Chapter 1 Cement

1. Bind the sand and coarse aggregate to form a solid mass after reacting with
water
2. Obtained by grinding clinker formed by burning raw material consisting
calcareous material and argillaceous material
3. Calcareous: calcium oxide from limestone, chalk oyster shell; Argillaceous:
silicates, alumina& iron oxide from clay, shale and blast furnace slag
4. Characteristic: setting and hardening when mix with water, cohesive and
adhesive
5. Hydraulic cement: able to set and harden in the presence of water (OPC)
6. Non- hydraulic cement : require no water to harden, react with carbon
dioxide in the air; CaOH2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O
7. Wet process : softer material (clay + chalk)
8. Dry process : harder material ( shale + limestone)
9. Step in manufacturing
a) Grinding and mixing of raw material
b) Burning in rotary kiln at 1450 changes raw material chemically into
cement clinker
c) Cooling, grinding and sieving (90% fine passing 45um)
d) Storing, packing and distributing
10.Gypsum : prevent fast setting; Pozzolana : secondary hydration, produce
more cohesive and adhesive (cooling and grinding process)
11.Wet process: Material ground and mix , the slurry form product is fed into
rotary kiln where it is heated to 1500 to form clinker
12.Wet process: Water is driven off at 100; Limestone change to CaO at 850 and
CO2 is liberated; Cao react with SiO2 to form calcium silicate at 1500; Cao
react with other compounds to form Calcium Aluminat CA and Calcium
Aluminoferit CAF
13.Dry process : mixed in dry condition; small amount of water is added to form
12mm diameter balls that are burnt in rotary kiln and the chemical process is
the same
14.Tricalcium silicate; Dicalcium silicate; Tricalcium Aluminate, Tetracalcium
aluminimoferit; Other ( Na2O.K2O)
15.Na2O&K2O : cause alkali-silica reaction
16.C3A : poor cementing property, turn out higher heat of reaction; poor
sulphate resistance; increase volumetric shrinkage upon drying
17.Control of alkali silica reaction
a) Control pH in the pore solution
b) Decrease CH concentration by using fly ash
c) Limit alkali concentration
d) Control the amount of reactive silica by control the aggregate used
e) Test aggregate in sodium hydroxide solution for 6 months
f) Moisture control
g) Use lithium or barium salt to inactivate the expansion of alkali silica gel
18. Hydration process : cement+ water = CSH gel + CaOH2
a) Exothermic process where heat Is liberated
b) C3S provide early strength and liberated higher heat of hydration

19.Development of structure in Cement paste

a) Initial CSH phase: The CSH phase is initially formed. C3A forms a gel
faster.
b) Forming of gel: The volume of cement grain decrease as a gel forms at
the surface. Cement grains are still able to move independently, but as
hydration grows, weak interlocking begins. Part of the cement is in a
thixotropic state. Vibration can break the weak bond.
c) Initial set: The initial set occur with the development of a weak
skeleton in which cement grains are held in place.
d) Final set: Final set occurs as the skeleton becomes rigid. Cement
particles are locked in place, and spacing between cement grains
increase due to the volume reduction of the grains.
e) Hardening: Spaces between the cement grains are filled with hydration
product as cement paste developed strength and durability.
20.C2S react slowly, provide later strength, highly chemical resistance(sulphate,
chloride)
21.C3A provide little strength except at early stage. When attack by sulphates,
formation of sulphoaluminate AS3 may cause disruption/crack. AS3 combined
with CAOH2 to form ettringate( calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate) and
monosulphate ( calcium aluminate sulphate hydrate)
22.C4AF not affect the behavior of hydration but react with gypsum to form
calcium sulphoferrite which accelerate the hydration of silicates.
23.Hydration products
a) Calcium silicate hydrate: main source of concrete strength and
cohesiveness; Si/Ca ratio is 0.45-0.5
b) Calcium hydroxide: form from C3S hydration; excess lime is available
from C3S hydration
c) Ettringite: rod like crystal in the early stage of cement hydration
d) Monosulphate: occur later stage of hydration; replace ettringite
24.Ordinary Portland cement
a) No exposure to sulphate
b) Minimum fineness 225m2/kg
c) ASTM C150
25.Rapid hardening Portland cement
a) Higher C3S (70%)
b) Minimum fineness 325m2/kg
c) Formwork removed early for reuse or sufficient strength for further
construction
d) Safeguard against early frost damage
26.Sulphate Resisting Portland cement
a) Low C3A (3.5%) to avoid sulphate attack from outside
b) Minimum fineness 250m2/kg
c) Sulphate attack is greatly accelerate by accompanied of wetting and
drying
d) Low heat developed
27.Blended cement: mixture of Portland cement and blast furnace slag or
pozzolan;

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

reduces mixing water and bleeding,

improve finishability and workability,
enhance sulphate resistance,
inhibit alkali aggregate reaction,
lessen heat evolution during hydration and moderating chance for
thermal cracking on cooling
28.Portland blast furnace slag cement
a) Blending Portland cement clinker with granulated blast furnace slag
b) Minimum fineness 275m2/kg
c) Early strength lower than OPC but higher at later strength
d) Low heat of hydration and better sulphate resistance (lower C3A)
e) Slag replacement 5 to 70% of the mass of mixture
29.Portland pozzolan cement
a) Pozzolan, a siliceous and aluminous material which possesses little or
no cementitious but when react with CaOH2 in the presence of
moisture to form compound possesses cementitious properties.
b) Require curing over long period than OPC, but long term strength is
high
c) 25% to 40% replacement

Chapter 2 Aggregate

ASTM: Granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed stone used with cementing
medium to form mortar or concrete
Natural/ manufactured
1. Crushed: sharp angular, rough surface, from quarry, good bond strength, low
workability
2. / Uncrushed: round shape, smooth surface, low bonding properties, high
workability
3. Size distribution
a. Sieve analysis
b. Maximum size
c. Nominal maximum size
d. Significance of grading
i. Economy
ii. Consistency
iii. Strength
iv. Shrinkage
v. Finishability
4. Coarse aggregate if less than 10% passes no.4
5. Fineness modulus
a. Measure of fineness of the sand
b. Sum of cum % retained on std sieve divided by 100
6. Effect of aggregate size
a. Larger nom. Max size, lower water content to produce a given slump
b. Nom max size < spacing of rebar or 1/5 min form dimension
7. Granite, sandstone, limestone
8. Type of aggregate
a. Lightweight
i. Bulk density < 1200kg/m3
ii. Lightweight concrete, masonry block
iii. Porous, good thermal insulation
iv. Natural: natural rock
v. Manufactured: expanding raw material in rotary kiln, on
sintering gate or mixing with water
b. Normal weight
i. Density 2300-2500
ii. Specific gravity 2.5 to 3
iii. Cleaned from impurities
iv. Chloride content should less than 1%
c. Heavy weight
i. Density 4000-8500
ii. Protection against nuclear radiation
iii. Low workability
iv. Barite with specific gravity 4.5
9. Physical
a. Soundness
i. Volume changes in aggregate cause deterioration
b. Volume changes
i. Freeze thaw

ii. Surface pop out

c. Wear resistance: La abrasion test
10.Chemical resistance
a. Extensive map cracking or pattern cracking
b. Get oozing out of concrete
c. Take 15-20 years to show
d. Expansion due to alkalis in cement and reactive silica in concrete
i. Na2O, K2O
11.Factor affecting expansion
a. Reactive silica
b. Amount of silica 8% cause maximum expansion
c. Particle size of reactive material
d. Available alkali
e. Moisture available
12.Mechanism
a. Initial alkaline de polymerization and dissolution of reactive silica
b. Formation of hydrous alkali silica gel ( expend when absorbed
moisture)
c. Attraction of water by gel
d. Formation of liquid solution ( dilute suspension of colloidal particle)
13.Specific gravity : ratio of mass of a unit volume at specific temperature to
mass of the same volume of gas free distilled water ; the weight of aggregate
size depend on moisture level, so as specific gravity
a. Weight of aggregate in air/weight of equal volume of water
b. Bulk SG= weight of oven dry basis/weight of equal volume of water
14.Coarse aggregate
a. Oven dry to constant weight
b. Soak in water for 24 hours
c. Bring to SSD
d. Weight the SSd sample in air
e. Weight the sample in water / submerged
f. Oven dry the sample and weigh
15.Fine aggregate
a. Oven dry
b. Soak in water for 24 hours
c. Dry to SSD ( blow hot air)
d. Weight SSD sample in air
e. Weight of flask filled with SSD aggregate and then water at a constant
specific volume, shake to remove water
f. Remove the sample from flask, oven dry and weigh
g. Weigh flask filled with water at specific volume in air
16.Moisture
a. Absorbed moisture
i. Weight of water absorbed by dry aggregate in reaching the
saturated surface dry condition
ii. Percentage of dry weight
iii. No water on surface but all pores filled with water
iv. Neither absorbed water nor contribute moisture to surrounding
b. Surface moisture

i. Excess of absorbed moisture

17.Surface saturated dry condition
a. All pores in particles are filled with water but no moisture exist on the
outside surface
b. Mixing water be used totally for the hydration process and workability
of concrete
c. Excess moisture remains on the surface of particles, extra water for
mixing and affect the compressive strength
18.Absorption: amount of water needed to bring the aggregate to a saturated
surface dry condition
19.Total moisture content: total amount of water present on the internal and
external surfaces of aggregate
20.Surface moisture content: total amount of water present on the external
surface of aggregate
21.Oven dry condition: all the moisture is driven out of the pores by drying the
aggregate to a constant weight at temperature about 110
22.Air condition: amount of moisture in the particles is less than saturated
surface dry condition but more than oven dry condition
23.Bulk density of aggregate: unit weight or dry rodded weight
24.Void: amount of air space in the aggregate or space between particles
25.Porosity: ratio of the volume of the pores in a particle to its total volume of
solid volume plus pore volume
26.Modulus of elasticity: ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the
proportional limit
27.Compressive strength: compressive strength of original rock
28.Gradation /grading: proportion of aggregate distributed in specified particle
size range
29.Fineness modulus : an empirical factor obtained by adding the total
percentage of a sample of the aggregate retained on each of a specified
series of sieve and dividing the sum by 100
a. 2.3-3.1 suitable for concrete
b. The higher the FM the coarser

Chapter 3 water in concrete

1. For hydration process & workability of concrete
2. Tested
a. Setting time of cement paste
b. Compressive strength of concrete
3. Seawater must not be used for reinforced concrete because the danger of
corrosion of steel from chloride content of the water.
4. Admixture: a material added to plastic concrete or mortar to change one or
more properties of concrete

5. When the desired modification of properties cannot be achieved by changing

the composition of the mix proportion
6. Chemical admixtures
a. Accelerating admixture
i. Accelerate the setting and early strength development of
concrete
ii. Early removal of formwork
iii. Cacl2 2% by weight of cement
iv. Excessive cacl2 result in rapid stiffening, increase drying
shrinkage and creep of concrete and corrosion of reinforcement
v. Not recommended in hot weather and ineffective at temperature
below freeze
b. Retarding admixture
i. Delay its setting and hardening
ii. Hot weather increase the rate of hardening which make it
difficult to place and finish
iii. Large structure, to keep concrete workable throughout the
placing period
iv. Sugar in any form is retarder
v. Reduce the early strength
c. Water reducing admixture
i. Reduce the quantity of mixing water required, increase the
compressive strength, high slump
ii. Reduce water required by 12%
iii. Increase dispersion of cement particles, causing reduction in
viscosity of concrete
iv. Superplasticizer
v. Linear polymer containing sulfonic acid group attached to the
polymer backbone at regular interval
vi. The sulfonic acid responsible for neutralize the surface charge
on the cement particle causing dispersion thus releasing the
water tied up in the cement particle
vii. 0.2% by weight of cement to increase slump
viii. w/c ratio of 0.3 to 0.45
ix. increase cost but save labor cost
1. sulfonated melamine formaldehyde condensates
2. sulfhonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates
3. modified lignosulfonate
4. polycarboxyate derivatives
x. effect of superplasticizer
1. increase workability
2. increase compressive strength
3. eliminate segregation
4. allow good dispersion of cement particle in water
7. pozzolan
a. slag
i. non metallic product; consisting of silicate and aluminate of
calcium base

b.

c.

d.
e.

ii. not only pozzolanic but cemetitious

iii. production of cast iron, liquid slag is rapidly quenched from a
high temperature either by water or combination of air and
water , mostly lime, magnesia, silica and alumina held in a
noncrystalline
fly ash
i. by product of burning powdered coal in electrical generating
power plant
ii. small sphere of glass consisting silica, alumina and ferric oxide
iii. low calcium fly ash and high calcium fly ash
silica fume
i. by product of electric arc furnace
ii. reduction of quartz to silicon at 2000 produces sio vapor, which
oxidize and condense in the low temperature zone to tiny
spherical particles consisting of non crystalline silica
iii. highly pozzolanic and reactive
rice husk ash
i. burning and grinding of rice husk
ii. contain silica
palm oil fuel ash
i. burning of palm oil clinker

8. fibre
a. to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage craking
b. lower permeability