Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2008
Compensation doping
Excess carriers and lifetime
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
As the temperature increases, the lattice vibrations arise. Some of the energy
of the lattice vibrations is transferred to the valence electrons. If sufficient
energy is given to an electron, it leaves a bond and becomes free.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
If the width of the forbidden band is less, electrons are released at lower
temperature.
When an electron is released, a positively charged vacancy appears. This
vacancy may be considered as a positive hole.
According to the energy band diagram an uncompleted allowed energy level in
the valence band corresponds to a hole.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
mp
Wv + Wc 3
WF =
+ kT ln
2
4
mn
The Fermi level in an intrinsic
semiconductor lays at the middle
of the forbidden band.
If the Fermi level is below the bottom of the conduction
band, it is possible to use the simplified formula
f F (W ) e (W WF ) / kT
... The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function can be used for calculation of the
probability of occupation of energy levels in the conduction band.
The same conclusion can be made for holes in the valence band.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
n=
2(2 mn kT )3 / 2
h3
e (Wc WF ) / kT = N c e (Wc WF ) / kT
Acting in a similar way we can find density or holes in the valence band.
p=
2 2mp kT
h3
)3 / 2 e (W W ) / kT = N
F
e (WF Wv ) / kT
np = N c N v e (Wc Wv ) / kT = N c N v e W / kT
np = ni pi = ni2 = pi2
ni = pi = np = N c N v e W / 2 kT
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
ni = pi = np = N c N v e W / 2 kT
The number of conduction electrons and holes increases rapidly with the
increase of temperature and decreases with the increase of the gap
energy.
ln ni = ln pi =
1
W 1
1
ln(N c N v )
ab
2
2k T
T
tan
W
2k
... Using the expressions for the densities of electrons and holes and taking into
account the condition n = p, it is possible to derive the formula for the Fermi
level in an intrinsic semiconductor.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
2008
The intrinsic carrier densities are very small and depend strongly on
temperature. In order to fabricate devices such as diodes or transistors, it is
necessary to increase the free electron or hole population. This is done
intentionally doping the semiconductor, i. e. adding specific impurities in
controlled amounts.
Doped semiconductor are called extrinsic semiconductors.
... The percentage of impurity in non-degenerate semiconductors must be
small (for example, about 10-5 % in the substrates for integrated circuits). Then
impurity atoms are isolated from each other by semiconductor atoms.
In order to have necessary conductivity type, donor and acceptor impurities are
used.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
10
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
11
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
12
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
13
2008
nn N d
pn =
ni
pi << pi
nn
... In the n-type semiconductor electrons are the majority carriers and
holes are the minority carriers.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
14
2008
nn = N c exp[ (Wc WF ) / kT ] = N d
WF = Wc kT ln
Nc
Nd
... The Fermi level in the extrinsic range falls as the temperature
increases.
As the density of the intrinsic charge carriers increases with temperature, at
some temperature that is sufficiently higher than 300 K it becomes equal to Nd.
At higher temperatures thermally exited intrinsic carriers predominate. Then the
semiconductor obtains the properties of an intrinsic semiconductor.
In the high temperature or intrinsic range the Fermi level approaches the midgap position.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
15
2008
... In the impurity ionisation (low temperature) range the density of electrons increases with
temperature.
In the extrinsic range (at middle temperatures) the density of electrons is almost constant.
At last in the intrinsic range (at high temperatures) the intrinsic carriers predominate and their
density increases with temperature.
Plotting the variable 1/T along the x-axis and lnn and lnp along the y-axis, we obtain curves
that may be approximated by the segments of a straight line.
f F (Wd ) = 1 / 2
ni = N d
VGTU EF ESK
Wc Wd
Ts
k ln (2 N c / N d )
n Nd / 2
Ti =
W
k ln( N c N v / N d2 )
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
16
2008
nn N d
pn =
ni
pi << pi
nn
If the donor density is higher, the Fermi level is higher, closer to the bottom of
the conduction band; the electron density is higher, the hole density is lower.
If the donor concentration is lower, the Fermi level is lower, closer to the middle
of the forbidden band.
... In the n-type semiconductor the Fermi level is always over the middle of the
forbidden band.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
17
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
18
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
19
2008
At 0 K acceptor levels are free. Electrons occupy the valence band of the
semiconductor. There are no charge carriers. Semiconductor has properties of
insulator.
If the temperature increases, electrons jump from the valence band to the
acceptor levels leaving holes in the valence band. So in the impurity ionisation
range the density of holes increases with temperature.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
20
2008
pp N a
ni2
ni2
WF Wv = kT ln
Nv
Na
At high temperatures the material becomes intrinsic and the Fermi level
approaches midway between the conduction and valence bands.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
21
2008
pp N a
VGTU EF ESK
ni2
ni2
np =
pp N a
WF Wv = kT ln
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
Nv
Na
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
22
2008
pp N a
np ni2 / N a
WF Wv = kT ln
Nv
Na
... The Fermi level below the middle of the forbidden band is the
characteristic feature of the band model of the p-type semiconductor.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
23
2008
1. How many charges and how many charge carriers appear as a result of
acceptor ionization?
2. Silicon plate is doped by boron. Its density is 1016 cm3. Find carrier
densities and Fermi level at temperature 300 K.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
24
2008
Compensation doping
When both acceptor and donor impurities are added simultaneously to an
intrinsic semiconductor, the compensation takes place.
At higher donor density the crystal is n-type
semiconductor since n-type impurity predominates.
The free carriers supplied by the less concentrated
dopant recombine with an equal number of carriers
of the opposite type. So some of the donor states
are cancelled by acceptor states..
If
nn = N d N d ' N a '
pn = ni2 / N d
p p = N a N a ' N d '
VGTU EF ESK
np = ni2 / N a
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
25
2008
Compensation doping
p-type material can be converted to the n-type and vice-versa, by the addition of
excess dopant atoms of the appropriate type.
If ni > N D N A , the intrinsic charge carriers predominate. The semiconductor
has properties of the intrinsic compensated or near-fully compensated material.
The Fermi level lies near the middle of the forbidden gap.
Compensation doping is widely used in manufacturing of semiconductor devices
and integrated circuits.
The compensation is possible, if impurity density is not very high. Then the
distance between impurity atoms is relatively great and impurity atoms cannot
interact.
If impurity density increases, the distance between impurity atoms decreases.
When impurity density in silicon becomes approximately 1019 cm-3, degeneration
of the semiconductor arises. Then impurity levels split and allowed bands
appear.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
26
2008
Compensation doping
In the degenerate n-type semiconductor, conduction
and donor bands overlap and form the hybrid
conduction band. Energy levels at the bottom of the
hybrid conduction band are occupied by electrons.
The Fermi level is above the bottom of the
conduction band.
In the degenerate p-type semiconductor, we have
overlapping of the valence and acceptor bands.
Then energy levels at the top of the hybrid valence
band are not occupied by electrons. The Fermi level
is below the top of the valence band
In both cases there are unoccupied allowed energy
levels over the levels that are filled by electrons. The
situation is very similar to that in conductors.
Therefore conduction is possible even at 0 K in
degenerate semiconductors and they are sometimes
called semimetals.
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
W
WF
Wc
Wv
W
Wc
Wv
WF
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
27
2008
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
28
2008
Under thermal equilibrium the generation rate and the recombination rate are
equal and the carrier densities and remain constant.
The equilibrium may be disturbed by light or carrier injection.
Excess electrons and holes are always equal in number:
n = n0 + n
p = p0 + p
n = p.
pn > ni 2 .
If the external excitation (activation) stops, the density of the excess carriers
reduces exponentially:
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt
ELEKTRONIKOS PAGRINDAI
29
2008
n0 = nn + n0 ,
p0 = pn + p0 .
n(t ) = p(t ) = n0 exp(t / ) = p0 exp(t / )
The lifetime represents the average time a carrier remains free before it
recombines. During the lifetime the number of excess carriers reduces e times.
The recombination rate of the excess carriers is dependent on the lifetime:
d n d(n)
n
=
... =
dt
dt
d p d(p )
p
=
... =
dt
dt
VGTU EF ESK
stanislovas.staras@el.vgtu.lt