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Wooden Shipwrecks of the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico

Robert L. Gearhart II, Atkins

Copyright 2011, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 25 May 2011.
This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
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Abstract
Shipwrecks with wooden hulls are underrepresented in the archaeological record from shallow federal waters of the central
and western Gulf of Mexico (defined as less than 600 feet deep), yet they tend to be older and arguably more abundant than
shipwrecks with metal hulls. This paper quantifies the extent of bias in favor of metal hulls in the archaeological record;
examines its potential causes; discusses factors affecting the preservation and discovery of wooden hulls; and proposes a
research strategy that might accelerate discoveries of wood-hulled shipwrecks.
Introduction
The waters of the central and western Gulf of Mexico have been extensively studied by archaeologists for several decades
(Figure 1). This is largely due to the intensity of oil and gas production in the area. The Bureau of Ocean Energy
Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) regularly sponsors archaeological studies in addition to reviewing
archaeological reports submitted on behalf of oil and gas operators in connection with offshore energy leases. Figure 1 shows
locations of roughly 7,000 geo-hazard surveys conducted by the oil and gas industry in the central and western Gulf of
Mexico. Each of the smallest colored squares in Figure 1 represents a 3x3-mile mineral lease block. Archaeologists have
reviewed geophysical data and prepared archaeological assessment reports for 3,161 lease blocks (those colored blue or
purple). Green blocks have been surveyed for geo-hazards but have not been assessed by an archaeologist. Pipeline route
surveys are not included in Figure 1. BOEMRE also maintains a GIS database that includes over 3,000 historic reports of
vessels lost, over 6,000 Coast Guard hazards to navigation, and over 17,000 net hangs reported by fishing trawlers. As a
result of such studies, a great deal is known about the archaeology of this area.
The BOEMRE database (2007) contains locations for 195 shipwrecks in the central and western Gulf of Mexico,
including 12 wooden shipwrecks (Table 1; 7 shallow and 5 deep) and at least 91 wrecks believed to have metal hulls (74
shallow and 17 deep). Twelve percent of shipwrecks in shallow and deep waters, combined, have wooden hulls. In shallow
water the proportion of wooden shipwrecks is 9 percent, and in deep water it is 23 percent. Thirty-one wrecks, all of which
are visible on sonar, are confirmed as metal by the BOEMRE database. Another 60 are presumed to be metal from their
descriptions or because they have prominent ship-shaped sonar targets that clearly resemble sunken vessels. Wood does not
survive exposure in shallow Gulf waters for more than a few years, thus sonar images are unlikely for any except recent
wooden hulls in shallow water. Information regarding the other database entries is insufficient to suggest the composition of
their hulls.
Historic records summarized below indicate that prior to the mid-twentieth century shipwrecks with wooden hulls
outnumbered those with metal hulls by 13 to 1. Yet metal hulls in the archaeological record appear to outnumber wooden
hulls by about 8 to 1. The discrepancy between historical records and archaeological observations cannot be entirely
explained by an abundance of metal shipwrecks over the past 60 years, as the modern (2010) ratio of metal to wooden hulls
in the U.S. Merchant Vessel fleet is only 3 to 1. It is clear that shipwrecks with wooden hulls are underrepresented in shallow
waters of the central and western Gulf of Mexico. This paper examines the extent and causes of archaeological bias away
from wooden hulls; discusses factors affecting the preservation and discovery of wooden hulls; and proposes a research
strategy that might accelerate discoveries of wooden shipwrecks.
Wooden Versus Metal Shipwrecks from the U.S. Merchant Vessel Fleet
Government statistics of losses sustained by U.S. Merchant Vessels suggest that the proportion of wooden to metal hulls in
the Gulf of Mexico should be much higher than 9 percent (shallow) or even 23 percent (deep). In fact for the period from
1876 through 1947, it is estimated that 93 percent of all U.S. Merchant Vessels lost worldwide had wooden hulls (Figure 2).

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Prior to 1876 the proportion of wood to metal hulls would have been higher still. These statistics are based on published
annual summaries of U.S. Merchant Vessel losses for the years 1906 through 1947 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 19061947) and annual casualty and loss statistics for the period 1876 through 1898 compiled by the U.S. Lifesaving Service (U.S.
Treasury Department, 1876-1898). Losses for the period 1899 through 1905 were interpolated, as Lifesaving Service
volumes for those years were unavailable to the author at the time of this writing.

Figure 1: Archaeological Surveys in the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico. Image courtesy of BOEMRE.

Table 1: Wood-Hulled Shipwrecks of the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico

Vessel Name

How Discovered

Reference

Water
Depth (ft)

El Nuevo Constante

Fishing Trawler; Treasure Hunters

Pearson and Hoffman (1995)

18

AWOIS 9003

Obstruction; NOAA divers; 2010 attempt by

BOEMRE to relocate unsuccessful

BOEMRE wreck database

23

Chandeleur Ballast Pile

Cannons on ballast pile; no hull remains found.

Garrison et al. (1989)

23

Carl Chilton

sank during hazard survey; sonar picture recorded

soon after by survey boat

BOEMRE wreck database

40

Lucky

AWOIS 4752; divers confirmed in 1988

BOEMRE wreck database

43

New York

Fishing Trawler; Treasure Hunters; missed by 2001

lease block survey

Gearhart et al. (2011)

53

El Cazador

Fishing Trawler; Treasure Hunters

http://www.elcazador.com/ElCazador.pdf

305

BOEMRE Vessel 359

Sonar Survey; ROV

Levin (2006)

1400

Viosca Knoll wreck

deep-tow pipeline survey

Church and Warren (2008)

2010

Mica Wreck

ROV during pipeline as-built survey

Atauz et al. (2006)

2650

Green Lantern Wreck

ROV; side scan

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/
explorations/09lophelia/welcome.html

3100

Mardi Gras Wreck

ROV; pipeline preconstruction survey

Ford et al. (2008)

4003

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Figure 2: Estimated Losses from the U.S. Merchant Fleet, 1876-1947. Based on statistics from U.S. Treasury Department, (1876-1898)
and U.S. Department of Commerce (1906-1947).

The composition of the U.S. Merchant Vessel fleet began a significant shift at the turn of the twentieth century. The fleet
increased in size, and machine-powered vessels rapidly replaced sailing ships (Figure 3). The number of barges in the fleet
began a slower but steady rise at about this same time. By 1905, the number of sailing ships fell to less than half of the total
merchant fleet, and by 1920 they composed only 14 percent of the fleet. Although iron, and later, steel had become common
shipbuilding materials by this time (e.g., New York Times 1892), most new construction continued to rely on wood until
after World War II. The steady replacement of sailing ships by safer machine-powered vessels contributed to an overall
decline in the number of shipwrecks, despite an increase in fleet size after 1898, a trend which generally continued through at
least the middle of the twentieth century (Figure 4). Annual losses of sailing ships fell below 50 percent of total losses in
1910 and continued a rapid decline to about 2 percent of annual losses by the end of World War II (Figure 5). Meanwhile
losses of machine-powered ships rose steadily throughout most of the period from 1876-1947 with spikes during both world
wars and a drop during the Great Depression (see Figure 4).
Metal hulls proved significantly safer and more durable than wood as reflected by their lower rate of loss, except during
World War II when German U-boats caused losses to increase temporarily (figures 6 and 7). Of the estimated 1,713 metal
hulls lost from 1876 through 1947, 615 (36 percent) were lost during Americas involvement in World War II. Immediately
following the war, losses of wooden vessels rose to 85 percent but not quite back to their pre-war levels of 93-95 percent. It is
estimated that 24,516 vessels from the U.S. Merchant Fleet were declared a total loss during the period 1876 through 1947.
Fifty percent of those vessels were sailing ships, 8 percent were unrigged, and 42 percent were machine powered (see Figure
2). Wooden hulls composed 93 percent of all vessels lost from the merchant fleet during this period, including 57 percent
lacking machine propulsion and 36 percent with machine propulsion. Only 7 percent of losses from 1876 through 1947 had
metal hulls, over a third of which were lost during World War II.
The above statistics are representative of the entire U.S. Merchant Vessel fleet. The U.S. Lifesaving Service also
categorized casualties and total number of losses by geographic region beginning in 1875. Unfortunately, losses and
casualties for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts were combined by the Life-Saving Service, and losses were not subdivided by
vessel type. Casualty rates for different vessel types varied slightly by geographic area over this period, particularly in rivers
where machine power and unrigged vessels (barges and canal boats) were in greater relative abundance than elsewhere. For
example, rivers had more-frequent casualties involving steamers than schooners, whereas on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts the
reverse was true (Figure 8). Along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, sailing
vessels accounted for 70 percent of all casualties as compared to 25 percent for steam-powered vessels (Figure 9). Schooners
were by far the most abundant merchant vessel during the late nineteenth century, as reflected by the number of casualties
involving this vessel type.

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Figure 3: Vessel Types in the U.S. Merchant Fleet from 1876-1920

During the period 1875 through 1898, 43 percent of all U.S. Merchant Vessel losses occurred off either the Atlantic or
Gulf coasts (Figure 10). Another 27 percent were lost at sea or in foreign waters. It is likely that some losses at sea occurred
in the Gulf of Mexico, as this designation applied to any vessel that sailed from a port and was never heard from again. It is
difficult to extrapolate from these numbers to estimate total losses in the smaller area of the Gulf of Mexico through 1947.
Nevertheless, the proportions of vessel and material types lost are believed to be fairly accurate.
Regardless of the actual number of shipwrecks occurring in the Gulf of Mexico during this period, it is clear that less than
1 out of 10 had a metal hull. Following World War II, the loss rate of metal hulls returned to normal, and the loss rate of
wooden hulls rebounded from its wartime low of 39 percent to 85 percent by 1947. The decline of wood as a construction
material for ships during the second half of the twentieth century is beyond the subject of this paper; however, even today, 6
percent of active U.S. Merchant Vessels (out of 330,242 registered with the Coast Guard in 2010) have wooden hulls, and
metal hulls outnumber wooden hulls by only 3 to 1 (Figure 11).

Figure 4: Number of U.S. Merchant Vessel Losses, 1876-1947, By Propulsion

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Figure 5: Percentage of U.S. Merchant Vessel Losses, 1876-1947, By Propulsion

Figure 6: Number of U.S. Merchant Vessel Losses, 1876-1947, By Material

Figure 7: Percentage of U.S. Merchant Vessel Losses, 1876-1947, By Material

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Preservation and Discovery of Wooden Shipwrecks

All five wooden shipwrecks discovered to date in deep Gulf waters are partially exposed above the seafloor (Figure 12, for
example). The preservation of exposed wood in deep water may be partially due to a decreased effect of wood-boring
organisms but is largely on account of the complete lack of disturbance by hurricanes and fishing trawlers. Another factor
may be the presence of intact cupreous sheathing on several of the deepwater wrecks. Gearhart et al. (2011) concluded that
hurricanes may affect shipwrecks at depths as great as 300 feet (91 meters). Disturbance of the Gulf seafloor by trawl nets is
ubiquitous out to depths of 30 fathoms (180 feet [55 meters]) and occasionally occurs to depths of 50 fathoms (300 feet [91
meters]). It has been estimated that the total area fished in the Gulf of Mexico, 104,128 square miles (sq mi), is on average
completely swept by trawl nets two and a half times each year (Committee on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing 2002).

Figure 8: Casualties to U.S. Merchant Vessels, 1876-1898, by Vessel Type

Preservation of wooden hulls can be quite good in either shallow or deep water provided the wood remains buried (Figure
13, for example). This is precisely why wooden hulls are much more difficult to discover in shallow water than are metal
hulls. Any wooden parts that are not buried are not preserved. Wood-boring organisms rapidly consume exposed wood. In
shallow water, weakened wood is then disarticulated and laid flat or removed by hurricanes and fishing trawlers. But where
suitable sediment exists, the lower portion of a wooden hull can become buried, protecting it from biological degradation,
hurricane forces, and fishing trawlers.
Two shipwrecks, in particular, demonstrate the potential for preservation of buried wooden hulls and their cargo in
shallow water. The first is the 303 Hang Wreck, so called because of the name given it by local shrimp fishermen who
snagged their nets on the site. The 303 Hang Wreck was a two-masted coastal schooner discovered near Freeport, Texas,
when a pipeline plow ran into the hull while laying a pipe. Work was stopped while the site was investigated by
archaeologists (James et al. 1991). The ship was found to be in a state of remarkable preservation. It is 100 feet long and 24
feet wide with an 8-foot draft and is nearly complete. The hull is preserved to a height above the keel of 9 feet at the bow and
6.3 feet at the stern.
A second wooden shipwreck with excellent preservation below the mudline is the SS New York (Figure 13). This was a
passenger steamer that sank off of Galveston during a hurricane in 1846. The site was discovered by a salvage company
called Gentlemen of Fortune, who were awarded salvage rights in Admiralty Court. After the contents of the hull were
mostly removed by salvers, archaeologists visited the site and documented portions of the hull, which had been recently
exposed by prop washing. Gentlemen of Fortune later allowed archaeologists to document portions of the artifact assemblage
at their facility in Louisiana (Gearhart et al. 2011: Appendix C).

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Figure 9: Casualties off the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 1876-1898, by Vessel Type

Figure 10: Losses of U.S. Merchant Vessels, 1875-1898, by Geographic Region

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Figure 11: Composition of the U.S. Merchant Vessel Fleet in 2010

The proportion of wooden shipwrecks occurring on soils suitable for promoting their preservation is an open question. A
map of sediment shear strength by Dunlap et al. (2004) shows that 65 percent of the area, above a depth of 100 meters
(Figure 14, red areas), has soft sediments with shear strengths of less than 0.2 kilopounds per square foot (ksf) at the mudline,
which they considered suitable for self burial of pipelines. One might reasonably also expect some level of wreck burial in
such soils. A study by Keith and Evans (2009) demonstrated, on the other hand, that shipwrecks can achieve significant
burial in sediments having shear strengths even greater than 0.6 ksf (firm). Their conclusions imply that the proportion of
buried and preserved wooden hulls in the Gulf of Mexico might exceed the 65 percent estimate based on Figure 14.
Discovery of wooden shipwrecks by geophysical survey in shallow Gulf waters is significantly more difficult than in
deep water. All five of the deepwater wooden shipwrecks were exposed and came to the attention of archaeologists through
BOEMREs oversight of oil and gas activities. By contrast, wooden wrecks in shallow Gulf waters are more commonly
found by fishing trawlers than by archaeologists. Trawl nets occasionally bring artifacts to the surface after snagging on
historic shipwrecks. In several such cases, fishermen have shared wreck locations with treasure hunters. At least four woodhulled shipwrecks discovered in the shallow Gulf of Mexico, Espiritu Santo, El Cazador, El Nuevo Constante, and New York,
were claimed by treasure hunters before coming to the attention of archaeologists. Fortunately, the deepwater shipwrecks are,
so far, relatively undisturbed. Because of their depths, they are less prone to disturbance by treasure hunters.

Figure 12: A view of the Mica Shipwreck from the starboard side of the bow. Photomosaic by
Dave Ball. Figure 1 from Atauz et al. (2006).

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Figure 13: Views of the SS New York following salvage operations. Gearhart et al. (2011:86-88).

The scale of the archaeological bias toward discovery of metal rather than wooden hulls in shallow water can be
quantified by estimating the number of wrecks discovered per unit area of archaeological surveys completed (see Figure 1).
This can only be a rough estimate, as the actual area of surveys completed to date is not accurately known. In shallow water,
2,249 lease blocks have been completely surveyed and the data assessed by an archaeologist. This is an area of 20,241 sq mi
(9 sq mi per lease block) and represents 85.5 percent of all the full block surveys assessed by archaeologists. In deep water
381 full block surveys have had archaeological assessments. This is an area of 3,429 sq mi and represents 14.5 percent of full
block archaeological assessments.

Figure 14: Shear Strength of Sediments in Waters of the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico
Less Than 328 ft (100 m) Deep (Gearhart et al. 2011:105, based on GIS data from Dunlap et al. 2004).

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A total of 1,266 partial block surveys also have had archaeological assessments. Of that number 735 were in blocks that
were completely surveyed at another time. Those surveys are excluded from this estimate, as otherwise their areas would be
counted twice. Another 531 partial block surveys were archaeologically assessed in blocks that were not fully surveyed at
another time, including 348 (65.5 percent) in shallow water and 183 (34.5 percent) in deep water. Since the average area of a
partial block survey is unknown, let us assume a range of 1 to 8 sq mi per partial block survey. Thus, partial block
archaeological surveys in shallow water are estimated to cover an area of 348 to 2,784 sq mi, and partial block archaeological
surveys in deep water are estimated as covering 183 to 1,464 sq mi. Based on the above, the total area subjected to at least
one archaeological assessment in shallow water is estimated as 20,589 to 23,025 sq mi (82 to 85 percent) as compared to
3,612 to 4,893 sq mi (15 to 18 percent) in deep water.
The frequencies of wooden and metal shipwrecks per 1,000-sq-mi area are estimated in Table 2. Since wooden hulls seem
to be consistently exposed in deep water and therefore visible to sonar, let us assume that 5 wooden hulls is a rough estimate
of the total number existing in all the deepwater areas surveyed to date. In that case, their frequency would range from 1 to
1.4 wooden hulls per 1000 sq mi in deep water. The frequency of shallow shipwrecks might be greater in high-traffic areas
nearer the coast, but assuming the same frequency as in deep water, one would expect at least 21 to 32 wooden hulls to exist
in the shallow areas already archaeologically surveyed. In fact, the frequency of wooden shipwrecks in shallow federal waters
is 0.3 wreck per 1,000 sq mi. This is only 20 to 30 percent of the wooden shipwreck frequency in deep water, reflecting the
fact that wooden wrecks are more visible in deep water. The low visibility of wooden shipwrecks in shallow Gulf waters is
also reflected by the fact that none have been discovered by geophysical survey in shallow water.
Table 2: Frequency of Shipwrecks in the Central and Western Gulf of Mexico

ArchaeologicalSurveyArea(sqmi)
NumberofWoodenHulls
WoodenShipwrecks/1,000sqmi
NumberofMetalHulls
MetalShipwrecks/1,000sqmi

Shallow
Deep
Total
20,58923,025 3,6124,893 24,20127,918
7
5
12
0.3
11.4
0.40.5
74
17
91
3.23.6
3.54.7
3.33.8

The overall frequency of wooden hulls in deep and shallow waters, combined, is 0.4 to 0.5 wreck per 1,000 sq mi. By
comparison, the frequency of metal hulls in shallow and deep water, combined, is at least 3.3 to 3.8 wrecks per 1,000 sq mi.
The frequency of metal shipwrecks is 7 to 9 times greater than wooden wrecks, despite the fact that prior to 1948 wooden
shipwrecks were roughly 13 times more abundant than metal shipwrecks. The frequency of metal hulls is similar in shallow
and deep water. This is to be expected, since metal hulls should be equally visible in shallow and deep water.
Historic records of shipping losses suggest that archaeologists have seen only a small fraction of the wooden shipwrecks
that exist in shallow water. It seems likely that several wooden shipwrecks have been detected by previous remote-sensing
surveys in shallow water but, in the absence of ship-shaped sonar images, were reported as unidentified anomalies or debris.
Sailing vessels, in particular, might be difficult to detect, as complete burial is more likely in the absence of large machinery.
On the other hand, iron and steel machinery can endure significantly longer exposures to the open ocean elements than is the
case for wooden parts of a ship. In theory this should make wooden wrecks with machine propulsion systems easier to detect
than wood-hulled sailing ships or barges; however, distinguishing a vessels machinery from modern debris on a sonar image
is not a simple task (e.g., Figure 15).

Figure 15: Sonar images of New York, mostly buried (left) and after salvage operations (right). The steam chest and cylinder
(brackets) were the only things exposed when the site was discovered.

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The SS New York, sunk in 1846, was miss-identified by industry surveys in 1988 and 2001. The identities of those survey
companies is not disclosed here; however, it is important to point out that both surveys met the requirements and expectations
of BOEMRE (then Minerals Management Service). Neither survey reported a sonar target at the site; however, the 100-kHz
sonars were configured for 100- and 150-meter ranges, respectively. Both surveys reported unidentified magnetic anomalies
over the site. In 1988 an anomaly with peak amplitude in excess of 100 nanoTesla (nT) was recorded over a distance of 500
feet. The archaeologist recommended avoidance of this and four other anomalies unless or until they can be shown to be
other than cultural resource features. In 2001 a 96-nT dipole 369 feet wide was recorded at the site. Although the anomaly
was classified as debris, the archaeologist recommended avoidance of this and all other unidentified anomalies in the block.
Evolution of Survey Methods
Routine discovery of buried wooden shipwrecks will rely largely upon the same suite of instruments that has been used in the
past, including magnetometer, side-scan sonar, sub-bottom profiler, and echo-sounder; however, achieving this end will
require higher data resolution than is routinely mandated in the Gulf of Mexico today. Survey resolution can be improved
significantly and economically by using Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) as instrument platforms instead of
towing sensors behind a traditional survey vessel. Until recently, AUVs were designed for and used almost exclusively in
deep water. That situation is quickly changing, as several manufacturers are entering the marketplace with portable AUVs
designed for working in shallow water (e.g., Figure 16). This new generation of AUVs can be deployed and retrieved by one
or two persons from small boats yet can be simultaneously configured with side-scan sonar, sub-bottom profiler, multi-beam
sonar, and video.
The benefits of AUVs are numerous. Data quality is less dependent upon sea state, since they are not tethered to a rocking
survey boat. The small size means that multiple AUVs can be deployed in a survey area by a single support vessel with a
small crew, thereby shortening survey durations, minimizing weather delays, and cutting costs per unit area surveyed. At
present, none of the manufacturers is offering an onboard magnetometer; however, a major manufacturer of magnetometers,
in conjunction with another firm and the University of Delaware, is in the process of designing and testing a noise reduction
system for a small AUV, which will allow integration of a total field magnetometer inside the AUV. Their goal is to reduce
or eliminate platform and electrical noise generated from the AUV's propulsion system.

Figure 16: Example of small AUV owned by the University of Delaware to be used as a test bed for an integrated magnetometer.

The integration of a magnetometer with a small AUV is an important development, as any system designed for finding
wood-hulled shipwrecks must include a magnetometer. Fifty-seven percent of all U.S. Merchant Vessels lost from 1876
through 1947 were wooden hulls without machine-powered propulsion. Fifty percent were sailing ships and the balance were
unrigged vessels, mostly barges. Once shipworms, hurricanes, and trawlers have taken their toll, anything that remains of
such wreck sites may be completely invisible to side-scan sonar, at least at the scale and resolution typically used in offshore
surveys. Thus, magnetic data will be of particular importance to finding buried wooden hulls, especially those lacking
machinery.
The initial survey of an area using AUVs would proceed in the same manner as a traditional survey except that the
sensors would not be towed and multiple AUVs could be deployed simultaneously from a single support boat. As AUVs
return to the surface upon completion of their primary survey task, each AUV could be redeployed to run preprogrammed
close-order patterns over remote-sensing anomalies detected by the primary survey. Close-order magnetic data offer the

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potential to distinguish some buried debris from potential shipwreck sites, based on the direction of an anomalys magnetic
moment (Gearhart 2011). A shipwreck, or other complex source, should have an anomaly similar to the induced anomaly
form typical for earths magnetic inclination at ones geographic position (Figure 17); whereas, an anomaly that is rotated in
any other direction than expected for ones magnetic inclination is unlikely to be associated with a shipwreck. Earths
magnetic field in the Gulf of Mexico is inclined in the range of 55 to 60 degrees. Figure 18 shows an anomaly recorded over
a wood-hulled shipwreck off the Texas coast where earths magnetic inclination is close to 60 degrees. Notice its similarity to
the northern hemisphere reference anomaly for a 60-degree inclination in Figure 17.
In the process of running close-order magnetometer surveys over anomalies, an AUV also can collect multi-beam
bathymetry and additional side-scan sonar imagery from multiple viewing angles. At close range, both instruments stand a
chance of detecting subtle features, such as exposed ship frames, ballast stones, machinery, or scour holes that might suggest
the presence of a shipwreck just beneath the seafloor. Likewise, sub-bottom profiles recorded over multiple passes may
reveal a buried hull or a filled scour hole (e.g., Quinn 2006). In the event a wreck is suspected based on close inspection by
these various sensors, the AUV can even be programmed to pass low over the site to record video photography in hopes of
providing additional confirmation of objects observed on sonar.

Figure 17: Induced Magnetic Anomalies for Various Inclinations of Earths Magnetic Field. Drawings of induced anomalies based on
University of British Columbia, Geophysical Inversion Facility, JAVA Program by R. Shekhtman (1999). Illustration borrowed from
Gearhart (2011).

Conclusions
It is apparent that a large number of undiscovered wooden shipwrecks exist within the central and western Gulf of Mexico,
and a large proportion of those sites may have excellent preservation of buried remains. Discovery of such sites seems
dependent upon increasing the resolution of survey data beyond present standards. The influx of AUVs into the shallow
survey market may provide the solution to this problem. It seems only a matter of time before small AUVs revolutionize
shallow water survey methods. The unit price of offshore surveys may drop significantly as survey vessels, operating
multiple small AUV platforms, begin to compete in this market. If this proves to be the case, BOEMRE might see an
opportunity to reevaluate their survey requirements, mandating tighter archaeological line intervals and higher sonar
resolution necessary to find buried wooden shipwrecks. The alternative to raising resolution requirements is to maintain the
status quo, in which case fishing trawlers and treasure hunters may continue to outpace archaeologists in the discovery of
wooden shipwrecks in shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Evidence clearly indicates that large numbers of shipwrecks
with wooden hulls are buried in shallow Gulf waters. It is important for the sake of their continued preservation that these
sites be discovered by archaeologists, so they can be monitored for signs of treasure-hunting activities and, if necessary,
documented for posterity.

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Figure 18: Magnetic Anomaly over a Wooden Shipwreck in

the Gulf of Mexico near the Texas Coast (Gearhart 2011).

Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his gratitude to the archaeologists of BOEMRE for sharing information and illustrations that
were invaluable to the treatment of this topic.
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