Chapter 9: Step motors

9.1

Chapter 9
The Step motor
9.1. INTRODUCTION.
Stepping motors can be looked upon as electric motors without commutators. Typically, all windings in
the motor are part of the stator, and the rotor is either a permanent magnet or, in the case of variable
reluctance motors, a toothed block of some magnetically soft material. All the commutations must be
handled externally by the motor controller, and typically, the motors and controllers are designed so that
the motor may be held in any fixed position as well as being rotated one way or the other. Most stepping
motors can be stepped at audio frequencies, allowing them to spin quite quickly, and with an appropriate
controller, they may be started and stopped "on a dime" at controlled orientations.
For some applications, there is a choice between using servomotors and stepping motors. Both types of
motors offer similar opportunities for precise positioning, but they differ in a number of ways.
Servomotors require analog feedback control systems of some type. Typically, this involves a
potentiometer to provide feedback about the rotor position, and some mix of circuitry to drive a current
through the motor inversely proportional to the difference between the desired position and the current
position.
In making a choice between stepping motors and servomotors, a number of issues must be considered;
which of these will matter depends on the application. For example, the repeatability of positioning done
with a stepping motor depends on the geometry of the motor rotor, while the repeatability of positioning
done with a servomotor generally depends on the stability of the potentiometer and other analog
components in the feedback circuit.
Stepping motors can be used in simple open-loop control systems; these are generally adequate for
systems that operate at low accelerations with static loads, but closed loop control may be essential for
high accelerations, particularly if they involve variable loads. If a stepping motor in an open-loop control
system is overload, all knowledge of rotor position is lost and the system must be reinitialized;
servomotors are not subject to this problem.
Stepping motors are known in German as Schrittmotoren, in French as moteurs pas pas, and in Spanish
as motor paso paso. The terms step-motor and stepper are also common.
This motor has a special place among the electrical motors by its applications (nearly always positioning)
and the fact that this motor must be treated in combination with his drivers and controlling technics.
The typical step motor applications are:
S
positioning tables in three dimensions.
S
robot arms
S
positioning of heads for plotters, cutters,
printers
S
copy machines
S
head positioning of disk-drives
Figure 9.1 shows a picture of an X-Y positioning table.
The drives in the X- and Y-directions are realized with
step motors and lead-screws.
The step motor as rotational motor is the most used Figure 9.1: X-Y positioning table with step motors.
application but the step motor as linear motor is increasing. Stepper motors have the following benefits:

Low cost

Ruggedness

Simplicity in construction

High reliability

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.2

No maintenance
Wide acceptance
No tweaking to stabilize
No feedback components are needed
They work in just about any environment
Inherently more failsafe than servo motors.

There is virtually no conceivable failure within the stepper drive module that could cause the motor to
run away. Stepper motors are simple to drive and control in an open-loop configuration. They only
require four leads. They provide excellent torque at low speeds, up to 5 times the continuous torque of
a brush motor of the same frame size or double the torque of the equivalent brushless motor. This often
eliminates the need for a gearbox. A stepper-driven system is inherently stiff, with known limits to the
dynamic position error. Stepper motors have the following disadvantages:

Resonance effects and relatively long settling times

Rough performance at low speed unless a micro-step drive is used

Liability to undetected position loss as a result of operating open-loop

They consume current regardless of load conditions and therefore tend to run hot

Losses at speed are relatively high and cause excessive heating, and they are frequently noisy
(especially at high speeds).

They can exhibit lag-lead oscillation, which is difficult to damp.

There is a limit to their available size, and positioning accuracy relies on the mechanics (e.g.,
ballscrew accuracy).
Many of these drawbacks can be overcome by the use of a closedloop control scheme.
9.2. THE WORKING PRINCIPLE
The working principle is explained with the model of figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 shows a step motor built with two magnetical circuits
A and B, making a right angle, provided with respectively coil
A1-A2 and B1-B2.
Each circuit has salient poles and two sup-windings called the
phase of the motor. Circuit A has the poles 1 and 3 with the
phases L1 and L3 . The poles 2 and 4 with the phases L2 and L4 Figure 9.2: Two pole PM-step motor.
belonging to circuit B. When no phase is excited the rotor will
even so align to one of the poles. According to the flux
decreasing law, the rotor will take such a position that the
magnetical resistance for the (PM) induction field lines will be
as small as possible. The rotor will stand still between the poles
1,3 or the poles 2,4. So there are 4 preferred positions for the
rotor. Which position the rotor chooses, is random.
The above mentioned positions are also the positions for the
situation of excited phases. This motor has 4 steps per
revolution.
If phase L1 is excited the pole 1 will be a north pole and pole 3
is a south pole. The rotor gets the position as showed in figure
9.3. Is phase L2 excited identically the rotor makes a rotation
angle step of 900 clock wise. Figure 9.4 shows this situation.
Excite alternating the phases L1 ,L2 ,L3 and L4 the rotor will
rotate clockwise in a step wise manner. By increasing the
switching frequency, the rotor movement changes from step
Figure 9.3: L1 is excited.
wise to a continuous rotating (like a synchronous motor).

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.3

To get the other rotation direction you have to change the

sequence of the excited phases. For counter clockwise the
sequence must be L1 , L4 , L3 , L2 and L1 .
They excite only one phase at the time is the full step mode.
Figure 9.5 shows schematically the full step mode. The (full)
step angle for this motor is 900.
Figure 9.6 gives the situation in which alternating 1 phase and
2 phase at the same time are excited. This use of the step
motor is called the half step mode.
The number of steps per revolution is enlarged two times. A
step angle of 450 is for most applications too large. More
common step angles are 15 - 7,5 - 3,6 - 2 - 1,8 degrees.
Constructive decreasing of the step angle can be done by
taking more poles on the rotor or increasing the number of
phases.

Figure 9.4: L2 is excited.

Figure 9.5: Full step mode.

Figure 9.6: Half step mode.

9.3 STEPPING MOTOR TYPES.

Stepping motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) (there are
also hybrid (H) motors, which are from the controller's point of view comparable with permanent magnet
motors ). To find out which type of motor you are dealing with, you can notice it when no power is
applied. Permanent magnet motors tend to "cog" as you twist the rotor with your fingers, while variable
reluctance motors almost spin freely (although they may cog slightly because of residual magnetization
in the rotor). You can also distinguish between the two varieties with an ohmmeter. Variable reluctance
motors usually have three (sometimes four) windings, with a common return, while permanent magnet
motors usually have two independent windings, with or without center taps. Center-tapped windings are
used in unipolar permanent magnet motors.
With an appropriate controller, most permanent magnet and hybrid motors can be run in half-steps, and
some controllers can handle smaller fractional steps or micro-steps.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.4

For both permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepping motors, if just one winding of the

motor is energized, the rotor (under no load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold that angle
until the torque exceeds the holding torque of the motor, at which point, the rotor will turn, trying
to hold at each successive equilibrium point.
9.3.1 The construction of the stator of a step motor.
Figure 9.7 shows the stator of a PM-step motor. A stator
core (iron) is provided with one stator phase. As
mentioned in paragraph 9.2 the PM-step motor needs
minimal 4 phases for rotating in two directions. This can
be realized with two coils making a right angle
magnetically to each other and using the current flow
into both direction. This is called a semi-four phase
system. The rotating direction is defined by the sequence
of the excitement of the coils in combination with the Figure 9.7: Construction of one stator phase.
polarity of the excitement. Using the coil for two
polarities very efficiently. The value of the step angle is defined by the number of poles of the rotor and
the number of phases of the stator. The stator phase can be equipped with some stator teeth as shown in
figure 9.7. Dividing the stator pole into some teeth increases the torque. The tooth pitch of the stator
must be equal to the pole pitch of the rotor, so that in the excited mode the teeth of the stator stand
opposite to the poles of the rotor. This construction of the stator can be used for all types of step motors.
9.3.2 The permanent magnet step motor.
The rotor is made of permanent magnetical material. As mentioned before the pitch of the stator must
fit to the pole pitch of the rotor. All
the stator pole teeth together is one
position step of the rotor. Figure
9.7 shows the situation for an
excited phase. For a good
functioned motor the tooth of
different phases of a two phases
motor must be shifted half a pole
pitch of the rotor; for a three phase
motor the tooth must shifted a pole
pitch, etc. Figure 9.8 shows pictures
of a common applied PM-step motor. The stator exists of an upper
and lower iron shield with teeth and
a middle part also with teeth on both
sides. Between the iron shields and
the middle part cylindrical coils are Figure 9.8: Exploded view of a PM step motor.
placed. The coils are enclosed by
the tooth of the iron parts. Through this construction the teeth are alternating north and south poles along
the circumference by an excited coil. This applies for both coils. If you excite each coil in two directions
you have a semi-four phase step motor. The rotor is a permanent magnet with an equal number of poles
as teeth of the stator circumference. The rotor poles will find an opposite magnetic pole of the stator as
a preference position. The teeth of the upper magnetic system and the lower system are half a pole pitch
shifted. The use of a permanent magnet gives the opportunity to build a compact motor with a relative
large torque. The construction is easy to realize so the price is low.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.5

9.3.3 The variable reluctance step motor

The rotor of the VR step motor is made of iron and teeth around the circumference. The teeth are
comparable to the poles of the PM-rotor. The tooth pitch of the stator must be the same as the tooth pitch
of the rotor. The torque development is based of the
reluctance principle. According to this principle a
tooth of the rotor will align to the excited stator pole.
The more rotor teeth the more steps can be realized.
Unfortunately the VR step motor needs minimal 3
phases for rotating in 2 directions. The reason is that
the rotor teeth has not a magnetical pole of its own,
but is magnetized by the stator pole. The rotating
direction is defined by the sequence and not by the
polarity of the excitement of the phases.
The number of steps per revolution is the number of
teeth of the rotor multiplied with the number of
phases. Figure 9.9 shows a cross-section of a five
phase VR step motor. The stator exists of 10 salient
poles, of which 2 poles facing to each other form one
Figure 9.9: Five phase VR-motor.
phase. The construction of the stator teeth of
different phases is made in such a way that after exciting the two phases after each other the rotor teeth
will face the teeth of the stator phases. The rotor made one step. After exciting the 5 phases after each
other the rotor has rotate one rotor
tooth and made 5 steps. This type of
motor can realize many steps per
revolution (till 1000's of steps).
Another construction is build with so
called stacks. Each stack consists of an
rotor and a stator. One stator of a stack
is mostly one phase. The number of
stacks can be 3 til 24. Figure 9.10
shows a 3 phase VR step motor with 3
stacks. For a good working motor the Figure 9.10: Stack model of a VR step motor.
rotor or stator teeth must be a
tooth pitch shifted. In figure 9.10
the stator teeth are aligned; the
rotor teeth are shifted.
9.3.4 The hybrid step motor.
This type of step motor is a
combination of the PM- and VRstep motor. So the favorable
properties of both are united. The
rotor of the H-step motor exists of
an axial magnetized permanent
magnet with iron end parts with
teeth on the poles. The teeth of the
end parts are mutually tooth pith
shifted. The stator provides at least Figure 9.11: The hybrid step motor.
4 phases with teeth on the poles.
The stator poles are surrounded at both end parts of the rotor. Making steps in one direction is realized

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.6

by the sequence of the excitement of the phases like the PM-step motor. Figure 9.11 shows a cross
section of an H-step motor with 8 poles. The motor has 4 phases and 2 teeth per stator pole. The numbers
of the poles 1 and 5, 2 and 6, 3 and 7, 4 and 8 form the 4 phases.
9.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOTOR
For most electrical actuators the mechanical behavior is given by the torque speed characteristic. For step
motors you need three characteristics for the mechanical behavior:
a.
The static torque-angle characteristic describes the torque Tem in relation to the rotor rotation .
Such a characteristic is also used for the synchronous motor. The characteristic gives the torque
during one step, when only one phase is excited with a constant (rated) current.
b.
The torque frequency characteristic (pull-out curve) for the stationary situation. This
characteristic gives the torque Tem in relation to the step frequency fstep. The step frequency fstep
is the frequency of the steps of the motor. The pull out characteristic can be compared with the
torque speed characteristics of the other motors.
c.
The starting and stopping curve (pull-in curve) gives the needed torque to accelerate and
decelerate in relation to the step frequency.
First the static torque characteristic is discussed, because it is the base of the other two curves.
9.5.1 The torque angle characteristic.
The torque angle curve will be given for a semi four phase
PM step motor. Figure 9.12 shows the references of the rotor
rotation angle and the motor torque Tem for an excited
phase A. The load torque Tload is opposite to the torque Tem .
If you measure the torque Tem as function of the rotation
angle , you get the static torque curve of phase A. The
torque Tem is nearly acting like sin , comparable to the
torque of the synchronous motor in relation to the load angle
load . For step motors with p pole pairs the torque Tem is
proportional with sin p. Figure 9.13 gives of a p pole motor Figure 9.12: References of the step motor.
the torque of phase + A for - < p < . Phase +A means that
the phase coil A is excited with a current Is in the positive direction.

Figure 9.13: The static torque of a PM-step motor.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.7

If phase A is excited in a negative way with a current Is it will de indicated by phase -A. Suppose a noloaded motor must make a step from position p= - to p=0. For this step a positive torque is needed.
So phase + A must be excited during -<p<0; if the rotor reaches the position p=0 the torque Tem
will become zero and stays in that position. Phase + A has a stabile equilibrium point for 0 electrical
degrees and special for this case also 0 mechanical degrees. You can see that for this step only the
positions between -<p<0 are used and general leads to the stabile end position p = 0. This position
is a no-load position. Phase + A has an instability point for 180 electrical degrees, because out of this
position the rotor will move to p=0 or p=2 in the long term.
The torques of the phases + B, -A en -B are also given in figure 9.13. The phases -A, +B and -B has no-load
positions for respectively 180, 90 and 270 electrical degrees.
The holding torque Tem,max of a step motor is the maximum torque of the motor for an excited phase(see
also figure 9.13). A not excited PM-motor has some preferable positions (see paragraph 9.1). The torque
belonging to this effect is called the cogging torque of the magnet. The cogging torque is periodic with
2p. The detent torque Tcog,max is the maximum torque for a not excited motor. Figure 9.13 shows the
cogging torque Tcog. Only PM and H step motors have a detent torque.
The static torque of a VR step motor has a different form and has in general a higher holding torque than
PM step motors. The difference is caused by a changing r of the iron (saturating) in the neighborhood
of the no-load positions (see figure 9.14).
Compared with the exact no-load position
the surface A for the flux is smaller in the
neighborhood of the no-load situation . A
smaller surface gives a higher induction B
for the same flux. The higher induction
can lead to saturation effects. The
saturation occurs in the teeth of stator and
rotor especially around the instability
point. The change of saturation is stronger
around the instability point, so the change
of the torque is stronger too. Figure 9.14
gives the static torque characteristic for a
VR step motor. As you can see the Figure 9.14: Static torque of a VR step motor.
variation of the torque around p = is
stronger than around p = 0. For the simplicity you must take for theoretical considerations the torque
as a sinus. This approach is allowed because very often only the torque around the stabile (no-load) point
is used. The expression for Tem will be for all types of step motors:
(9.1)
The symbol p for a VR step motor is two times the number of rotor teeth. The maximum torque Tem, max
is for a PM stepper proportional with the field of the magnet and the current Is af a phase; for a VR
stepper Tem,max is proportional with the square of the phase
current Is.

9.5.2 The accuracy of the position of a step motor.

A loaded step motor always has an inaccuracy to the no-load
position. Suppose a motor is loaded with a torque Tlast and
must make one step. After stepping there will be a balance
between the motor and the load torque so:
Tload = -Tem, max sin(p). The position is the error position
err. You can find for err:
(9.2)

Figure 9.15: Error angle for two load torques.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.8

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.9

Figure 9.15 shows for two different load torques the err for nominal current Is. As you can see the larger
the load torque, the larger the error angle. Equation (9.2) shows that the error angle is getting smaller
for larger p and larger Tem,max .
9.6. MICRO STEPPING
The phase torques as function of the angle of a two-phase PM stepper with p pole pairs are given by:
Phase:
+
-

+
-

Torque:

No-load position:

A
A

Tem,+A = -Tem,max sin(p)

Tem,-A = -Tem,max sin(p - )

pno = 0
pno =

B
B

Tem,+B = -Tem,max sin(p - )

Tem,-B = -Tem,max sin(p - 1)

pno =
pno = 1

(9.3)

Figure 9.16 shows the

torques per phase for a
clockwise rotating motor. If
you excite only one phase at
any time you get the full
step mode. You get the half
step mode by exciting
alternating one and two
phases together. For
example the sequence + A,
+
A + B, + B, + B- A, - A, etc. is
the half step mode for
rotation clockwise.
Figure 9.16: Torque for full and half step mode.
The total torque for the
phases + A+B is:
Tem,+A+B = Tem,+A + Tem,+B = -1,4Tem,max sin(p - )

(9.4)

The no-load position is for pno = . This torque is given in figure 9.17. The maximum torque is 1,4
times larger than of one phase. You can also write for the torque of the phases +A and +B:
Tem,+A = -Kem Is,A sin(p)

and

Tem,+B = -Kem Is,B sin(p - )

(9.5)

Kem = a constant depending of motor parameters (comparable with the torque constant of a DC-motor).
Is,A = the current of phase A
Is,B = the current of phase B
The currents Is,A and Is,B can be made dependent on the variable according:
Is,A = Irated cos and Is,B = Irated sin
The torques Tem,+A , Tem,+B and Tem,+A+B are than:
Tem,+A = -Kem Irated sinpcos
Tem,+B = Kem Irated cospsin
Tem,+A+B = -Kem Irated sin(-p)

(9.6)

(9.7)

You can now create an arbitrarily step between two full steps by choosing the right value of . This
principle is called micro stepping.
The no-load position is:
-pno = 0
(9.8)

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.10

If you make the currents of the half step a factor /2 smaller, the maximum torque will also decrease
with the same factor, so the torques of the half step and the full step are equal. So the angle must be
.
Examples of values of :
Full step mode:
No-load positions pno = 0;
=0
6
Is,A = Irated ;
Is,B = 0
No-load position pno = ;
= 6
Is,A = 0;
Is,B = Irated
Half step mode:
No-load position pnul = 0;
No-load position pnul = ;
No-load position pnul = ;

=0 6
= 6
= 6

Is,A = Irated ;
Is,B = 0
Is,A = /2Irated ; Is,B = /2Irated
Is,A = 0;
Is,B = Irated

To create more micro steps between the full steps, you have to take more values of in the right way.
For the right you must divide 90 electrical degrees to the number of micro steps between two full steps
plus 1.
For 2 extra step 90 degrees must be divided to 3, so = 00 (full step), = 300 (micro step), = 600
(micro step), = 900 (full step). The currents of the phases depend on the number of micro steps. Micro
stepping increases the accuracy of the position possibilities and can compensate the error angle of loaded
motors. With smaller steps the motor rotates more quietly. For the same speed a higher frequency is
needed as for the full step mode. To hold the motor in a micro step position a continuous current in both
phases is necessary. The detent torque is in that case a great drawback. There are IC for micro stepping
available til about 400 micro steps.
9.8 SWITCHING ON AND OFF OF THE PHASES.
For a good functioning step motor the
step must made so fast as possible. So
the phase current Is must reach the end
value as soon as possible. The current
is defined by the resistance Rs, the
inductance L s and the terminal voltage
Uter. The influence of the switch
component is represented as a voltage
drop of the component. Mostly the
voltage drop is negligible. Figure 9.17
shows an easy switching circuit for Figure 9.17: Circuit and current during switching on.
one phase and an extra serie resistor
Rser.
After the switching on the voltage Uter the
current is is defined by:

(9.9)

The constant on = L s/(R ser + R s) is called

the turn on time constant. Figure 9.17 shows
the current is. For a high value of Rser the on
will be small and the current is increases fast.

Figure 9.18: Influence of Rser and Uter to is .

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.11

If you want the same end value of the current for a high value Rser you need a higher value for the
terminal voltage. Figure 9.18 shows a smaller on for a higher voltage Uter. You must always try to reach
the rated value Irated for is.
Normally the static torque curve is given for Irated . In practice you must try to make on much smaller than
the necessary time needed for one step. The step time is mainly defined by the mechanical parameters
(inertia, friction, viscous friction).
After the rotor reaches the end position of a step, the current is must decrease to zero as soon as possible.
Because you have to deal with an induction, this must be done in the right way otherwise voltage spikes
will occur across the switching element. Therefor a freewheel diode is necessary. An extra resistor Rfree
accelerates the fall of the current. Figure 9.19 shows that circuit. The current is is defined by:
(9.10)
The constant off = L s/(Rser + Rs + Rfree) is called the turn-off time
constant. By increasing the value of
Rfree the current is decreases faster.
This is limited by the fact that a too
large value of Rfree destroyed the
transistor. Just after turning off the
voltage Uce over the collectoremitter junction of the transistor is
given by:
Uce = Uter + Rfree.Irated

(9.11)

Figure 9.19: The circuit and current is during turning on and off.

9.9 THE FREQUENCY TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS.

The step motor has two torque step frequency characteristics. The curves are based on the dependency
of the step frequency and the load torque. The pull-in curve gives the permitted frequency of a starting
and stopping stepper. The pull-out curve gives the permitted frequency for an already running motor.
This curve is comparable with the speed torque curve
of other motors.
9.9.1 The first starting step.
From a stand still situation the first step is defined by
the inertia J, the viscous friction fvisc, the load torque
Tload and the motor torque Tem of the stepper. During
the step there must be a balance between the different
torques. The rotor position is given by:
Figure 9.20: The torque Tem around the no-load position.

(9.12)

= the inertia of the motor and load together.

Chapter 9: Step motors

fvisc
shaft

= the viscous friction (very small).

= the angular speed of the shaft;

9.12

Tload

= the load torque (inc. friction).

Figure 9.20 gives the static torque Tem . The torque is near the no-load position and can be approached
by:
Tem = -Kstep .(-no )
(9.13)
Combination of (9.13) and (9.12) gives a solution for as a function of the time:
(9.14)

fres =
A=

the mechanical resonance frequency of

the stepper with load.
integration constant depending on the
starting conditions of the step.

According to (9.14) the rotor will vibrate as

response on one step. At last the rotor reaches the
no-load position of the step. Figure 9.21 shows
the rotor position as reaction of one pulse. For
the course of the rotor position the same terms
are used known from the control theory. If you
want to make more steps, the frequency of those
steps must not be too high. It can happen that too
fast stepping, steps start in the maximum of the
overshoots and so steps are skipped. Figure
9.22 shows this effect with a too early generated
impulse.

Figure 9.22: Step responses for fres and 0,6fres .

Figure 9.21: The rotor position during one step.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.13

A step frequency that equals the mechanical resonance frequency causes 'running out of order' of the
motor and can lead to bad resonance behavior. For this reason there is a limited step frequency in
relation with the load torque for the dynamic motor characteristic.
Figure 9.22 shows that a step frequency of 0,6 fres keeps the motor in to the right steps.
9.9.2. The pull-in curve.
As you have seen at the start (but also for stopping) the pulses may not follow too fast to each other. The
pull-in characteristic gives the step maximum frequency for a certain load that the motor will start to run.
Because there is no starting speed the inertia J has a great influence on the process. During the stepping
the torque Tem is not constant (see the static torque) so you must calculate with an average value for Tem
. If you neglect the viscous friction fvisc, only an acceleration torque Tacc is necessary for the inertia J. With (9.12) the acceleration torque Tacc is:
(9.15)
The average angle acceleration will be:
(9.16)
From (9.14) and (9.15) you can deduce that an increasing load
torque Tload the angle acceleration will decrease. The motor
needs more time to make a step. The step frequency fstep will
become smaller. At the end for a large load torque the motor
will not start any more. The other way around a no-load motor
has a very large disposable acceleration torque. In the no-load Figure 9.23 The pull-in curve.
mode you find the highest starting step frequency (fstep,no ). Figure 9.23 is a sketch of the pull-in curve.
Some remarks for the curve:
S
The holding torque Tem,max will be larger than Tave, max pointed in figure 9.23 , because Tave,max is
an average value.
S
For a larger inertia (i.e. of the load) the curve will shift to the left.
S
If the viscous friction is not negligible, the torque Tacc will become smaller. The step frequency
decreases.
9.9.2 The pull-out curve.
If the motor is already running there is no torque needed
for acceleration. The pull-out curve gives the step
frequency for a certain load torque for a running motor.
It describes a stationary situation and therefore
comparable with the normal torque speed characteristics
for other motors. The pull-out curve for voltage supplied Figure 9.24: Equivalent circuit for one phase.
PM stepper will be discussed. In the stationary mode the
equivalent circuit for one phase is like the Dc-motor. It is given in figure 9.24. You must calculate with
average values. This applies to for the torque Tem the phase current Is and the motional voltage Umut,s.
The voltage Umut,s is proportional with the speed of the rotor and so proportional with the step frequency.
The no-load stepper needs only a torque for the friction, which requirs a relative small motor torque
Tem,ave . The phase current Is has a low value so the value of Umut,s is high. A high speed is possible.
The needed current Is for a loaded motor is much larger. For a voltage supplied stepper Umut,s must be
small, so the speed and the step frequency will decrease. In the stationary mode Tem will be equal to the
load torque Tload . Figure 9.25a shows the phases as a function of the rotation in the full step mode.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.14

Figure 9.25: The torque for the no-load and loaded situation.

The turn on and off times are neglected.

When the phases are excited the maximum
parts of the static torque curves will be
followed.
Figure 9.25b shows this for a value of Is
smaller than the rated value Irated . By taking
the average value of each part of the torque
the total average torque Tem,ave can be
calculated. For a loaded motor the Tem,ave is
equal to the load torque. The phase current
Is is relatively high. Figure 9.25c is for a
nearly no-loaded motor. The average torque Figure 9.26: The pull-out curve.
is equal to the friction torque. The step
frequency of a no-loaded motor can be higher than a loaded motor, because the speed can be larger. In
the figures 9.25b and 9.25c it is impossible to see the different frequencies, because the figures are
related to the rotor positions. The maximum load torque is for the rated value of the current Is, but for
a frequency of zero. In the no-load mode you get the maximum step frequency fstep,lim . Between the
frequency from 0 till fstep,lim you can find a load torque by which the motor just can rotate. This is given
by the pull-out curve in figure 9.26.
Figure 9.27 shows the pull-in and pull-out
curves together in one plot. The starting torque
is the same for both curves. The area under the
pull-in curve is called the start/stop area. The
area between the curves is called the "slew
rate" area. Suppose you must get from standing
still to a certain position as fast as possible,
than you have to cross the different kinds of
operation area of the motor. First, you have to
start the motor in the start/stop area. Next you
want to use an operation point on the pull-out
curve as long as possible. Such a point is only
reachable through the slew rate" area. In this Figure 9.27: Operation area of a step motor.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.15

area the step frequency must be carefully increased (not too fast). Doing this on the wrong way the motor
will stand still. There must be enough torque left for acceleration.
9.9.3 Resonances and unstabilities.
Because of not-linear effects (saturations, viscous
friction, turning on and off) the dynamic curves
have some dips and islands. In those areas the motor
is not functioning well and its behavior is not
predictable. Figure 9.28 shows those areas for a
certain step motor. By using higher or lower
frequencies those areas can be avoided. The
resonances are divided in three categories:
a.

b.
c.

Low-frequency resonance. Those are of

mechanical nature lying around 100 Hz.
The resonance is caused by the own Figure 9.28:Resonance and unstabilities of a step motor.
frequencies (or multiplies) of the
mechanical system. The frequencies are disturbing in the start/stop area.
Mid-range instabilities (500-1500Hz). The cause of those resonances are the electronic driver
circuits (choppers and bi-level).
Higher-range oscillation (2500-4000Hz). Those instabilities are not quite known yet . A
possible cause can be the behavior of the iron (magnetical nature).

The best solution against instabilities is to avoid the frequency. Another remedy is to reduce these
instabilities is to damp the movements of the step motors. Mechanical you can do that with oil-dampers
(only used for large motors). Electrical damping is realized with a 2-pole magnet on the shaft moving
in an extra magnetical field. So an electrical damp-force can be generated.
If the dips are really small you can try to skip those step frequency.
9.10 A COMPARE BETWEEN A PM- AND A VR-STEP MOTOR.
At the end some practical properties of the PM- and VR-step motor. The H-step motor can be seen as a
combination of both motors with the advantages of both types. The PM-step motor is implemented in
applications with limited space. Think of desk devices (i.e. printers). The De VR-step motor is not so
often used any more, but if it is used then in applications where a large torque required. In table 9.1 both
step motors are compared to each other.
Tabel 9.1
Type/properties

PM

VR

Holding torque

smaller

bigger

Detent torque

yes

no

Swing phenomenon for 1 step

less

more

Resonance phenomenon

less

more

Number of steps per revolution

limited

very large

Supply

phases : $2

phases: $3

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.16

A general pronunciation about the price is difficult to give. The price depends on the construction and
materials of the motor, but also of the electronics of the supply and the controlling system. So each
application has its own price.
9.11. PROBLEMS.
9.11.1. Determine for the motors of figures 9.8, 9.9 en 9.11 the step angle.
9.11.2. On which manner (a mechanical) can the error angle be reduced? What can be the disadvantage
of it?
9.11.3. Draw the torque as a function of the position of a PM step motor for p=1 and 4 stator poles in
a not-excited mode. Use sinus forms. Give in the drawing also the own holding torque.
9.11.4. Why must the load torque be as low as possible for positioning problems?
9.11.5. Mention the positive and negative points of the bipolar control against the unipolar control.
9.11.6. Why are the maximum values of the torque Tem,ave for the pull in and pull out curves equal to
each other?
9.11.7. A variable reluctance step motor consists of 5 stacks of one phase. The stator poles of the
have an even number of tooth as the accompanying rotor namely 24 tooth alike divided around
the circumference. What is the number of steps per revolution?
9.11.8

a.
b.

c.

d.

The torque Tem of the phases A,B and C of

a 5-phase VR-step motor are given in
figure OP 9.1.
Calculate for full step the no-load
positions.
What are the no-load positions if you
excite every time 2 phases at ones? What
is the torque as a function of ?
What are the no-load positions if you
excite 3 phases at ones? What is now the Figure Op.9.1 The torque of the phases A, B, C.
torque as a function of ?
What will you choose if you want in a simple way as much as possible steps per revolution,
without using micro-stepping?

9.11.9. A two phases (semi-four phases) PM-step motor has 8 pole pairs on the rotor. They want to
realize with the help of micro-stepping 4 extra steps between 2 full steps. The rated current is
Inom . Calculate the current levels and the no-load positions for the micro-steps.
9.11.10. For a two phases (semi-four phases) PM-step motor has a torque for phase A en B:
Tem,A = - 10is,A sin16 mNm and ; Tem,B = - 10i s,B sin(16 -) mNm. For full step the operation
currents are : is,A = i s,B = Irated = 0,5 A. They will create 2 extra steps with micro-stepping.
a.
How many steps are made for one revolution (full steps mode)?
b.
Calculate the no-load positions for the micro-steps; starting with the full step for = 0.
c.
Calculate the step error for full step mode if the load torque is Tload = 1 mNm.

Chapter 9: Step motors

9.17

9.11.11. A three phases VR-step motor has a coil-resistance of 1 and an average value for the
induction of 40 mH. The rate current Irated is 2A.
a.
Design an unipolar control circuit with a turn time constant of 2ms and a turn off time constant
of 1 ms.
b.
Estimate the power of the losses.
c.
Calculate the supply voltage.
d.
If this motor makes 600 steps per second. How many power is lost in the resistor Rrree of the
free wheel circuit?
e.
Calculated the maximum voltage over the collector-emitter junction of the transistor.
9.11.12 A PM-step motor has a coilresistance of 1 and an average
value for the induction of 40 mH.
The terminal voltage Uter is 40 V.
The series resistor Rser has a value of
19 . The controlling is bipolar , as
you can see in figure Op 9.2. The
switching transistors have their own
free wheel diode. All the switching
Figure Op 9.2 A bipolar control circuit.
components are free of losses.
a.
What is the value of the rated
current Irated , that has to be switched off ?
b.
Calculate the turn off time constant. Approach e-t/ with (1 - t/)
c.
If this motor makes 600 steps per second. How many power is going back to the power supply?
d.
Calculated the maximum voltage over the collector-emitter junction of the transistor.
9.11.13 For a two phases (semi-four phases) PM-step motor has a torque for phase A en B:
Tem,A = - sin4 mNm and ; Tem ,B = cos4 mNm. They will create 1 extra step with microstepping.
a.
Calculated for three successive steps, starting for = 0, the no-load position and the current
level for each phase.
b.
The load torque is Tload = 0,1 mNm. They realize half steps with and without micro-stepping.
Calculate for both situations the step error angle .
9.11.14 A variable reluctance step motor consists of 5 stacks of one phase. The stator poles of the
have an even number of tooth as the accompanying rotor namely 50 tooth alike divided around
the circumference.
a.
What is the number of steps per revolution?
b.
What happens with the pull-out curve if the inertia J of the system is decreasing?
9.11.15 Figure OP 9.3 shows the basic control circuit for one phase of a
PM-step motor. The rated current is 3,5 A. The coil has an
induction Ls of 0,2 mH and a resistance of 2 and Rfree = 20 .
The turn on time constant in is 0,04 ms.
a.
Calculate the resistor Rser?
b.
What is the voltage Uce over the transistor junction, just after
turning off the transistor?
c.
What is theoretical the maximum step frequency for one single
phase (Remember you have to turn on and off the current in the Figure OP 9.3: control circuit.
coil)?