.0 for both tanks. The economies of plate selection with respect to width and grade and structural selection will differ with location and construction capabilities. Factors to consider are plate width and grade availability in a particular locality and structural rolling schedules. ‘Aiso the availability of plate and structural stock in a articular locality will sometimes influence the selection of material. Further discussion of material selection will be beyond the scope of this paper. The following design example covers the AWWA, D100 tank 16 Calculate shell thickness using the basic equation: t= 26h,0G (8) SE All nomenclature in the above and following ‘equations is defined in the AWWA D100 standard Notice that hp in the above equation is the full liquid height above the design point rather than h—1 as used in API 650. The calculation for ring five (top ring) is ts = 26 x 7.66 x 180 x 1.0 < 9.4547" 19,330 x 1.0 The thicknesses for the remaining rings calculate: hy = 15.63" = S = 19,390 psi te = 0.3152" hy = 23.58’ S = 23,330 psi te = 0.9942" hp = 31.54" S = 23,990 psi tz = 0.5273" hy = 99.50" $= 23,330 psi tr = 0.6603" Using A36 steel for rings 4 and 5 and A873 GR70 for rings 1, 2, and 3. Ring 5 will be increased to 0.3125" because of minimum thickness requirements in AWWA D100. Shell stabilty is calculated using the basic equation: hh = 10.625 x 108 x t (3-9) P, (OA)'* The calculation for ring five (top ring) is: hs = 10.625 x_108 x 0.3125 — 17.54'> 7.96’ 18 x (150/0.3125)'* For each ring the h calculated is compared to the actual height of shell above the design point, When h calculates less than the height of shell above, the shell is unstable. This may be corrected by thickening the shell or adding a stiffening ring. For this example we will consider only thickening the shell he = 17.73'> 18.92 ho = 21.76 < 23.87 Recalculate the thickness of ring 3 by using a lower strength steel (A36). = 0.4758" Recalculate: = 26.37'> 23.87" The shell is now stable above ring 3; continuing; he = 34.10'> 31.83" hi = 45.67'> 39.79" The entire shell is now stable for a design wind velocity of 100 mph. See table 3A-1 for shell thicknesses before and after minimum thickness and wind stability adjustments. For 100 mph wind load, design loads are 18 PSF ‘on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces (shell) and _ 15 PSF on projected areas of double curved surfaces (roof). Based upon the tank geometry and the design loading, the wind shear is calculated: 150 x 40.04 x 18 = 108,113 Ibs. 150 x 4.69 x 05x15 = _ 5.273 113,986 Ibs.— = e = = = ™ =—~— ++ 7 [RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL I 5 0.3125" 36. 4 0.3125" A36, 3 0.3750" ‘AS73GR70 2 4750" ‘AS73GR70___ 1 0.5990" A573GR70 TABLE 3A-2 — ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES (API 650 DESIGN) Wtr (ring 5) Wtr (ring 4) Wr (ring 3) Wir (ring 2) Wtr (ring 1) 95.50 INCHES 95.50 60.54 33.61 18.79 SUM OF Wir = 303.94 INCHES 25.33 FEET FIGURE 3A-8 — TRANSPOSED SHELL HEIGHT (API 650 DESIGN) may be considered when actual experience with similar tanks and foundations at a particular site indicates that satisfactory performance can be expected. Tank Grade ‘The tank grade (surface which supports the tank bottom) can be constructed of earth materials provided the subgrade beneath the tank bottom is capable of supporting the weight of the contained fluid. The tank grade usually consists of a 4” sand cushion placed over properly compacted fill or soil. It is recommended that the finished tank grade be constructed at least 6 inches above the surrounding ground surface and be crowned from its outer Periphery to its center. A slope of 1 inch to 10 feet is Suggested. The sand should be clean and tree of corrosive elements. Care should be taken to exclude lumps of earth or other deleterious materials from coming into contact with the bottom. These materials can cause electrolytic action that will result in pitting of the bottom plate. If the sand cushion is placed on top of crushed rock fill, the rock should be carefully graded from coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. If this is not done, the sand will percolate down through the voids in the coarser rock, ‘An excellent tank grade can also be obtained by substituting about 1¥ inches of asphalt road paving mix for the sand cushion. This material is available from ready mix plants in many sections of the country. It is very important that the paved tank 23 grade be constructed level and to the proper profile, Particularly near the shell. Once the asphalt has set Up, it is extremely difficult for the tank builder to correct inaccuracies by taking down the high and filing in the low spots. Drainage Is important both from the standpoint of soil stability and bottom corrosion. Good drainage should be provided under the tank itself and in the general area around the tank. Where the terrain does not afford natural drainage, proper ditching around the tank may help to correct the deficiency. Foundations The shell of a flat bottom tank can be supported on a compacted granular berm, concrete ringwall or concrete slab foundation. Local soil conditions, tank loads and the intended use of the tank will determine Which of these foundations is suitable for a particular site, Tanks that require anchor bolts must be supported by ringwall or slab foundations. Granular Berm Foundation — When a qualified geotechnical evaluation concludes that itis Unnecessary to construct a ringwall or slab foundation, the shell can be supported by a granular berm foundation. The berm should be constructed of well graded and properly compacted stone or gravel The berm should extend 2 minimum of 3 feet beyond and 2 feet inside the tank shell as shown in Figure 3B-1. The berm should be level to within. + 1/8 inch in any 10 feet of circumference and to within + 1/2 inch in the total circumference. Adequate drainageaway from the berm must be provided to prevent erosion of the berm under the shell. Alternatively, a welded or bolted steel grade band can be used to retain the outer portion of the berm. Concrete Ringwall Foundation — When suitable bearing is not available at the surface, but is available at a reasonable depth below the surface, a ringwall foundation should be considered. The depth of the ringwall will depend on local conditions and must be sufficient to place the bottom of the ringwall below anticipated frost penetration and within the specified bearing strata. As a minimum, the bottom of the ringwall should be located 2 feet’ below the lowest adjacent finish grade. The width of the ringwall must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing less than the specified allowable soil bearing. As a minimum, the ringwall width should be 1 foot. The inside horizontal projection (inside the tank shell) should be no less than 4 inches. The ringwall must be reinforced to resist the following forces: 1. Direct hoop tension resulting from the lateral earth pressure on the inside face of the ringwall. Unless substantiated by proper geotechnical analysis, the lateral earth pressure should be assumed to be 30% of the vertical pressure due to the contained fluid and the soil weight. 2, Bending moment resulting from the uniform moment load. The uniform moment load is due to the eccentricities of the shell and pressure loads relative to the centroid of the soil bearing stress. The pressure load is due to the fluid pressure on the inside horizontal projection of the ringwall 3. Bending, torsion and shear resulting from lateral, wind or seismic, loads. A rational analysis, which includes the effect of the foundation stiffness, should be used to determine the soil bearing stress distribution and the above internal design forces. The area of reinforcement provided must be sufficient to resist the above forces and should not be less than the following minimums. These minimums are intended to prevent excessive cracking due to shrinkage and temperature 1. For walllike ringwalls the area of vertical reinforcement provided should not be less than 0.0015 times the horizontal cross-sectional area of the ringwall 2. The area of hoop reinforcement provided should not be less than 0.0025 times the vertical cross- sectional area of the ringwall The detailed design of the ringwall and requirements for the materials, construction and testing should be in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ANSV/ACI 318). Recesses shall be provided in the concrete ring- wall for flush type cleanouts, drain off sumps and any other appurtenances that require recessing. Refer to API 650 for details of recesses at flush type cleanouts. The top of the ringwall should be smooth and level to within + 1/8 inch in any 30 feet of circumference. No point on the total circumference should vary more than + 1/4 inch from the specified finish elevation. Slab Foundation — When the subgrade beneath the tank bottom cannot adequately support the weight of the contained fluid, a slab foundation is required. The area of the slab must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing (due to the total weight of the tank, foundation and contained product) less than the allowable soil bearing. The depth to the bottom of the slab will depend on local conditions and must be sufficient to place the bottom of the slab below anticipated frost penetration and within the specified bearing strata. The detailed design of the slab and requirements for the materials, construction and testing should be in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ANSVACI 318). References, Part Ill 1. API Standard 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, Division of Refining, American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988. 2. AWWA Standard D100-84 Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage, American Water Works Association, 3. Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Ninth Edition, 4, “Oil Storage Tanks", The Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, Volume Il, Part A, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967. 5. “Fluid Mechanics”, Dodge & Thompson.al ol ok aod eet BM So Figure 3B-1 — Example of Foundation with Crushed Stone Ringwall from API 650, Eighth Edition, November 1988 4° MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE, SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND OR SIMILAR MATERIAL SLOPE IF PAVED COARSE STONE OR COARSE GRAVEL ~ 1 MAX. SIZE Nu THOROUGHLY COMPACTED FILL OF FINE GRAVEL, COARSE SAND, OR OTHER SUITABLE MATERIAL Note: Bottom of excavation should be level. Remove any unsuitable material and replace with suitable fill, thoroughly compacted. Figure 3B-2 — Example of Concrete Ringwall Foundation 1/2" THICK cMIND 4° MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE, ASPHALT ~ IMPREGNATED | SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND, BOARD > ee ke he ee M2) »>).)(S.¢ @ @ @ i Ss Ss added dd ae Md dd dM Td dd hd ghee MMe Ree o tetas Steel Plate Engineering Data—Volume 2 Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures Revised Edition— 1992 Published by AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE With cooperation and editorial collaboration STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC. Revised December 1992Acknowledgements the American Iron and Steel Institute initially retained Mr. I.E. Boberg and later obtained the services of Mr. Frederick S. Merrit. For their skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. F: the preparation of the original version of this technical publication, ! The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association and representatives from the member steel producing companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and updating, the material for this publication. Appreciation is expressed to the American Institute of Steel Construction, American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Business Communications, Inc., Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Command, and the American Water Works Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the illustrative and documentary material in this manual appears through their courtesy. American Iron and Steel Inst In accordance with recognizes ‘The material presente in thie publication has been pre Information should not be used engineering principles and is or genera Information only. without tt securing competent ave part of American iron and 8 Information is suitable for ny general or particular use ot of freedom from infringement of any patont or patents. Anyone making use ofthis information assumes all isbilty arising from auch use. AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 1300 Washington, D.C. 20036-4700 December 1992Introduction the design of flat-bottom, cylindrical tanks for storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric pressure. Steel plates, however, are used in a wide variety of other structures, such as pipe, penstocks, pressure vessels, stacks, elevated tanks, and bulk storage tanks. These structures present special problems in design and detail, the answers to which are not readily available without searching a number of sources. Volume 2 gives useful information to aid in design of such structures. Vn 1 of this series, “Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage,"" deals with Scope Volume 2, “Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures,” does rot cover in depth the design of any particular structure. For example, design of stacks involves problems of vibration that are beyond the scope of this volume. Similarly, design of pressure vessels requires a detailed knowledge of ASME, state and, sometimes, city codes. Designers should work with the applicable code. Any attempt to summarize pressure-vessel codes could be misleading and even dangerous, because of constant revision and updating by the various regulatory bodies. There are, however, many facets of plate design that are generally applicable to many types of structures. Information on these is not now conveniently collected in one source. Drawing on many sources, this volume offers such information and discusses some of the more commonly encountered problems. Included is an outline of membrane theory, data for weld design, commonly used details, plus data and mathematical tables useful in design of steel plate structures. The intent is to include information principally pertinent to plate structures. For convenience of users of this volume, some data readily available elsewhere, particularly in mathematical tables, has been incorporated. Volume 3, “Welded Steel Pipe,” and Volume 4, “Penstocks and Tunnel Liners," of this series treat these applications in detail and are available from Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc. add ted EMM ddd hdd ddd id hd dad TAMA Ah © © dlTT TT a oS Sa eT TAIT TT TITITITITITITT TS TTT TTI TTI TTT TT 4 wo ua T4977 Part | Part Il Part Ill Part IV Part V Part VI Part VI Part VIII Part IX Part X Contents Flat Plates ......... 271 Large Diameter Plate Tubular Columns . ‘ .7 External Pressure on Cylinders 1 Membrane Theory . Self-Supported Stacks |... Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe | Lines... 35 Anchor Bolt Chairs ........ : Design of Fillet Welds .. . i Inspection and Testing ot Welded Vessels Appendices ...... vecesRCO Re RE Part I Flat PlateS qm structural forms, such as plate girders, built-up columns, or component parts of trusses. Such uses are well covered in standard texts or handbooks and are not discussed in this volume. Instead, Part | will cover applications in steel tanks. F lat plates are used in many conventional Bending Stresses and Deflections Used as a membrane, as in the shell of a tank, a steel plate is a very efficient member. In contrast, a flat plate in bending normal to its plane is inefficient. Circumstances, nevertheless, sometimes dictate the use of a flatwalled tank because of space limitations, of the storage of a corrosive liquid may dictate use of a grillage-supported bottom to facilitate inspection. In such cases, a stiffened flat surface is indicated. On the next page, formulas are given for calculating the maximum bending stresses and maximum center deflections of certain flat plates. These formulas have been derived from various sources, the most important being based on an analytical derivation from elastic theory. However, those relating to three classes of elliptical plates and to certain others with a central applied load are less rigid in their derivation though sufficiently reliable for the use of the designer. It must be remembered that all formulas apply to materials such as steel, for which Poisson's ratio is 0.30. The inherent limitations of these formulas must be kept in mind. It is assumed that tensions in the plane of the plate appropriate to membrane action are small or negligible compared with the stresses due to bending. In general, the deflection must be small compared with the plate thickness if this is to be true. For greater deflections, other more complicated formulas must be used in whose derivation both membrane and bending action are considered. The formulas given may yield reliable working stresses yet be absolutely unreliable in calculating the load at failure and the corresponding deflection, particularly iin the case of materials which elongate materially before failure, or which assume a dished form under load through initial stressing beyond the elastic limit In general it must not be expected that these formulas will yield stresses accurate to better than 5%, The mode of support and manner of loading specified must be complied with if the stresses are to be realized. No commercial edge fastening will correspond exactly with the theoretical conditions, The exact restraint of the edge, where bending is of prime importance, will depend on the rigidity of the support, the flexiolity of any gaskets used, the position of the bolting circle and the spacing of the bolts therein, as well as the tightness with which the joint is bolted up. When membrane action is of importance, the degree of bolting up and the ability of the reinforced opening to resist slight deformations under radial tensions will largely determine the exact stress in the plate and the corresponding deformation. The bending moment at the edge is of less importance than at points where plate resistance depends primarily on bending. In view of these remarks, the conditions “Fixed” and “Supported” serve as guides to the possible range of stress and deflection. Notation length, in., of semi-minor axis of supporting ellipse for eliptical plates A. = length, in., of semi-major axis of supporting ellipse for elliptical plates b_ = length, in., of short side of rectangular plate at supports B = length, in, of long side of rectangular plate or side of square at supports B1 = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, fixed- edge, rectangular plates (Tables 1A and 18) Be = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, simply supported, rectangular plate (see Tables 1A and 1B) modulus of elasticity, psi maximum fiber stress in bending, psi specified minimum yield strength, psi Uniform load, tt. of water Ly = stiffener spacing, in. n= aA or b/B P= uniform load or pressure, psi P = concentrated load, Ib.1 = radius, in., of central loaded area inside knuckle radius, in., for flat, unstayed, ircular plates A = radius, in., to support for circular plates S_ = spacing, in., of adjacent staybolts at corners of square plates t = plate thickness, in. A = center deflection, in., of plate relative to supports ® = factor for stress in circular flanged plate (see Table 1A) ®1 = factor for deflection of uniformly loaded, fixed-edge, rectangular plates (see Tables ‘A and 18) 2 = factor for deflection of uniformly loaded, simply supported rectangular plates (see Tables 1A and 18) 3 = factor for deflection of fixed-edge, rectangular plates subjected to central concentrated load (see Tables 1A and 1B) One of the most commonly encountered conditions is a uniformly loaded flat plate ‘supported on uniformly spaced parallel stiffeners. In the absence of any code or specification requirement, assume an allowable bending stress equal to 3/4 of the specified minimum yield stress value in the plate for determination of stiffener spacing L,, in. The plate stress can be obtained from the formula in Table 1A for the case of a rectangle b x B, where B = Sand b is taken as L,. Thus, for the fixed condition (continuous over the supports), the maximum permissible spacing of stiffeners becomes: L, = | 54.000 | 12 (1) Pe For convenience in connection with tank bottoms, the load can be expressed in feet of water, rather than psi, in which case: 1, = { 124.615 2 #H (1-2) Figure 1-1 gives graphically stiffener spacing determined from Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2 for an allowable bending stress of 27,000 psi (i.e. F, = 36,000 Psi) If deflection exceeds 1/2, the plate will tend to act as a membrane in tension and exert a lateral pull on the outside support that must be taken into account. An alternative solution, therefore, is to assume that yielding does occur at the support and the plate acts as a catenary between supports. At intermediate supports, the tension in the plate will be balanced; but at the outside support, restraint must be provided to resist that tension. This is not always easily accomplished. ‘When the span is such that the profile of the plate approaches a catenary between supports, the support spacing is given approximately by the following formula: L, = tf] 24f| (1-3) ple Because of the approximate nature of the solution, a conservative value for Fis indicated. Assuming f = 10,000t and E = 29,000,000 psi for mild carbon steel, the equation becomes: 1, = 900-4 = 2,076 t (14) P H Figure 1-2 gives graphical solutions for Eqs. 1-3, and 1-4. For the catenary approach, it Is essential that a lateral force of 10,000f be resisted at the Peripheral support. Since this is not always practicable, application of the catenary approach is limited. Similarly, it should not be used where pressure is reversible or where deflection is objectionable. In the above discussion, only plate stresses have been considered, and it is assumed that any welded plate joints will develop the full strength of the plate including appropriate joint efficiencies. Also, the stiffener system should bo in accordance with accepted structural design principles. Protection against brittle failure of a structure should be considered at the time of design. Since environmental extremes, design detail, material selection, fabrication methods and inspection adequacy are all interrelated in protecting a structure from such failure, these factors should be evaluated. os sah ak ak al lal aa eM aa Rae ak AaRA eR ARARR A Se oS aetna ee Ma tCtN a4 4 Head, H (Feet of Water) Head, H (Feet of Water) 50 45 40 ze Ry ew os aS G8 & ° =~ = yw ww owns a SR SEB CONTINUOUS BEAM I TS YI “ A T i at 2 : Lacine “Bmitererea [Ht = ne NaN] Jt = 12 z tee >. r—] Ss vane : fo : : f 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Support Spacing, Ls (in) Figure 1-1. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate Acting as Continuous Beam. T Tite: * 10,000 + LU WE 0.000 ,_ | - & Can, a gc aia ig CATENARY ACTION ‘Based on fra by = f oy pots t= 9/16 pee 4 t= 14" Pa +] ——— t= ane" a T T T OG oe 20 eet 25 2g 90) eg 30 e401 45 ee CO Support Spacing, Ls (in) 3 Figure 1-2. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate with Catenary Action. 3Table 1-1A. Flat Plate Formulas Poisson's Ratio = 0.30 Genser Qaiection snare |Lowina] S50, Maximum Fiber Set, st a Fie rman, eee Circle mae frmax, ot center = 7 Paniform over | Soecen| Fae ee rc vated ier Sues ? 1 aa,foe, (Broa + 008s] & 2) 2 [Asanove of, | Sevoones |#3fion o(F) 0584 + 000(5)"] %) oss (2) Be |S on Heouon itr ae . > = 5 Approximate 8 Fign= Omen = 1 spse p= a/A Approximate wna = . fien=0 and n=) 2<4 Leanna] F Coad over 0.51% of se a= fA Aoncoximate - ‘Supported Fits a load over u 0.01% of ares hi le) 2% |9, ana a, cepena Ltrm|_ Pt ic ae See ? 7 a) eB, ana 8, cepend Supported 48 pode, Reccangie| oa Fe} Fon a/b, see Table 18, aKo aE t fe) x? [R= a Acoroxicate b 0.0125 130 For F,> 34 ksi YR, Range WR = 0.0095372 Formula @4) 0.003637 < WR, <0.0125 13.86+ 171.2 Ry es Re = 0.0125 38 FS = 2 Co = VE mETo, en Ke = 05 is) when KUr> Co 28) = 1-05 [LAF F, M650 Fy = 0.86 F, (213) = the value obtained from formula 2-11 when KUr é 1 fo Static Design Criteria In the suggested static design criteria below, the proportions indicated are those desirable from a structural standpoint. Independent calculations are needed to determine sizes to satisfy draft or capacity requirements. in general, stacks proportioned as suggested will probably have a high critical wind velocity, but a dynamic check should be made to verity this, Short stacks (less than 100 ft. high) may be straight oylinders without a belled base. 28 be2er| Minimum base diameter dy = HINO 1) Minimum bell height = 0.3H (62) Minimum diameter of cylinder, D, = HN3 6% —— Figure 5-1. Cylindrical Stack with Belled Base. ‘Stacks are likely to be subjected at least to the following loads: 1, Metal Weight. 2. Lining Weight. 3. Wind: Wind load provisions may be found in ASCE 7-88. Local building codes should also be consulted. . Icing (it required). Seismic (it required). . Thermal cycling (vertical & circumferential). . Possible negative pressures. ‘Other requirements of local building codes. PNoge Dynamic Wind Criteria The dynamic influence of wind may be approximated by assuming an equivalent static force, F,, in pounds Per foot of height, acting in the direction of oscillations, given by: FL = Cy Do Ger/2h (5-4) Critical damping factor which varies from 1% for an unlined steel stack of small diameter to 5% for concrete. ‘The dynamic wind pressure, qv in psf, is given by: “Ger = 0.00119 Voz. The critical wind velocity, Vers in ps, for resonant transverse vibration is given by: Verltt/sec) = ee NOTE: B = (65) The natural frequency, f, (cps), of vibration of a stack oF constant clameter and thickness is ven by f, = 352D 4H? [zat 2W. Critical velocity for a steel stack with an S value of 0.2 is given by: Vers (mph) = 3.41D6f, 67) Values of effective diameters and effective height for stacks of varying diameter and thickness may be determined by methods found in reference number 19. *Reterence number 14(6) (64)9 od ne pd ie TARA AE wow Toa AACE X T4147 = Critical Wind Velocity for Ovaling Vibrations In addition to transverse swaying oscilations, stacks experience flexural vibration in the cross-sectional plan a8 @ resull of vortex shedding. This frequency bf the lowest mode of ovaling vibration in a circular shell is: f, = S788 a Ba 69) Resonance occurs when frequency of the lowest mode of ovaling vibration is twice the vortex Shedding frequency; thus, the critical wind velocity for ovaling frequency is: vy, = a = (ft/sec) (6-9) Unlined stacks are subject to ovaling vibrations. In order to prevent this phenomenon, the thickness of the stack should not be less than D/250 or intermediate stiffeners are required to raise the resonant velocity above 60 mph. Care should be exercised in coastal areas to give special attention to high winds as outlined in the aforementioned ASCE 7-88. Stack Stresses The stresses associated with buckling have four ranges into which they can fall depending on the #® ratio. They in turn may be affected by the Euler ‘effect or slendemess ratio reduction factor. The stresses calculated in this manner are not to be increased for wind or earthquake stresses. Fer YR, Range 5.8 x 10° UR, 0.017 <¥R, SFy/11600 Fr [oss + Bt Fy/11600 < WA, $0.01 5 st 0.01 < URy S04 v [08 + nal Fy UR,> .04 ce FS = 2.0 For Fo = K@For/FS (6-10) Ce KLr Ko = 1-05 eer oc Tables 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3 have been developed using ASTM A36 steel with a yield of 36 ksi. The value of K is taken as 2 in view of the fact that a stack is normally a cantilever. These allowable stresses will also be used for tapered or belled base stacks using the equivalent cylindrical radius approach as shown below. In order to arrive at allowable stresses in the conical section ‘one would substitute A, into the above formulae for Ro. i Figure 5-2. Loads on Cylinder-Cone Junction Cylinder-Cone Junction In many applications of tubular columns, it is desirable to use a base cone to provide a broader base for anchorage. At the junction of the cone and cylinder (Fig. 5-2), it is necessary to provide reinforcement to resist the maximum vertical force. ve P+ M 1) 2nR, aRo? and the radial thrust H-= Viana (6-12) The ring compression to be resisted is C = HR, = VR tana (6-13) The area of reinforcement required is A, = Vf tan a 14) F Under load, the junction reinforcement, or stittener, will move elastically inward. This will induce secondary vertical bending stresses on each side of the junction. For that reason, it is desirable to keep allowable stress F, relatively low. If F, is in the range of 8,000 psi, the secondary stresses can usually be ignored if D, is not greater than about 15 ft. For greater diameters or higher values of F, it would be advisable to evaluate the secondary stresses. Note that V is the maximum value resulting from both vertical load and bending moment in the cylinder at the junction level The moment of inertia J, of the stiffener section should not be less than: HR? (6-15) E based on a factor of safety of 3 for critical buckling The area of reinforcement and computation of ly provided by a stiffener may include an area ofcylinder and cone plate equal to O.7e(t WAGE + t, VAD where Fi; = Rp feos a This approach can be used in designing the junction of two cones having different slopes, except that H would be the difference between the horizontal components of the axial loads in the two cones. (6-16) Circumferential Stiffeners A stiffener is required at the top of the stack, also intermediate ring stiffeners are required to prevent deformation of the stack shell under wind pressure and to provide structural resistance to negative dratt. Spacing of intermediate stiffener L, is: b= 00 / P To insure a nominal size of intermediate stiffener, the spacing is limited within 1.5 times the stack diameter. Intermediate stiffeners should meet the following minimum requirements: 7 S, = PhsiD® (ins) (5-18) 1100F ty = Pal (nt) (5-19) 8E A, = PaberD (ina (620) Fe To satisfy the requirements of the above intermediate stiffener design formulae a portion of the stack equal to 1.1f YDat may be included. Breeching Opening The breeching opening should be as small as consistent with operating requirements with a maximum width of 20,/3. The opening must be reinforced vertically to replace the area of material removed increased by the ratio of D./C. Therefore, each vertical stiffener on each side of the opening should have a cross- sectional area of: WitD, 2c Each vertical stiffener in conjunction with a portion of the liner shell would be designed as a column. Each stiffener should extend far enough above and below the opening to develop its strength. Horizontal reinforcement should be provided by a ring girder above and below the opening. These girders should be designed as fixed-end beams to Carty the load across the opening above and below. The span in bending is the width W between the side column, but the girders should encircle the stack to preserve circularity at the opening. To form each ring Girder, stiffener rings should be placed to act as top As (621) and bottom flanges. The shell of the stack will serve : as the web. Each ring girder must be capable of carrying a uniform distributed load, in terms of pounds per inch of arch W’, of: wet aM (22) wD, ADE ‘The bending moment in the girder is: Mq = WW? (5-23) Iq 12 (5-23) Allowable bending stresses may be chosen using AISC rules. Base Plates In addition to bending stresses due to bending loads, the stack base plate must resist ring tension due to the horizontal component of the base cone if one is used. Maximum ring tension should be limited to 10,000 psi to account for secondary bending stresses in the base cone. This value may be varied upward depending upon the extent of secondary stress evaluation. Tension should be checked at the minimum cross-section occurring at the anchor bolt holes or at a weld joint where 85% or 100% efficiency may be assumed. A base plate area may be calculated by the following equation: wee VD,tana. 20,000E, A (5-24) a o o tng grde ; F + r a ! , ‘ein } a__ coma] 2 | a (Fig. 5-4) FF (Fig. 5-4) Figure 5-3. Elevation of Stack. vdRX ARAMA RASA AIH OT UCT a is tM ee ke eee eT UT we ao da ma Figure 5-4. Horizontal Section Through Opening. (Section A-A, ig. 53) For Ro from . Base plate thickness may be determined by using AISC formulae and allowable bending stresses. Anchor Bolts Minimum diameter = 17%" Maximum spacing of anchor bolts = 5'-6" Maximum tension at root of threads = 18,000 psi Each bolt should be made to resist a total tension in pounds of: T ae an (#/Bolt) (5-25) N= # of AB ‘A suggested design procedure for anchor bolt brackets is covered in Part VIL 0017 through F,/11600 al oO 4930 ‘5568 6206 6844 7482 8120 8758 35 4878 §502 6124 6744 7362 7979 8594 70 ‘4722 5303 5876 6443 7003. «| «7556 8101 122.5 4293 4755 5196 5616 6015, 6392 6747 Table 5-1 F, Allowable Compressive Stress (F, = 36 ksi) 31For #/R, from F,/11600 to .01 WRo>] 003104 | 00425 ] 0054 00685] 0077 | 00885 ‘00999 Kur 0 9084 10128 | ti1e2 | 12186 | 13290 | 14264 15298 175 9049 10073 | 11095 | i216 | 13136 | 14155 15173 36 e017 9908 tos95 | 11888 | 12855 | 13629 14797 52.5 8695 9634 tose2 | 11480 | 12987 | 19284 44171 70 8386 9250 tooss | 10928 | 11732 | 12523 13295 87.5 7988 8756 9496 10207 | 10889 | 11543 12168 105 7501 8182 9331 10345 10791 1225 6926 7439 8297 8930 140 6262 6616 7193 7238 1875 5510 5683 8769 5769 S769 175 4670 4673 4673 4673 4673 Table 5-2 F. Allowable Compressive Stress (F, = 36 ksi) For #/R, from .01 to .04 wR] 01 015 «| (02 025 03 035 04 KUr | 0 15300 | 15750 | 16200 | 16680 | 17100 | 17550 | 18000 175 15175 | 15617 | 16060 | 16502 | 16044 | 17388 | 17827 35 14798 | 15219 | 15638 | 16087 | 16474 | 16891 17307 52.5 14173 | 14556 | 14936 | 15315 | 15692 | 16067 | 16440 70 13296 | 19627 | 19054 | 14277 | 14597 | 14914 | 15227 875 i269 | t2ag2 | 12690 | 12042 | 13189 | 13431 13666 105 1o7e2 | 10972 | 11146 | 11311 | 11468 | 11618 | 11760 122.5 9163 9247 9320 9383 2435 9476 140 7302 7308 7302 7302 7302 7302 1575 5769 | 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769 175 4673, 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 MURo> 04 Fa = 5 x Fy x KO Table 5-3 F, Allowable Compressive Stress (F, 36 ksi) Dotted lines are an indicator at which point C’e> KLir 32 { 4 POR eg a a a ak" ad or yr a a oe ZATAA TAHT RTARTA References 4. M.S. Ozker and J.O. Smith, “Factors Influencing the Dynamic Behavior of Tall Stacks Under the ‘Action of Winds,” Trans. ASME Vol. 78, 1956, pp. 1981-1391. 2. P. Price, “Suppression of the Fluid-Induced Vibration of Circular Cylinders,” Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 82, EM3, Paper No. 1030, 1956, p. 22. 8, WL. Dickey and G.B. Woodruff, "The Vibration of Steel Stacks," Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 80, 1954, p. 20. 4. T. Sarpkaya and C.J. Garison, "Vortex Formation and Resistance in Unsteady Flow,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 30, Trans. ASME, Vol. 85, Series E, 1963, pp. 16-24. 5. AWW. Martis, “A Review on Vortex Streets, Periodic Wakes, and Induced Vibration Phenomena,” Journal of Basic Engineering, Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 86, 1964, pp. 185-196, 6. J. Penzien, “Wind Induced Vibration of Cylindrical'Structures,” Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 83, EM 1 Paper No. 1141, January, 1957, p. 17. 7. W. Weaver,"\Wind-Induced Vibrations in Antenna Members,"” Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 127, Part 41, 1962, pp. 679-704. 8. C. Scruton and D. Walshe, ‘A Means of Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures, with Circular or Nearly Circular Cross-Section,” NPL/Aero/335, October 1957. 9. C. Scruton, D. Walshe and L. Woodgate, “The ‘Aerodynamic Investigation for the East Chimney Stack of the Rugeley Generating Station,” NPLiAero/352. A. Roshko, “On the Development of Turbulent Wakes from Vortex Streets,” NACA Report 1191, 1954. A. Roshko, "On The Drag and Shedding Frequency of Two-Dimensional Bluff Bodies,” NACA Technical Note 3169, July 1954. N. Delany and N. Sorensen, ‘‘Low-Speed Drag of Cylinders of Various Shapes,” NCA Technical Note 3038, November, 1953. 33 13, 14, 16. 16. 17. 18, 19, at. 22, 23. 24, |. Gaylord and Gaylord, G.B. Woodruff and J. Kozok, “Wind Forces on Structures: Fundamental Considerations, "” Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper No. 1709, 1958, p. 13, F.B. Farquaharson, “Wind Forces Structures: ‘Structures Subject Oscillations,” Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper 1712, 1958, p.13, ASCE Transaction Paper #3269 ("Wind Forces on Structure”). C.F. Cowdrey and J.A. Lewes, "Drag Measurements at High Reynolds Numbers of a Circular Cylinder Fitted with Three Helical Strakes,” NPL/Aero/384, July 1959. L. Woodgate and J. Maybrey, '‘Further Experiments on the Use of Helical Strakes for Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures with Circular or Near Circular Cross-Section, NPL/Aero/381, July 1959. A. Roshko, “On the Wake and Drag Blut Bodies,” presented at Aerodynamics Sessions, Twenty-Second Annual Meeting, IAS, New York, N.Y., January, 1954. J.0.Smith and J.H. MoCarthy, “Wind Versus Tall Stacks," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 87, January, 1965, pp. 38-41 structural Engines Handbook.” 2nd Edition, Chapter 26. R. Stuar Ill, A.R. Fugini, A. DeVaul, Pittsburgh- Jes Moines Corp. Research Report #98528, “Design of Allowable Compressive Stress Cylindrical or Conical Plates, AWWA D100, May, 1981 Roger L. Brockenbrough, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Corp. Research Report 98030, “Determination of The Critical Buckling Stress of Cylindrical Plates Having Low t/R Values." October 5, 1960. Tom Buckwalter, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Corp. Supplement to RP 98030, "‘Determination of the Critical Buckling Stress in a Cylinder Having a UR of 0.00426," December 20, 1960. AISC 1989 “Specification for Structural Stee! Buildings — Allowable Stress Design and Plastic Design.”FRR EMER eRe Rw RePart VI Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe Lin@S set design of supports for horizontal cylindrical shells where a complete ring girder is used. There are many installations where a horizontal tank, pressure vessel, or pipe line is supported by a saddle extending less than 180° around the lower part of the cylinder. The effects of vertical deflection Of the cylinder and the concentration of stress, around the horn of the saddle, which result in a T here is considerable information available on different distribution of stress in the pipe or vessel wall from that encountered with a full ring support, are discussed in the following paper by L.P. Zick. It includes some revisions of and additions to the original paper published in “'The Welding Journal Research Supplement”, September, 1951, and reprinted in ‘Pressure Vessel and Piping Design — Collected Papers 1927-1959", published by ASME in, 1960. Original paper published in September 1951 “THE WELDING JOURNAL RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT.” This paper contains revisions and additions to the original paper based upon questions raised as to intent and coverage. Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports Approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various conditions and design of stiffening for vessels which require it by LP. Zick INTRODUCTION The design of horizontal cylindrical vessels with dished heads to resist internal pressure is covered by existing codes. However, the method of support is left pretty much up to the designer. in general the cylindrical shell is made a uniform thickness which is determined by the maximum circumferential stress due to the internal pressure. Since the longitudinal stress is only one-half of this circumferential stress, these vessels have available a beam strength which makes the two-saddle support system ideal for a wide range of proportions. However, certain limitations are necessary to make designs consistent with the intent of the code. The purpose of this paper is to indicate the approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various locations. Knowing these stresses, it is possible to determine LP. Zick isa former Chiat Engineer for the Chicago Bridge & iron 0,, Oak Brook, I which vessels may be designed for internal pressure alone, and to design structurally adequate and economical stiffening for the vessels which require it, Formulas are developed to cover various conditions, and a chart is given which covers support designs for pressure vessels made of mild steel for storage of liquid weighing 42 Ib. per cu. ft. HISTORY In a paper’ published in 1933 Herman Schorer pointed out that a length of cylindrical shell supported by tangential end shears varying proportionately to the sine of the central angle measured from the top of the vessel can support its own metal weight and the full contained liquid weight without circumferential bending moments in the shell. To complete this analysis, rings around the entire circumference are required at the supporting points to transfer these shears to the foundation without distorting the cylindrical shell. Discussions of ‘Schorer’s paper by H.C. Boardman and others gavegage test set up on 30,000 gal. propane tank. approximate solutions for the hai full condition When a ring of uniform cross section is supported on two vertical posts, the full condition governs the design of the ring if the central angle between the post intersections with the ring is less than 126°, and the half-full condition governs if this angle is more than 126°. However, the full condition governs the design of rings supported directly in or adjacent to saddles, Mr. Boardman’s discussion also pointed out that the heads may substitute for the rings provided the supports are near the heads. His unpublished paper has been used successfully since 1941 for vessels supported on saddles near the heads. His method of analysis covering supports near the heads is included in this paper in a slightly modified form. Discussions of Mr. Schorer’s paper also gave successful and semi-successtul examples of uristiffened cylindrical shells supported on saddles, but an analysis is lacking. The semi-successtul examples indicated that the shells had actually slumped down over the horns of the saddles while being filled with liquid, but had rounded up again when internal pressure was applied. Testing done by others®.? gave very useful results, in the ranges of their respective tests, but the investigators concluded that analysis was highly indeterminate. In recent years the author has participated in strain gage surveys of several large vessels.* A typical test setup is shown in Fig. 6-1 In this paper an attempt has been made to produce an approximate analysis involving certain ‘empirical assumptions which make the theoretical analysis closely approximate the test results. Table 6-1 — Values of Coefficients in Formulas for Various Support Conditions r Maximum Circumt. Adaitional ~—«-Ring—=—_Riing stifeners___‘Tension ‘Saddle tong. bending Tangent. stress top ——shea’_-=—=—compres. rcum®. Direct across angle, stress, shear, of saddle, stress, _— in shell,_—_bending, stress, sadle, 8 Min. Ky" ke Kot Ke Ks Ks K Ke Shell unstiffoned 120° 0.63 (AL. 1a 0.0528 0.760 0.204 180° 0.55 (AL 0.799 0.0316 0.673 0.260 Shell stiffened by head, A < R/2 120° 1.0 (A 0.880 0.0132 0.401 0.760 0.204 150° 1.0 (AL 0.485 0.0079 0.297 0.673 0.260 Shell stifened by ring in plane of saddle 120° 0.23 (AL = 0.193) 0.319 0.0528 © 0.340 0.208 150° O28 (AL = 0.193) 0.319 3 0.0316 0.303 (0.260 Sholl stiffened by rings adjacent to saddle 320° 023 (AL = 0.193) 1.171 0.0132 0.760 (0.0577 0,283 (0.204 150° 0.23 (AL = 0.193) 0.799 0.0073 0.673 00353-0228 0.260 “Seo Fig. 65, which pos K, against A or values of, covesponding t values FAL ol ated hb +500 Fig. 67a 4 4 Q wf w " v r yr’ e 7 - r HC Cc Ye Ye he he 1 Ne % 2% % ‘SHELL THICKNESS, f, IN INCHES BASIS OF DESIGN ‘4-205 GRADE € CAROON STEEL Caue wrs a2 CBs PER CUFT EXAMPLE. SHOWN BY ARROWS. aes i USE ie" Sapours Creo} a a7e on tess ro3/éS Caeck Head PL THR TANGENT LENGTH, LIN FEET 88 a5 Cao Alea, t 155 Az fe wcs| ‘SUPPORTS wiz éle ‘uproar. Wo | SACD LES Al=.29 “Koo pines [ar su pron} ‘20 130 140 Figure 6-2. Location and type of support for horizontal pressure vessels on two supports. SELECTION OF SUPPORTS When a oylindrical vessel acts as its own carrying beam across two symmetrically placed saddle supports, one-half of the total load will be carried by each support. This would be true even if one support should settle more than the other. This would also be true if a differential in temperature or if the axial restraint of the supports should cause the vessel acting as a beam to bow up or down at the center. This fact alone gives the two-support system preference over a multiple-supporting system. The most economical location and type of support generally depend upon the strength of the vessel to be supported and the cost of the supports, or of the supports and additional stiffening if required. In a few eases the advantage of placing fittings and piping in the bottom of the vessel beyond the saddle will govern the location of the saddle. The pressure-vessel codes limit the contact angle of each saddle to a minimum of 120° except for very small vessels. In certain cases a larger contact angle should be used. Generally the saddle width is not a controlling factor; so a nominal width of 12 in. for steel or 15 in, for concrete may be used. This width 37 should be increased for extremely heavy vessels, and in certain cases it may be desirable to reduce this width for small vessels. Thin-wall vessels of large diameter are best supported near the heads provided they can support their own weight and contents between supports and provided the heads are stiff enough to transfer the load to the saddles. Thick-wall vessels too long to act as simple beams are best supported where the maximum longitudinal bending stress in the shell at the saddles is nearly equal to the maximum longitudinal bending stress at mid-span, provided the shell is stiff enough to resist this bending and to transfer the load to the saddles. Where the stiffness required is not available in the shell alone, ring stiffeners must be added at or near the saddles. Vessels must also be rigid enough to support normal external loads such as wind, Figure 6-2 indicates the most economical locations and types of supports for large steel horizontal pressure vessels on two supports. A liquid weight of 42 Ib, per cu. ft. was used because it is representative of the volatile liquids usually associated with pressure vessels.(2) owen cuca me FT=Ls Figure 6-3. Cylindrical shell acting as beam over supports. Where liquids of different weights are to be stored or where different materials are to be used, a rough design may be obtained from the chart and this design should be checked by the applicable formulas outlined in the following sections. Table 6-1 outlines the coefficients to be used with the applicable formulas for various support types and locations. The notation used is listed at the end of the paper under the heading Nomenclature. MAXIMUM LONGITUDINAL STRESS. The cylindrical shell acts as a beam over the two supports to resist by bending the uniform load of the vessel and its contents. The equivalent length of the vessel (see Figs. 6-2 and 6-3) equals L + 4H/3, closely, and the total weight of the vessel and its contents equals 20. However, it can be shown that the liquid weight in a hemispherical head adds only a shear load at its junction with the cylinder. This can be approximated for heads where H 0.005 and the vessel Is designed to be fully stressed under internal pressure. *S00 also par UG-28 (o) ASME Code Section Vill Di TANGENTIAL SHEAR STRESS Figure 6-4 (d) shows the total shear diagram for vessels supported in saddles away from the heads. Where the shell is held round, the tangential shearing stresses vary directly with the sine of the central angle ®, as shown in Section B-B of Fig. 6-4, and the maximum occurs at the equator. However, if the shell is free to deform above the saddle, the tangential shearing stresses act on a reduced effective cross section and the maximum ‘occurs at the horn of the saddle. This approximated by assuming the shears continue to vary as the sin © but only act on twice the are given by (@/2_+ B/20) or (x - a) as shown in Section A-A of Fig. 6-4. The summation of the vertical ‘components of these assumed shears must equal the maximum total shear. ‘The maximum tangential shear stress will occur on the center side of the saddle provided the saddle is beyond the influence of the head but not past the quarter point of the vessel. Then with saddles away from the heads the maximum shear stress in Ib. per given by g = KO (= 2A a (tai) 3 Values of Ks listed in Table 6-1 for various types of supports are obtained from the expressions given for the maximum shears in Fig. 6-4, and the appendix. Figure 6-4 (indicates the total shear diagram for vessels supported on saddles near the heads. In this, case the head stifens the shell in the region of the saddle. This causes most of the tangential shearing stress to be carried across the saddle to the head, and then the load is transferred back to the head side of the saddle by tangential shearing stresses applied to an arc slightly larger than the contact angle of the saddle. Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates this shear distribution; that is, the shears vary as the sin ® and act downward above angle a and act upward below angle a. The summation of the downward vertical components must balance the summation of the upward vertical components. Then with saddles at the heads the maximum shear stress, in Ib. per sq. in. is given by sg = K:Q tt in the shell, or Sp = HQ ty in the head. Values of Kz given in Table 6-1 for different size saddles at the heads are obtained from the expression given for the maximum shear stress in Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 and the appendi The tangential shear stress should not exceed 0.8 of the allowable tension stress. CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT HORN OF SADDLE In the plane of the saddle the load must be transferred from the cylindrical shell to the saddle, ‘As was pointed out in the previous section the tangential shears adjust their distribution in order to make this transfer with a minimum amount of circumferential bending and distortion. The evaluation of these shears was quite empirical except for the case of the ring stiffener in the plane of the saddle. Evaluation of the circumferential bending stresses is even more difficult. Starting with a ring in the plane of the saddle, the shear distribution is known, The bending moment at any point above the saddle may be computed by anyaxa MOMENTS Mg Figure 6-6 Circumferential bending-moment diagram, ring in plane of saddle. of the methods of indeterminate structures. If the ring is assumed uniform in cross section and fixed at the horns of the saddles, the moment, Mg, in in.-Ib, at any point A is given by: Ma = 2 cos + F sing - 3808 088 _ 1 feos @ ~ SDB) x Be ma (Beep) a= 6(SnB) + 2coerp ipod) This is shown schematically in Fig. 6-6. Note that p must be in radians in the formula. The maximum moment occurs when ® = B. Substituting for & and Ky for the expression in the brackets divided by x, the maximum circumferential bending moment in in.-lb. is ‘My = KeQr When the shell is supported on a saddle and there is no ring stiffener the shears tend to bunch up near the horn of the saddle, so that the actual maximum circumferential bending moment in the shell is considerably less than My, as calculated above for a fing stiffener in the plane of the saddle, The exact analysis is not known; however, stresses calculated fon the assumption that a wide width of shell is effective in resisting the hypothetical moment, Mp, agree conservatively with the results of strain'gage surveys. It was found that this effective width of shell should be equal to 4 times the shell radius or equal to one-half the length of the vessel, whichever is smaller. It should be kept in mind that use of this seemingly excessive width of shell is an artifice whereby the hypothetical moment My is made to render calculated stresses in reasonable accord with actual stresses. ‘When the saddles are near the heads, the shears ‘arty to the head and are then transferred back to the saddle. Again the shears tend to concentrate o- Plot of circumferential bending- moment constant, Ks. near the horn of the saddle, Because of the relatively short stiff members this transfer reduces the circumferential bending moment still more. To introduce the effect of the head the maximum moment is taken as My = K,Qr where Ky equals Ks when A/R is greater than 1 Values of K, are plotted in Fig. 6-7 using the assumption that this moment is divided by four when AMR is less than 0.5. The change in shear distribution also reduces the direct load at the horns of the saddle; this is assumed to be 0/4 for shells without added stiffeners. However, since this load exists, the effective width of the shell which resists this direct load is limited to that portion which is stiffened by the contact of the saddle. It is assumed that St each side of the saddle acts with the portion directly over the saddle. See Appendix B. Internal pressure stresses do not add directly to the local bending stresses, because the shell rounds Up under pressure. Therefore the maximum circumferential combined stress in the shell is compressive, occurs at the horn of the saddle, and is due to local bending and direct stress. This ‘maximum combined stress in Ib. per sq. in. is given by - 34:2 itL> eR 8 = -7 2 _ ato + 10) 2 Sy = - —2_ _ 12K,0R 1+ < aR ab + 10) Le “Note: For mutiple supports L = Twice the length of portion of shal carried by sad ML BR use t3t formula It seems reasonable to allow this combined stress to be equal to 1.50 times the tension allowable provided the compressive strength of the material equals the tensile strength. In the first place when the region at the hor of the saddle yields, it acts as a hinge, and the upper portion of the sheli continues to resist the loads as a two-hinged arch. There would be litle distortion until a second point near the equator started to yield. Secondly, if rings are added rere eee eee1 to reduce this local stress, a local longitudinal bending stress occurs at the edge of the ring under pressure.* This local stress would be 1.8 times the design ring stress if the rings were infinitely rigid. Weld seams in the shell should not be located near the horn of the saddle where the maximum moment occurs. EXTERNAL LOADS Long vessels with very small t+ values are susceptible to distortion from unsymmetrical external loads such as wind. It is assumed that vacuum relief valves will be provided where required; so it is not necessary to design against a full vacuum. However, experience indicates that vessels designed to withstand 1 Ib. per sq. in. external pressure can successfully resist external loads encountered in normal service. ‘Assume the external pressure is 1 Ib. per sq. in. in the formulas used to determine the sloping portion of the external pressure chart in the current A.S.M.E. Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Then when the vessel is unstiffened between the heads, the maximum length in feet between stiffeners (the heads) is given approximately by E vA t ) L+ 34H 52.2 |r When ring stiffeners are added to the vessel at the supports, the maximum length in feet between stiffeners is given by L- 2A Evrnyjty 2 (7) ADDITIONAL STRESS IN HEAD USED AS STIFFENER When the head stiffness is utilized by placing the saddle close to the heads, the tangential shear stresses cause an additional stress in the head which is additive to the pressure stress. Referring to Section C-C of Fig. 6-4, it can be seen that the tangential shearing stresses have horizontal components which would cause varying horizontal tension stresses across the entire height of the head if the head were a flat disk. The real action in a dished head would be a combination of ring action and direct stress; however, for simplicity the action on a flat disk is considered reasonable for design purposes. ‘Assume that the summation of the horizontal ‘components of the tangential shears is resisted by the vertical cross section of the flat head at the center line, and assume that the maximum stress is 1.5 times the average stress. Then the maximum additional stress in the head in Ib. per sq. in. is given by s, = 22 sin? a an, (aaa + smecoea 7 3, = KO ty a send aSTeT aE) Figure 6-8. Loads and reactions on saddles. This stress should be combined with the stress in the head due to internal pressure. However, it is recommended that this combined stress be allowed to be 25% greater than the allowable tension stress because of the nature of the stress and because of the method of analysis. RING COMPRESSION IN SHELL OVER SADDLE Figure 6-8 indicates the saddle reactions, assuming the surfaces of the shell and saddle are in frictionless contact without attachment. The sum of the assumed tangential shears on both edges of the saddle at any point A is also shown in Fig. 6-8 These forces acting an the shell band directly over the saddle cause ring compression in the shell band. Since the saddle reactions are radial, they pass through the center O. Taking moments about point O indicates that the ring compression at any point A is given by the summation of the tangential shears between a and ©. This ring compression is maximum at the bottom, where © = x. Again, a width of shell equal to St each side of the saddle plus the width of the saddle is assumed to resist this force. See Appendix B. Then the stress in Ib. per sq. in. due to ring compression is given by =O (1+ cosa +105 | 7a + sina cosa or Ss = Keo — “ib + 102) The ring compression stress should not exceed one-half of the compression yield point of the material WEAR PLATES The stress may be reduced by attaching a wear plate somewhat larger than the surface of the saddle to the shell directly over the saddle. The thickness ¢ Used in the formulas for the assumed cylindrical shell thickness may be taken as (t; + f,) for Ss (where t, = shell thickness and t, = wear plate thickness), provided the width of the added plate equals at least (6+10t,) (see Appendix B).The thickness ¢ may be taken as (t, + t,) in the formula for S., provided the plate extends 1/10 inches above the horn of the saddle near the head, and provided the plate extends between the saddle and an adjacent stiffener ring. (Also check for S2 stress in the shell at the equator.) The thickness t may be taken as (t, + t) in the first term of the formula for Sz, provided the plate extends 7/10 inches above the horn of the saddle near the head. However, (t;? + t?) should be substituted for f2 in the second term. The combined circumferential stress (S;) at the top edge of the wear plate should also be checked using the shell plate thickness ¢, and the width of the wear plate. When checking at this point, the value of Ky should be reduced by extrapolation in Fig. 6-7 assuming 0 ‘equal to the central angle of the wear plate but not more than the saddle angle plus 12° DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS When the saddles must be located away from the heads and when the shell alone cannot resist the circumferential bending, ring stiffeners should be added at or near the supports. Because the size of rings involved does not warrant further refinement, the formulas developed in this paper assume that the added rings are continuous with a uniform cross section. The ring stiffener must be attached to the shell, and the portion of the shell reinforced by the sliffener plus a width of shell equal to St each side may be assumed to act with each stiffener. The ring radius is assumed equal to r. When n stiffeners are added directly over the saddle as shown in Fig. 6-4 (o), the tangential shear distribution is known. The equation for the resulting bending moment at any point was developed previously, and the resulting moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6-6. The maximum moment occurs at the horn of the saddle and is given in in.!Ib. for each stiffener by K, My; : n Knowing the maximum moment My and the moment at the top of the vessel, M,, the direct load at the point of maximum moment may be found by statics Then the direct load at the horn of the saddle is given in pounds by Qy__Bsin x | 2 — cos B) 2088 __ (My — M,) AY — cos B) Q nPy = esp] or Pp = Ky If n stiffeners are added adjacent to the saddle as shown in Fig. 6-4 (b), the rings will act together and each will be loaded with shears distributed as in Section B-B on one side but will be supported on the saddle side by a shear distribution similar to that 42 Figure 6-9. Circumferential bending-moment diagram, stiffeners adjacent to saddle. shown in Section -A. Conservatively, the support may be assumed to be tangential and concentrated at the horn of the saddle. This is shown ‘schematically in Fig. 6-9; the resulting bending- moment diagram is also ‘indicated. This bending moment in in.ib. at any point A above the horn of the saddle is given by { E=8 - osino ~ sin B cos @ fae + (x - 1) cot } For the range of saddle angles considered, M, is maximum near the equator where = p. This moment and the direct stress may be found using a procedure similar to that used for the stiffener in the plane of the saddle. Substituting p for and Ke for the expression in the brackets divided by 2x, the maximum moment in each ring adjacent to the saddle is given in inb. by ™, lp = Ky 7 Knowing the moments M, and M,, the direct load at p may be found by statics and is given by e,= 2] pene coop] - ‘xn | 2(1 — cos p) 0082 (Me + M) Ht = cos p) or K,9 ‘ a 1 Then the maximum combined stress due to liquid ¥ load in each ring used to stifen the shell at or near the saddle Is given in Ib. per sq. in. by 1 8) = - KQ Kor : na * le where a = the area and /c =the section modulus of the cross section of the composite ring stiffener. When a ring is attached to the inside surface of the shell directly over the saddle or to the outside surface of the shell adjacent to the saddle, the " maximum combined stress is compression at the .shell. However, if the ring is attached to the opposite surface, the maximum combined stress may be either compression in the outer flange due to liquid or tension at the shell due to liquid and internal pressure, The maximum combined compression stress due to liquid should not exceed one-half of the compression yield point of the material. The maximum combined tension stress due to liquid and pressure should not exceed the allowable tension stress of the material DESIGN OF SADDLES Each saddle should be rigid enough to prevent the separation of the horns of the saddle; therefore the saddle should be designed for a full water load. The horn of the saddle should be taken at the intersection of the outer edge of the web with the top flange of a steel saddle. The minimum section at the low point of either a steel or concrete saddle must resist a total force, F, in pounds, equal to the summation of the horizontal components of the reactions on one-half of the saddle. Then Foy! £088 stein ka & — B + sin B cos B ‘The effective section resisting this load should be limited to the metal cross section within a distance equal to 3 below the shell. This cross section should be limited to the reinforcing steel within the distance 1/3 in concrete saddles. The average stress should not exceed two-thirds of the tension allowable of the material. A low allowable stress is recommended because the effect of the ‘circumferential bending in the shell at the horn of the saddle has been neglected. ‘The upper and lower flanges of a steel saddle should be designed to resist bending over the web(s), and the web(s) should be stiffened according to the A.L.S.C. Specifications against buckling. The contact area between the shell and concrete saddle or between the metal saddle and the concrete foundation should be adequate to support the bearing loads. Where exireme movements are anticipated or where the saddles are welded to the shell, bearings or rockers should be provided at one saddle. Under normal conditions a sheet of elastic waterproof material at least % in. thick between the shell and a concrete saddle will suffice. Nomenclature Q = load on one saddle, Ib. L = tangent length of the vessel, ft. A = distance from center line of saddle to tangent line, ft. depth of head, ft radius of cylindrical shell, f. radius of cylindrical shell, in. thickness of cylindrical shell, in. Total load = 20. ~ > 43 th = thickness of head, in. = width of saddle, in. F = force across bottom of saddle, Ib. S,, Sy etc. = calculated stresses, Ib. per sq. in. K;, Kz, etc. = dimensionless constants for various support conditions. Mo, Ms, etc. = circumferential bending moment due to tangential shears, in-b. angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees. 2 180 - 4) = central angle from vertical to horn of saddle, in degrees (except as noted). (848) = 2/584 30), 20 = arc, in 70 (2° 6) ~ sol 12 radians, of unstiffened shell in plane of saddle effective against bending. S rat Fi +B.) = the central angle, in radians, 180 20 from the vertical to the assumed point of maximum shear in unstiffened shell at saddle. © = any central angle measured from the vertical, in radians. © = central angle from the upper vertical to the point ‘of maximum moment in ring located adjacent to saddle, in radians. E = modulus of elasticity of materia, Ib. per sq. in. Yo = section modulus, in.> n= number of stiffeners at each saddle. a. = cross-sectional area of each composite stiffener, 3q. in Py, Py = the direct load in Ib. at the point of maximum moment in a stiffening ring. Bibliography 1. Schorer, Herman, “Design of Large Pipe Lines,” A.S.C.E, Trans., 98, 101 (1933), and discussions of this paper by Boardman, H.C., and others. 2, Wilson, Wilbur M., and Olson, Emery D. of Cylindrical Shells,” Univ. ill Bull. No. 331 3. Hartenberg, R.S., "The Strength and Stiffness of Thin Cylindrical Shells on Saddle Supports," Doctorate Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1941. 4. Zick, LP., and Carlson, C.E., "Strain Gage Technique Employed in Studying Propane Tank Stresses Under Service Conditions,” Steel, 86-88 (Apr. 12, 1948). 5. U.S, Bureau of Reclamation, Penstock Analysis and Stiffener Design. Boulder Canyon Project Final Reports, Part V. Technical Investigations, Bulletin 5. “Test Appendix The formulas developed by outline in the text are developed mathematically here under headings corresponding to those of the text. The pertinent assumptions and statements appearing in the text have not been repeated.Maximum Longitudinal Stress Referring to Fig. 6-3, the bending moment in ft-Ib. at the saddle is 2Q_[2HA , AP _ fe — He rela 2 1-44R-8 aay _ Lo 2AL 14 4H aL Referring to Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 the centroid of the effective arc = r ane ‘if 8 equals any central angle measured from the bottom, the moment of inertia is arte §* ( cost 8 - 2.008 8A + SOA) a = 2sinSsin A , sin? A 75 2ret [1/2 sin 8 cos 8 + 5 2 a a ly ft [sin a cos a + a - 2 SIA The section modulus for the tension side of the equivalent beam is 2 ‘A + sin A cos A - 298 rt A sin A — cos 6 a Then the stress in the shell at the saddle in Ib. per sq. in. is given by 1-4, Ha g, = 90] 4a/,__'7E* 2a), art | L 1+ 4H 3k n{ S14 — cos a A+ sind cosa - 25028 i or gy = 9K.QL xt where x{ 88.4 ~ cos Ke A 4 + sin A cos 4 - 2 SEA 1-44 Rome i LAL at 3L 44 The bending moment in ft-Ib. at the mid-span is 2Q_[ = 2a? _ 2HA_ At, RE He) +H 3 Sees + 14 2— a ue 4 1+ 3L rt, and -4 The section modulus = 5, = 3K:L net where 14 2lat Ke WH 3L 1+ Tangential Shear Stress Section 8-8 of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the shears, adjacent to a stiffener. The summation of the vertical components of the shears on each side of the stiffener must equal the load on the saddle Q. Referring to Fig. 6-4 (d) the sum of the shears on both sides of the stiffener at any point is Q sin @/ar. Then the summation of the vertical components is given by I: ‘ [ ‘The maximum shear stress occurs at the equator when sin ® = 1 and K = tx = 0.319, Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the shears in an unstiffened shell. Again this summation of the vertical components of the shears on each side of the saddle must equal the load on the saddle, Then the total shear at any point is Qsin® nn — a + sina cos a) and the summation of the vertical components is given by {, Osin? © gy - 20 1 7 © _ sin @ cos ® 2 2 Q ° 2[ @ ~ sin @ cos & = z-a + sina cosa Iq ‘The maximum shear occurs where ® = a and Ky sina. n-a+sinacosa Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates the shear transfer across the saddle to the head and back to the head side of the saddle. Here the summation of the vertical components of the shears on arc a acting downward must equal the summation of the vertical Wa ofXx BERS KX AG xX OTT TN TCUTCTCUTY “TT ‘component of the shears on the lower arc (x ~ a) acting upward. Then 20% _Qsin? Opa, = ow 2% _Ossin? oe = sinacosa_ | pag ma =a + sina cosa or 20 inacosa tlate+mneome! | Finally Q (@ - sina cos a) = 9 (a - sina cos a) ® z ‘The maximum shear occurs when #2 = a and a scons | ina [ o x Lx-a+sinacosa Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle See under the heading Design of Ring Stiffeners. Additional Stress in Head Used as Stiffener Referring to Section C-C of Fig. 6-4, the tangential shears have horizontal components which cause tension across the head. The summation of these components on the vertical axis is PSs ®; cos ©; rb; ~ on sinacosa | gq, = Ra + sina cosa a eabttoe ES} g site n-a+sinacosa Then assuming this oad is resisted by 2rt, and that the maximum stress is 1.5 times the average Kea ty am eee J Gain e082 a - sina cosa Sa where sin? a a + sina cos a Wear Plates The ring compression at any point in the shell over the saddle is given by the summation of the tangential shears over the arc = (® ~ a) shown in Section A-A or C-C of Fig. 6-4 or in Fig. 6-8. Then - JP 2822 ) roe - cos o Ra + sina cosa 45 Qsin b2do2 = ® Qsin o, =-¢? (poate = - Co gaat ane ma _ Q way sinacoea 2 [ The ring compression becomes a maximum in the shell at the bottom of the saddle. Or if ® = x this, expression becomes ri “| Design of Ring Stiffeners; Stiffener in Plane of Saddle Referring to Fig. 6-6, the arch above the horns of the saddle resists the tangential shear load. Assuming this arch fixed at the top of the saddles, the bending moment may be found using column analogy. If the arch is cut at the top, the static moment at any point A is __= cos @ + cosa _ ] a +sinacosa A+cosa ] xa +sinacosa Then 1+ cosa | ma +sinacosa Me = 26 ine ~ sin; cos 8 626 @ ~ sinto sin 8) 0, Jain o ain 0, cos ©, cep a] 1 = c80 - Sin] Then the M, /EI diagram is the load on the analogous column. The area of this analogous column is oregon ® BI sl Ha lec ed about the horizontal axis is a2 8 (oso - sna B ° Ea = Ei a 2[ Lonosno + Lo -2unean8 eam |P- Pe _ 2 9intp S| snp cosp + 6 ‘i ]vatues of A when 5 Hye 10 cs o & oS Oo Fe yp ww Oo wy w = 08 EPP rr rr eZ Y= o t Le 14 La i M2 1.9] oy Lo S a Kk CDS x Ky 8 8 6] we 2 6 4 is 4 = 2 4 4 2 a 1 HE 8s 8 RSS s A Hy= 10 a Me Ne oa NS, Og Sa Lo Wg Ne Ng 25 NO, 25 » values oF A WHEN R = 2H 4 Figure 6-5A. Plot of longitudinal bending-moment constant K,. . r The load on the analogous column is 221 2 6ing cosp + 3p - Ssin@B , Bsinep | ' neil 4 4 B 2 = 26 PMs a = 207 08/4 _ ~®5j r Qe = 228 of 17282 > 282] 4 Then the indeterminate moment is . Melo -sne ee, eme P.M 2 My af =Ssnh+Boosp_ El 2 2 Io a 2B rr Z| Banbows + — wanp + a and | I * 3 [% - seine + pcos] Denied sb Baie nel 1 ‘The moment about the horizontal axis is The distance from the neutral axis to point A is r iv Ye ~ sing 1 y= -2§P me ( owe 208 Ja = ven by («=e eo), bl Finally, the combined moment is given by r - 92 B [2008 @ ~ acost 0 ~ 6 sin & cos & - a nEI Jo My = - My +M, = 2) cos@ + 2 sino — ' im 2 y sinB (2 - 2cos ® - @ sin 0) J = B Sain + 2088 — 14 cos@ — SOB a ’ 26 2 B J - 24] asinw - cos asin - o- Sin@ cos , f El 4 4-6( SBP 4 2 cose p 9- 2 Se9%8 - Sb0z0 - sno - snd + ocosa) |? = Sin cosp + 1 - 2 (8B)? ; 4 2 B ° 6 B 46 )T [72 bw This is the maximum when ® = 8; then My = 2%} BSINB - Scop 4 98inB y erp 2 4 48 sos — 808 4-6 (sn) + 2 cose p B shoal +7 - 2 (any B B Finally My = KeQr Because of the symmetry the shear stress is zero at the top of the vessel; therefore, the direct load in the ring at the top of the vessel, P,, may be found by taking moments on the arc B about the horn of the saddle. Then (1 ~ cos pyr, = 2 1 - cos - Bsinp | - o-my =2 - - 1 - r= OL 1 aghttdiy | - artery Me The direct load, Py, at = 8, the point of maximum moment may be found by taking moments about the center. Then 14 +B) = IE ~ cos 8) = My ~ My) ‘Substituting the value above for P,, and solving for P, gives m= 9[ asin cos + + qty Me or Py = KO where ob] ey eM If the rings are adjacent to the saddle, Ke and K, may be found in a similar manner, except that the static structure would become the entire ring split at the top and loaded as indicated in Fig. 6-8. Kat il atten Bi = cos By a7 Design of Saddles ‘The summation of the horizontal components of the radial reactions on one-half of the saddle shown in Fig. 6-8 must be resisted by the saddle at @ = Then this horizontal force is given by Fx (7 On cos n & + cosfisin 9) gp = pan = B + sin B cos B) al = 112 sin? @ = cos @ cos [- x-B+sinBoosp Ig of 1 + oop — isnt 6] & — B + sin B cos B Ky = 1+ 00s B ~ 1/2 sint x — B + sin cosp Then The bending at the horn would change the saddle reaction distribution, and increase this horizontal force, Appendix B After the article had been published, certain refinements seemed desirable; therefore, the following has been added to take greater advantage of the inherent stifftess of these vessels. The methods outlined in the paper will give conservative results. ‘The effective width of shell has been limited to 10t in order to prepare the chart of Fig. 6-2. It has been showné that this effective width may be taken as 1.56 7%. That is, where St each side of the saddle or sliffener has been used, the more liberal value of 0.78 it each side could be used. The values plotted in Fig. 6-5 for Ky cover conservatively all types of heads between H = O and H = R. More liberal values are given in Fig. 6-5A for hemispherical and 2 to 1 ellipsoidal heads for values of H/L between 0 and 0.1. The minimum values of K; given in Table 6-1 have not been listed for specific values of A/L and H/L; so they are conservative. Specific minimum values of K, may be read from Fig. 6-5A,Part VII Anchor Bolt Chairs EEE hen anchor bolts are required at supports for a shell, chairs are necessary to tubular columns (less than 4 ft in diameter) may be an exception if the base plate is adequate to resist bending. Otherwise, chairs are always needed to minimize secondary bending in the shell For flat-bottom tanks, choose a bolt circle to just barely clear the bottom without notching it. For other structures, follow the minimum clearances shown in Fig. 7-1a. The designer must evaluate anchor bolt location for interference with base or bottom plate. Notation top-plate width, in., along shell top-plate length, in., in radial direction top-plate thickness, in. anchor-bolt diameter, in. anchor-bolt eccentricity, in. 0.886d + 0.572, based on a heavy hex nut clearing shell by 1/2 in. See Table 7-1 f= distance, in., from outside of top plate to edge of hole fnin = 2 + 118 g = distance, in., between vertical plates (preferred g=d +1) [Additional distance may be required for maintenance] n= chair height, in, i vertical-plate thickness, in. k = vertical-plate width, in. (average width for tapered plates) L— = column length, in, m = bottom or base plate thickness, in, P= design load, kips; or maximum allowable anchor-bolt load or 1.5 times actual bolt load, whichever is less 1 = least radius of gyration, in. R= nominal shell radius, in., either to inside or centerline of plate (radius normal to cone at bottom end for conical shells) stress at point, ksi shell or column thickness, in. 49 w = weld size (leg dimension), in. W_ = total load on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld Wy = horizontal load, kips per lin. of weld Wy = vertical load, kips per lin. in, of weld 8 = cone angle, degrees, measured from axis of cone Z ~~ = reduction factor Top Plate Critical stress in the top plate occurs between the hole and the free edge of the plate. For convenience ‘we can consider this portion of the top plate as a beam with partially fixed ends, with a portion of the total anchor bolt load distributed along part of the span. See Fig. 7-2 s a (0.3759 - 0.220) (7-41) or =| 2 @s75g - ve 4 ° [ 08759 oe | (72) Top plate may project radially beyond vertical plates as in Fig. 7-10, but no more than 1/2". Chair Height Chair must be high enough to distribute anchor bolt load to shell or column without overstressing it. if the anchor bolt were in line with the shell the problem would be simple — the difficulty lies in the bending caused by eccentricity of the anchor bolt with respect to the shell. Except for the case where a continuous ting is used at the top of chairs, maximum stress occurs in the vertical direction and is a combination of bending plus direct stress. Formulas which follow are approximations, based on the work of Bjilaard. g = Pop 1.92Z e (7-3) | 1.43 ht (aanayana Rt VRE{Anchor Bolt Nut {e+ Hote dia Table 7-1. Top-Plate Dimensions Based on anchor-bolt stresses up to 12 ksi for 1¥-in-dia bolts and 15 ksi for bolts 1% in. in diameter or larger; higher anchor bolt stresses may be used subject to designer's decision, si s . Top Plate Dimensions, in. | Bolt Load, kips Jo, alt 2 [emals P T wal] ae | aie [1.87 [0.734 194 . I tu [1_| 2% [a [2.09 0919 227 2 [ia[-s —[s [230/008 431 | 4 2m [tm [an [sm 12.52/18 568 tLe Ta (2) Typical Plan & Outside Views (b) Vertical Column, or Skirt (c) Flat Bottom Tank (d) Conical Skirt Figure 7-1. Anchor-Bolt Chairs. cor aio} et: Figure 7-2. Assumed Top-Plate Beam. 1.0 DY +10 t Where: Z = (4) ae ( vt Maximum recommended stress is 25 ksi. This is @ local stress occurring just above the top of the chair. Since it diminishes rapidly away from the chair, a higher than normal stress is justified but an increase for temporary loads, such as earthquake or wind is ot recommended. The following general guidelines are recommended. Minimum chair height h=6", except use h= 12” when base plate or bottom plate is 3/8” or thinner 50 ‘and where earthquake or winds over 100 mph must be considered. Maximum recommended chair height h = 3a. It chair height calculated is excessive, reduce ‘eccentricity e, if possible, or use more anchor bolts of a smaller diameter. Another solution is to use a continuous ring at top of chairs. If continuous ring is used, check for maximum stress in circumferential direction, considering the ring as though it were loaded with equally spaced concentrated loads equal to Pe/h. Portion of shell within 16¢ either side of the attachment may be counted as part of the ring. (Refer to Fig. 7-3) ‘Note that the base plate or bottom is also subjected to this same horizontal force, except inward instead of outward. This is true even if a continuous ring is not used around the top of the chairs — but it should never cause any very high stresses in the base, 50 we do not normally check it. However, it is a good thing to keep in mind in case you have a very light base ring. Vertical Side Plates Be sure top plate does not overhang side plate (as in Fig. 7-1d) by more than 1/2" radially Verticakplate thickness should be at least Imig = 112” of 0.04 (h=c), whichever is greater. ‘Another requirement is jk> P/25, where k is the average width if plate is tapered, These limits assure a maximum Lir of 86.6 and a maximum average stress in the side plates of 12.5, Ba, of Pe Pe — Figure 7-3. Chair with Continuous Ring at Top,ksi, even assuming no load was transmitted into the shell through the welds. Assembly of Chair For field erected structures, ship either the top plate or the entire chair loose for installation after the structure is siting over the anchor bolts. Where base plate is welded to skirt or column in shop, attach side plates in the shop and ship top plate loose for field assembly. See Fig. 7-4. Where base or bottom plate is not welded to shell in the shop, as for flat-bottom tanks and single pedestal tanks, shop attach side plates to top plates and then ship the assembly for field installation. When you do this, weld both sides at top of side plates so shrinkage will not pull side plate out of square. See Fig. 7-5 Welds between chair and shell must be strong enough to transmit load to shell. ¥4" minimum fillet welds as shown in Figs. 7-4 and 7-5 are nearly always adequate, but you should check them if you have a large anchor bolt with a low chair height. Seal welding may be desired for application in corrosive environments Assume a stress distribution as shown in Fig. 7-6 as though there were a hinge at bottom of chair. For the purpose of figuring weld size, the base or bottom plate is assumed to take horizontal thrust only, not moment. Note that loads are in terms of kips per inch of weld length, not in terms of kips per square inch stress. Critical stress occurs across the top of the chair. The total load per inch on the weld is the resultant of the vertical and horizontal loads. Figure 7-4. Typical Welding, Base Plate Shop Attached. WV Figure 7-5. Typical Welding, Base or Bottom Field Attached. W . Loads on Welds. Figure 7- Formulas may also be used for cones, although this underrates the vertical welds some. w, = —P 5) a+ 2h ed Pe. Wy = ——Pe___ 7-6) Gh + 0.667? ed We Ves We 7-7) For an allowable stress of 13.6 ksi on a fillet weld, the allowable load per lin. in. is 13.6 x 0.707 = 9.6 kips per in. of weld size. For weld size w, in., the allowable load therefore is 9.6w > W (7-8) Design References H. Bednar, “Pressure Vessel Design Handbook”, 1981, pp. 72-98. M.S. Troitsky, Tubular Steel Structures”, 1982, pp. 5-10 — 5-16. PP. Biilaard, “Stresses From Local Loadings In Cylindrical Pressure Vessels,” ASME Transactions, Vol. 77, No. 6, 1955. P. Buthod, “Pressure Vessel Handbook,” 7th Exition, pp. 75-82. 51Part VIII Design of Fillet WeICS suum sign of butt welds is closely controlled by D weld details and joint efficiencies clearly specified in various codes and specifications. Design of filet welds, however, is not so clearly outlined. The following pages are intended to fill the ‘gap. While referring to the following pages and designing fillet welds, the designer is encouraged to keep in mind actual shop and field welding practice and the quality of filet welds that can consistently be expected. The size and length of the weld as well as the allowable stresses used in their design should reflect the actual shop and field welding and not necessarily the value used here. Size of an equal-eg fillet weld is the leg width W of the largest 45° right triangle which fits in its cross section. They are referred to by their leg sizes, such as a 1/4 in. fillet weld. Figure 8-1. Fillet-Weld Sizes (Leg Dimensions). Size of an unequal length fillet weld is described by the leg lengths of the largest right triangle which fits in its cross section, such as a 3/8” by 1/2" filet weld. The strength of a filet weld is assumed to equal the allowable shearing stress times the throat area of the weld. The throat area of a wold is the length of weld times the theoretical throat distance, which is the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the theoretical weld's surface. ‘Some codes, however, define the throat distance differently. ‘AWWA defines the throat as .707 times the length of the shorter leg of the filet weld, AISC distinguishes between welding processes to be used when determining throat distances (e.g. AISC 1.14.6.2). The designer should check to see what code, if any, applies to the work. In these papers, however, the fillet weld throat dimension for an equal-leg fillet is assumed to be the leg length times 0.707 (i.e. cos 45°). Economy of Welding Economical design of fllat welds includes the 53 following: 1. Use of 45° (equal leg) fillet welds whenever possible 2. Minimum size of fillet 3. Lower cost of down welding position 4. Locate weld to eliminate eccentricity 5. Balanced welds to control distortion 6. Avoid locating welds in highly stressed areas 7. Readily accessible Use the smallest size of fillet permitted (see Fillet Weld Limitations). Flat fillets 5/16” and smaller are normally made in one pass and are more economical than larger fillets. Generally, the fillet with the least cross-sectional area is the most economical. Increasing the size of a fillet weld from 1/4” to 3/8” more than doubles the amount of filler metal, but the strength only increases 50%. A gap also requires additional filler metal. ke | hy ARK 9 triangle volumes A rienale volumes Figure 8-2. Volumes of 1-In. Long Welds. Flat welding position is the most economical and overhead the least. For example, the relative costs of 3/8" fillets for different positions are: lap flat 100% flat fillet 110% vertical fillet 240% overhead fillet 250% The costs can vary according to weld procedure used. ‘Specify shop welding whenever practical. The fitted-up material can normally be repositioned easier in the shop. Types of Fillet Welded Joints Single-fillet welded joints Strength depends on size of fillet. Do not use when tension due to bending is concentrated at root of weld.Do not use for fatigue or impact loading, Ditficult to control distortion. Be 4b ss Figure 8-3. Types of Single Fillet Welds. Double-fillet welded joints Used for static loads. Economical when fillet size is 1/2" or less. Lap joint maximum strength in tension when length of lap equals at least 5 times the thickness of thinner material, 4 = Figure 8-4. Types of Double Fillet Welds. Double-fillet welded corner joint Complete penetration and fusion. Used for all types of loads. Economical on moderate thickness. & jure 8-5. Corner Joint. Welds transmit forces from one member to another. They may be named according to the direction of the applied forces. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to their axis. Fillet weld throat is stressed only in shear. Parallel welds may also be called longitudinal welds Figure 8-6. Parallel Weld. Transverse welds have.forces applied at right angles to their axis. Fillet weld throat has both shear and normal (tensile or compressive) stresses. Transverse welds are about 33% stronger than parallel welds. { Figure 8-7. Transverse Weld. 54 Allowable Loads on Fillet Welds Stress in a fillet weld is assumed as shear on the throat area, for any direction of applied load. Many codes express the allowable shear stress for fillet welds in psi on the throat area. It is more convenient, however, to express the strength of filet welds as allowable load f, kips per lin. in. for 1” filet, The following formula may be used to convert allowable shear stress on throat area to allowable load for 1” fillet with equal leg lengths: 1 = 0.707 x allowable shear stress, ksi @1) Since transverse welds are stronger than parallel (or longitudinal) welds some codes permit different allowable stresses for them. API 620 th Edition and AWWA D100-84 are two codes that have different allowable stresses for the two types of welds. API 650 &th Edition and AISC 9th Edition, however, make io distinction between transverse welds and parallel welds and use the same allowable stress for both, The designer is cautioned to check which code applies to the work at hand as well as the most recent edition of the code to see if their approach to these types of stresses has changed. In the following pages, however, for the sake of completeness, a distinction will be made between the two types of stresses, f, and f. When a joint has only transverse forces applied to the weld, use the allowable transverse load f, If only parallel forces are applied to the weld, use the allowable parallel load f,. If one of the forces is parallel and the other forces are transverse, use the allowable transverse load when the resultant force is found from Eq. 83. New specifications on allowable stress for fillet welds are given in Section 8 of the latest revision of ‘AWS Structural Welding Code, D1.1 Current AISC specifications also refer to: 1. allowable stress at weld for both weld metal and base metal minimum length of filet weld minimum size of fillet weld maximum size of fillet weld end returns of “boxing of welds” spacing of welds . fatigue loading of welds Notation A. = cross-section area, sq. in., of member transmitting load to weld = length, in., of weld b= length, in., of horizontal weld ¢ = distance, in., from neutral axis to outer parallel surface or outer point Ch = horizontal component of o, in. , = vertical component of «, in. d= depth, in., of vertical weld f = allowable load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. per in. of weld sizefy = bending stress, ksi = allowable parallel load on fillet weld, kips per lin, in, per in. of weld size allowable transverse load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. per in. of weld size = torsional stress, ksi T= moment of inertia, int, of member transmitting load to weld or of weld subjected to torque moment of inertia about o axis, int J = moment of inertia about x axis, in.* Jy = moment of inertia about y axis, in. J = polar moment of inertia, in.4, of member transmitting load to weld Jy, = polar moment of inertia, in.2, of weld lines Subjected to torque L_ = column length, i bending moment, in.-kips number of plate sides welded or number of welds loaded allowable concentrated axial load, kips Q = statical moment of area, in.3, above or below a point in cross section, about neutral axis least radius of gyration, in. $= section modulus, in.®, of member transmitting load to weld or of weld subjected to moment Sy = section modulus, in, of weld lines subjected to bending moment t= plate thickness, in., or thickness, in., of thinnest plate at weld T= torque, in-kips V_ = vertical shear, kips w_ = illet weld size (leg dimension), in W = total load on fillet weld, kips per tin. in. of weld W = bending force on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld horizontal component of torsional force on weld, kips per lin. in, of weld /_ = longitudinal shear on filet weld, kips per lin, in, of weld We = average vertical shear on fillet weld, kips per fin. in. of weld Wea= actual shear on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of weld W, = torsional load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of weld /, = vertical component of torsional force on weld, kips per lin. in. x = distance from y axis to vertical weld y= distance from x axis to horizontal weld Combined Loads on Welds It is necessary to designate the size and length of fillet welds. Since neither are known, it is usually simpler to assume the length and then calculate the size, 85 Fillot wold size w, in., is found by dividing the force W, kips per lineal inch, on the weld by the allowable load f (kips per lin. in. for 1” fillet) for the weld. wel (2) 7 ) Table 8-1. Formulas for Force on Weld Common Design | Formula for ‘Type of Loading ormulas forfForee on Weld} Stress, pal. |K/Kips per In, P rn a a ICompression| 4 Ae v yv t Y, Bending COs Torsion Oe ag z os Longitudinal] vo Shear w Force W on a weld depends on the loading and shape of the weld outline. Table 8-1 shows the basic formulas for determining weld forces for various types of loads. ‘Combining forces: There may be more than one force on the weld, such as bending force and shear force. It is usually easier to determine each force independently and then combine vectorially to obtain a resultant force. All forces which are vectorially added must ocour at the same position in the weld. Be sure to find the position on the welded connection where the combination of forces will be maximum. To simplify calculations increase parallel forces by the ratio f/f, before combining to account for the lower allowable parallel shear stress specified by ‘some codes.Figure 8-8. Forces on Weld Combined. To determine the resultant force for combined forces, use Eq. 8:3. If only two forces exist, use 0 for one force. Wea WWE + We + TW GIP Refer to Fig. 8-8 for explanation of Ws, We, and Ws. The total force shall be determined in aécordance with the applicable code. (63) ‘Simple tension or compression loads: The force W, kips per inch of weld, is the load P divided by the length A, of weld. As shown in Table 8-1 the tensile or compressive force on a weld is: we—P Aw (e-) With this force W, the required fillet weld is calculated from Eq. 8-2. Example: Find size of fillet welds for the connection shown in Fig. 8-9. Assume Ay = 5 + 5. + 2¥e = 12%" 2% 30,000 the Figure 8-9. Tension-Member Connection’. Referring to API 650 the allowable basic shearing stress of an E60 electrode fillet wold is 13.6 ksi f = (.707)(18.6 ksi)(1 inch weld) = 9.6 kipsfinch/1 inch weld w-P . 30. 2.4 kips per lin. in 126 se *AISG for E60 electrodes would give f = (.707)(3460) = 12.7 Kal shear stress with max shear stress on base meial of .4 yield of base metal. wa W 2 24 «ops Pe 588. Use 1/4” fillet Weld volume = (ue x 12.5 = 0.99 cu. in. Try Aye = 8 + 5 = 10" Wy = 2. = 30 30 kips per tin, in 0.312" Use 5/16” fillet Weld volume = (U6 x 19 = 0.49 cu in Use 1/4” fillet on three sides because of less weld volume. Check filet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations). ‘Shear load is considered uniformly distributed ‘over the length of weld. Force formula W. = V/Ay from Table 8-1 gives average shear force. Use average shear force when combining with bending force or torsional force. However, if the average shear force about equals or exceeds the bending or torsional force, determine the actual shear force distribution to aid in locating the maximum combined force. The actual shear force per weld at any point can be determined from: Woq = YO (65) For example, the average shear force and actual shear force distribution are compared for a rectangular member in Fig. 8-10. they member et weld force > Adlagrem dlagrom Figure 8-10. Shear Distribution at Welds. force (8-8) Bending or torsional load may be applied to the same weld outline. 86 I ) } i | | da