A STUDY OF JOB, A^ MASQUE FOR DANCING BY

RALPH VAUGHAN WILLIAMS

by
PATRICIA WADE WILES, B.S. in Ed., M.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
FINE ARTS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Accepted

August, 1988

'

<jD

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Studying a work like Job, A Masque for Dancing is like
touching the long poetic soul of mankind, and researching it
has given me the honor of contributing to its history in a
small way.

The approach itself is one outcome of the rich

teachings of my mentor, Dr. Lee Rigsby, whose perspectives

on the universal themes of mankind as perpetuated
arts greatly changed and enriched my own.

in the

I thank him for

that ongoing gift, as well as his patient, thoughtful manner

of directing this dissertation.
Dr. Richard McGowan was a positive

force

in early

encouragement and suggestions; Dr. Paul Cutter lent his

expertise in musical and editorial matters.

Both Drs. Kim

Smith and George Sorensen offered stimulating suggestions

that broadened my thinking in the fields of the visual arts
and theatre, respectivelyIn London a number of persons were especially helpful:
Adrian Grater of the Institute of Choreology

was

an

invaluable source in demonstrating the Benesh notation of

Scene II; Audrey Harmon, archivist for the Royal Ballet, and
Franchesca Franchi, archivist for the Royal Opera House,
Covent Garden, were very gracious and helpful.

Ninette de

Valois opened the way at the Royal Ballet and offered her
original notes for perusal.

Joy Newton graciously shared

her expertise and knowledge of the ballet, including her

sketches.

Jean Bedells passed on many details in answering

ii

last-minute questions.

My a p p r e c i a t i o n goes to each one of

t h e s e p e r s o n s , as well as Ursula Vaughan W i l l i a m s , who l e n t

materials,

wrote

h a n d w r i t i n g for me.

letters,

and d e c i p h e r e d

her

My t h a n k s a l s o go to t h e

husband's

Fitzwilliam

Museum for p e r m i s s i o n to reproduce the scene d e s i g n s for Job

by Gwendolen R a v e r a t

and t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s of New

England for p e r m i s s i o n t o reproduce B l a k e ' s I l l u s t r a t i o n s of

t h e Book of Job from B l a k e ' s Job by S. F o s t e r Damon, 1982.
In Texas my g r a t i t u d e extends t o Audrey Rhodes F i e l
her c o n t i n u i n g g r a c i o u s h o s p i t a l i t y

and s u p p o r t ,

to

for
the

Canyon Fine A r t s Club for t h e i r f i n a n c i a l award, and to Ruth

Rigsby

for

occasions.
children,

t h e warm welcome
Most of a l l ,
Brent

encouragement,

into

her

home on so many

I thank my h u s b a n d ,

and S h a n n o n ,

for

their

l o v e , and s u p p o r t d u r i n g

times over the y e a r s of t h i s s t u d y .

111

Jack,

and

under s t a n d i n g ,
the

up-and-down

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

vi

PREFACE

CHAPTER
I.

II.

III.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ENGLISH MASQUE

Origin and Development

Demise of the Court Masque

Description of a Masque

10

Music and Dance in the Masque

19

Notes

31

CONTEMPORARY BACKGROUND

36

Vaughan Williams, The Masque, and Dance

36

Classical Ballet Background

42

Keynes' Conception of Job

48

The Composition of Job

51

Conclusion

53

Notes

55

WILLIAM BLAKE AND THE SUBJECT OF JOB

58

The Book of Job

58

William Blake and Job

61

A Selected Reading of the Plates

68

Notes

81

IV

IV.

V.

VI.

THE MUSIC OF JOB

128

Music Analysis

130

Discussion of Analysis

140

Notes

176

JOB ON STAGE

178

Scene Design

183

The Large Group Dances

184

The Solo Dances

195

Elihu's Dance of Youth and Beauty

201

Character Dances

202

Dance of War, Pestilence, and Famine

203

Dance of the Three Messengers

205

Dance of Job's Comforters

206

Notes

209

CONCLUSION

301

Job As a Masque

301

Job As a Universal Theme

303

Notes

305

SOURCES CONSULTED

306

Primary Sources

306

Secondary Sources

307

APPENDICES
A.

SCENARIOS

313

B.

ADDITIONAL SCENE DESIGNS

322

C.

PERFORMANCE HISTORY

325

D.

TWO PAGES FROM ORCHESTRAL SCORE

336

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.

Title page, Illustrations of the Book of Job,

William Blake, 1825, Tate Gallery, London

84

2.

Plate 1, thus did Job continually

86

3.

Plate 2, when the Almighty was yet with me,

when my children were about me

88

Plate 3, thy sons and thy daughters were eating

and drinking wine in their eldest brothers house
and behold there came a great wind from the
wilderness and smote upon the four faces of the
house and it fell upon the young men and they
are dead

90

5.

Plate 4, and I only am escaped alone to tell thee

92

6.

Plate 5, then went Satan forth from the presence

of the Lord

94

Plate 6, and smote Job with sore boils from the

sole of his foot to the crown of his head

96

Plate 7, and when they lifted up their eyes

afar off and knew him not they lifted up their
voice and wept, and they rent every man his
mantle and sprinkled dust upon their heads
tbwards heaven

98

Plate 8, let the day perish wherein I was born

100

Plate 9, then a spirit passed before my face

the hair of my flesh stood up

102

Plate 10, the just upright man is laughed to

scorn

104

Plate 11, with dreams upon my bed thou scarest

me and affrightest me with visions

106

Plate 12, I am young and ye are very old wherefore I was afraid

108

Plate 13, then the Lord answered Job out of the

whirlwind

110

Plate 14, when the morning stars sang together,

and all the Sons of God shouted for joy

112

4.

7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

VI

16.
17.
18.

Plate 15, behold now Behemoth which I made with

thee

114

Plate 16, thou hast fulfilled the judgment of the

wicked

116

Plate 17, I have heard thee with the hearing pf

the ear but now my eye seeth thee

118

19.

Plate 18, and my servant Job shall pray for you

120

20.

Plate 19,
money
Plate 20,
daughters
gave them

21.

22.

every one also gave him a piece of

122
there were not found women fair as the
of Job in all the land and their father
inheritance among their brethren

124

Plate 21, so the Lord blessed the latter end of

Job more than the beginning

126

23.

Blake's Comus, Plates 6 and 8

213

24.

Four figures labeled Pavane 2

215

25.

Ten female figures

217

26.
27.

Embracing figures
Three seated figures labeled as Comforters I and
three writhing figures

219

28.

Figures with hands clutching head and others

223

29.

Figures labeled Finale, Altar

225

30.

Eight groups of various figures

227

31.

Job and comforters believed to be taken from

Blake's 1786 engraving

229

32.

221

Job, "Satan's Dance of Triumph," stage layout

and opening bars of Benesh notation

231

33.

Gwen Raverat, design for Job, throne

233

34.

Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scene I

235

35.

Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scenes III, IV,

36.

V, VI, and Elihu's Dance of VII

237

Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scene IX

239

vii

37.

Entrance of Job's Children, Scene I

241

38.

Patterns of Job's Children, Pastoral Dance,

Scene I

243

39.

Sketches of Children of God for Saraband, Pavane,

and Galliard

245

40.

Sketches of Children of God, uplifted arms

247

41.

Sketches for Scene I, Job's Children, small

groups
Sketches for Pavane-Galliard, groups of Children
of God
Scene I, God seated, Satan kneeling, Children of
God, 1948 production

253

Scene I, Children of God on steps, 1931 production

255

Scene I, Children of God on steps, 1948 production

257

Tableau of Scene VIII, four Sons of Morning, 1931

production

259

42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

249
251

Circles of Children of God with Satan appealing

to God, 1932 production

261

48.

Satan appealing to God, six Sons of Morning

263

49.

Scene I, God and Satan standing, Children of

God kneeling

265

50.

Satan falling out of heaven

267

51.

Satan falling out of heaven, Camargo Society

269

52.

Satan pointing to Job, 1948, revival by Royal

Ballet at Covent Garden

271

53.

Satan and Job's Children, Scene III

273

54.

Tracing of Satan and dead Children of God taken

from photo
Tableau at end of Scene VIII
Page from de Valois' sketchbook showing relationship of Satan to Blake's Plate 2
viii

55.
56.

275
277
279

57.

Scene V I I , Elihu and Children of God

281

58.

Figures of Scene IV movement as drawn and labeled

by Joy Newton

283

Scene IV. Satan with W a r , Pestilence, and Famine

in masks and demonstrating Newton's drawings

285

A second view of Scene IV, Satan with W a r ,

Pestilence, and Famine

287

A third view of Scene IV, Satan with W a r ,

Pestilence, and Famine

289

Satan standing over Job and wife in Scene IV as

in Blake Plate 6

291

Stick figure drawings of entrance of three

messengers, Scene V, as drawn and labeled by
Joy Newton

2 93

59.
60.
61.
62.
63.

64.

Scene V, three Messengers relating their sad

news

2 95

65.

The three Comforters, Scene V I , 1948 production

297

66.
67.

Scene V I , Job cursing the day he was born

Unused design by Gwen Raverat for J o b , evening
landscape with sheep, 1931 production

299

68.
69.
70.
71.
72.

73.

323

Scene design by John Piper for 1948 revival,

Scenes I I I , IV, V, VI and Elihu's Dance of VII

328

Scene design for John Piper for 1948 revival,

Scene I

330

Theatre program for J o b , 1931-2, the Vic-Wells

Ballet

332

Cast of Job for 1931-2 season, the Vic-Wells

Ballet

334

Scene I, Interlude I I , full score, the opening

of the heavens revealing God on his throne and
lines of angels

337

Scene V I , full score, Job cursing the day of

his birth

339

IX

PREFACE
On J u l y 5 , 1 9 3 1 , s p e c t a t o r s a t t h e Cambridge T h e a t r e
London

were

witness

to

the

first

performance

Masque f o r D a n c i n g , a b a l l e t b a s e d on t h e i d e a
Blake's
tained

engravings,
the

Geoffrey
first

seminal

Keynes,

of

that

Job, A
William

I l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e Book of J o b ,
elements

for

actual

in

movement.

conSir

t h e B r i t i s h p h y s i c i a n and b i b l i o p h i l e who

imagined t h e b a l l e t

of J o b ,

stated

in h i s

autobiog-

raphy,
Looking at the designs in 1926 it came to me
that the groupings and gestures of the figures
were asking to be put into actual motion on stage
and, accompanied by dramatic m u s i c , couLd be
fashioned into a new kind of symbolic ballet.
In Keynes' view, ". . . a ballet must synthesize the
different arts of drama, design and colour, music, and
dancing.

Blake had provided . . . ample material to form a

2
basis for all of these except the music."
To the prominent

British composer, Ralph Vaughan Williams

(1872-1958),

however, Blake's masterpiece supplied inspiration enough.

Vaughan Williams conceived the music as a masque, a form
which had existed as a spectacular composite of the arts in
seventeenth century England.

The magnificent

score

is

considered by many a culminating achievement of Vaughan

Williams' extensive career and is one consideration of this
study.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , his choice of form
expectations in a modern work.

raises

certain

As in a Greek tragedy when

the spectator knows the outcome but wonders how the author
will manipulate the characters and action, so in Job, A
Masque for Dancing the spectator wonders how the artists
will relate the elements of music, scene design, and dance
to meet the criteria of the masque in a twentieth century
ballet.

Part of the attraction of the work lies in these

relationships.
At the same time, Job, A Masque for Dancing abounds in
other associations, as well.

Its unique origin and context

reflect the dance milieu of London in the 1920s, while its

form and content

interweave disparate elements into a

peculiarly English synthesis of the arts.

pushed English dance drama forward

Its creation

into a new chapter of

achievement while the work itself addressed one of mankind's

most agonizing

and ancient questions, that of

unjust

suffering.
The intent of this study of Job, A Masque for Dancing
is to exhibit and explore the multiple associations of this
masterwork.

The work's source of inspiration, its origin,

and its contents as separate arts and as reflections of both

the historical and contemporary contexts will be considered.
Two matters of semantics remain.

Henceforward, when

referring to the work by the title of the music or ballet,

Job, A Masque for Dancing, the author will use the shortened
title of Job.

When referring to man, men, or mankind, the

author uses these terms in a generic, traditional sense.

xi

Notes
Geoffrey Keynes, The Gates of Memory (Oxford, New
Oxford University Press, 1983), 203.
2
Geoffrey Keynes, Blake Studies: Essays on His Life
and Work (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 189.

York:

Xll

CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
THE ENGLISH MASQUE
The English masque was one of many forms of Renaissance
festival.

It

ranked

with

entrances,

processions,

p r o g r e s s e s , b a l l e t s , t o u r n a m e n t s , b a n q u e t s , water
fireworks d i s p l a y s ,

i n t e r m e z z i , and m a s q u e r a d e s t o s e r v e

f i r s t the Renaissance, l a t e r
propaganda.
artists,

festivals,

The f o r e m o s t

architects,

t h e Baroque p r i n c e as
poets,

composers,

royal

writers,

and s c u l p t o r s were c o m m i s s i o n e d

project

t h e r o y a l image.

efforts,

t h e monarch

to

Through t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l or j o i n t

was p r o p a g a t e d

to

his

court

and

subjects,

a s not only t h e " a r b i t e r in r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s but

gradually

. . . as t h e s o l e g u a r a n t o r of p e a c e and

within the S t a t e . "

as a m i r r o r

of

the

order

As a r e s u l t , "One can read the masque

religious,

political,

or

artistic

a r g u m e n t s of t h e a g e , which s u b s e q u e n t l y f i l t e r e d down in
2
English history and thought. . . "
Origin and Development
The masque was primarily a court fete, although
3
occasionally institutions such as the Inns of Court or
private nobles hosted masques with less aristocratic purpose
or participants.

Enid Welsford attribntes the origin of the

masque to the desire of Henry VIII to incorporate the

Italian masquer ie with its connotations of "flirtation and

4
amorous adventure" into the established Tudor muramings and
5
disguisings.
It is that fact that is reported by the
spectator in Hall's Chronicle in 1513, so often cited as
first mention of the masque.

"'On the date of the Epiphanie

at night, the kyng with xi other were disguised, after the

maner of Italie, called a maske, a thyng not seen afore in
Englande. . . .'"

The description further pictures the

confusion caused when the elaborately robed masquers asked

the ladies of the audience to join them in their dances.
" . . . some were content, and some that knewe the fashion of
it refused, because it was not a thyng commonly seen."

The

participation of the audience, or the revels, was apparently

the new element in the evening's entertainment.

"The object

of the masquers was to choose each a lady out of the

assembled company, to entertain her with dancing and gallant
conversation.

The gallantry and risqu talk of the masquers

Q

became proverbial. . . ."

became

one

of

This type of ribald

the d e f i n i n g

revelry

charac t e r i s tics

that

distinguished the early masque from similar forms of court

entertainment.
Andrew Sabol, in Four Hundred Songs and Dances from the
Stuart Masque, summarizes the masque as:
. . . a dance drama whose meaning is conveyed
primarily through patterned movements and gestures
rather than the vocal expression of ideas and
ideals. It is in the tradition of the ballet
rather than the opera, for aristocratic masquers
neither sing nor speak, but express themselves in
bodily movement.
Although a poetic libretto
clarifies the action and its meaning, it does so

p r i m a r i l y to remind the s p e c t a t o r s of what they

have seen . . . at i t s b e s t i t was a b r i l l i a n t
s p e c t a c l e in which a b a s i c p o e t i c idea was s e t
forth in d e l i c a t e symbolism, richly and gracefully
enhanced by a combination of the a r t s .
In s p i t e of i t s origin and popularity in Tudor England,
the masque developed during the reign of the S t u a r t s

(1603-

1649) and the p r o d u c t i v e p a r t n e r s h i p of Ben Jonson (15721637) and Inigo Jones (1573-1652) into the most lavish aural
and visual spectacle of Renaissance c o u r t s .

Both James I

(1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1649) g r e a t l y encouraged

masque p r o d u c t i o n by f i n a n c i a l
involvement.

s u p p o r t and

personal

Cor r espond ingly, the years 1604-1640 saw the

establishment

of t h e form t h a t

became

d e f i n i t i v e as well as s i g n i f i c a n t .

historically

While r e t a i n i n g

the

e s s e n t i a l elements of dance, r e v e l s , and masquerade,

the

l i t r a r y c o n t e n t was enhanced g r e a t l y by Ben Jonson, whose

l i b r e t t i served as a p r o t o t y p e in s t r u c t u r a l
theraatic development.
myths and l e g e n d s
intensified

and

Jonson stressed the use of c l a s s i c a l

as the

basis

of

his

allegories,

the p r a i s e of the monarch, and elaborated the

role of the spoken p r e s e n t e r .

Most important to the form,

however, was h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n
antimasque,

unity

and d e v e l o p m e n t of the

thus inserting ". . . drama and

intellectual

depth i n t o what might o t h e r w i s e have been a l i f a l e s s and

s t a t i c pageant."
Contributing e q u a l l y to the f i n a l forra of the masque
was Inigo J o n e s , the foremost figure in the visual a r t s in

4
seventeenth century England.

Jones' innovative career in

architecture, engineering, designing, and painting found a

parallel outlet in the court spectacle.

Through Jones,

Italian stage design was brought to England; he introduced

simple perspective, and all his masque designs included a
prosceniumarch

theatre with a falling curtain.

Jones'

crowning achievements were elaborate stage machines, or

devices, that served as the deus ex machina of the drama,
reflecting the royal ability to create God-like transformations inherent in the symbolism.

These magical effects

became so important with their ability

to mystify

and

delight that eventually they overshadowed any literary

significance.
As ingenious as Jonson and Jones were, their efforts
were aided by certain relevant assumptions held by the
Renaissance mind, concerning the visual arts, music, and
dance.

The rebirth of classical theories, both Aristotelian

and Platonic, imbued the Renaissance artist, his materials,

and methods with power " to project illusions . . . [that]
had meaning and moral force; . . . seeing was believing,
. . . art could give a vision of the good and the true;
. . ."1 2 The power to project truth through image was
possibT^ because the artist and perceiver assumed a direct
relationship between "reality, pictures and thought." 13
Pictures might be admired for their sensuous qualities, "but

the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e work l a y in i t s m e a n i n g , and

was expressed in a l l e g o r i c a l or symbolic t e r r a s . " 14
The much d e s i r e d

Platonic

s e n s e of

harmony

this

and

p r o p o r t i o n was a l s o b e l i e v e d to be c l o s e l y a l l i e d

t o music

through

t h e P y t h a g o r e a n - P l a t o n i c p r i n c i p l e s of

harmonic

nurabers.

John Meagher, in Method and Meaning i n

Jonson's

Masques, s t a t e s :
. . . i t i s p l a i n t h a t t h e s o c i e t y of g o d s ,
a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s , and v i r t u o u s h e r o e s , which
Jonson raanipulates . . . in a c o n f r o n t a t i o n of men
by t h e c e l e s t i a l o r d e r , c a n n o t f a i l to have i t s
intended e f f e c t u n d e r l i n e d , p o e t i c a l l y s t r e n g t h e n e d , and extended by the c o n t i n u a l f l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n with rausic which i s given them.
He d i s c u s s e s a number of ways in which Jonson e x p l o i t e d
power of m u s i c ; b e s i d e s using rausic i m p l i c i t l y t o
a desired effect

the

reinforce

in the drama of the masque, Jonson u t i l i z e d

music e x p l i c i t l y in the form of metaphors, which raight evoke

t h e intended raeaning by the l y r i c s or a c o r a b i n a t i o n of
l y r i c s and accorapanying sound.

the

F r e q u e n t l y Jonson used music

as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e masque, e i t h e r for p r a i s e of the

w o r t h y or

ritual,

and he commonly u s e d

r e l a t i o n s h i p of music and o r d e r

the

implicit

to a c t u a l l y c r e a t e o r d e r ,

such as "where t h e sound of a ' l o u d e t r i u m p h a n t

s e r v e s in i t s e l f

to s c a t t e r

grotesquely
M u s i q u e . ' " 17

a diabolical

to

musicke'

t h e hags who had been dancing

'strange

and

sodayne

Dance, also regarded as a reflection of cosmic order,

was, after all, the raison d'etre of the masque.

Jonson

6
relied heavily upon his audience's awareness of implicit and
explicit associations.

"The external grace of the dance is

always, in the Renaissance, to be a sign of an internal

18
grace of virtue and excellence," notes Meagher.
One use
was to create order from disorder, as in the case of the
grotesque dance of the antimasque followed by a dance of
beauty and order.
dance

Rarely are references made to specific

instructions ; those that do exist show geometric

patterns, letter dances, and choreographic steps designed to

create syrabols signifying desired virtues.

Although devised

for other dance events, these were assumably used by Jonson,

as well.
T h u s , h u r a a n i s t a l l e g o r y and syrabolism, a s d e p i c t e d
t h e combined p o w e r s o f
were

perceived

unfamiliar

to

the v i s u a l

by

the

modern

arts,

renaissance

man.

The

music,
raind

mind

of

with

and

dance,

manner

in
the

time

was

a c c u s t o m e d t o e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e manner of "when one t h i n g i s

t o l d , and by t h a t a n o t h e r i s u n d e r s t o o d . " 19 Such l a y e r s of
meaning a r e e l u c i d a t e d i n Roy S t r o n g ' s S p l e n d o u r a t C o u r t . 20
On t h e

literal

scintillated
the s u r f a c e
mysterious
character.
designed

level

was

the

frivolous

delight

t h e s e n s e s of t h e c o u r t i e r s and t h e i r
pleasures

exploits

of

and a c t s

A second
for

'".

play

level

and p r e t e n c e

in

that

monarch,

recreating

of

sorae a n c i e n t

mythological

of

meaning

the

was

moral,

. a p p r o v i n g v e r t u o u s a c t i o n s and
condemning t h e c o n t r a r i e . ' " 21 I t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s depended on

7
t h e a b i l i t y of the audience t o decode t h e e l a b o r a t e
effects

of

costurae,

visual

s t a g e m a c h i n e s , and d e s i g n , of

m u s i c , or t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y

that

depicted

the

the

iraprese ,

erableraata, and other p r e v a i l i n g syrabols of the t i m e s .

These

" ' C o u r t H i e r o g l y p h i c k s , ' " as Jonson c a l l e d them (as quoted

in N i c o l l ) , 22 were known in e n d l e s s i m p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e
c o u r t l y a u d i e n c e , who, " . . .

a l i v e to a l l the

'significant

s i g n e s , ' can have looked upon the masques as n o t h i n g b u t a

s e r i e s of l i v i n g erableras or have l i s t e n e d t o t h e i r v e r s e s as
a u g h t e l s e t h a n a s t r i n g of m o t t o e s . " 23 A t h i r d l e v e l of
meaning r e f l e c t i n g

" ' s o m e t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

Naturall

P h o l o s o p h i e , or sometimes of P o l i t i k governement, and now

and then of d i v i n i t i e . . . ' " 24 was a l s o coramon. A l l of
t h e s e l a y e r s of meaning were embellished by the miraculous
t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t s , music, and d a n c i n g .
Thus,

t h e m a s q u e was f a r

more

than

an

artistic

s t a t e m e n t of i t s d a y i t was an i d e a l v e h i c l e through which

t o e x p r e s s c e r t a i n g o v e r n m e n t a l and r e l i g i o u s
Recent

scholarly

criticisms

of

t h e masque

principles.
relate

the

development of the forra to i t s peak as " e x a c t l y c o i n c i d e n t a l

w i t h t h e r i s e and f a l l of e x t r e m e c l a i r a s t o
raonarchical
d i v i n i t y . " 2 5 E s p e c i a l l y d i d C h a r l e s I b e l i e v e in t h e
i l l u s o r y power of the raasque to i n f l u e n c e
fractious

his

increasingly

opposition.

The C a r o l i n e masques a l l r e l a t e t o t h e y e a r s of
C h a r l e s ' s so-called "personal r u l e , " those eleven
y e a r s b e t w e e n 1629 and 1640 in which he r u l e d

8
without parliament, a period subsequently brande d
Tyranny.
by the opposition as the Eleven Years' Tyranny.
Kogan describes the extreraes present in the latter days
of the form that permeated every level of production, from
conception

through

staging

and

perforraance.
An
27
extraordinary "stretching of analogies"
existed within the
formal eleraents, the fantasy, the appeal to the intellect

and senses, and the imagery.

Every detail was significant,

even the position of the throne.

Through the use of perspective the monarch,
always the ethical centre of court productions,
became in a physical and embleraatic way the centre
as well. Jones's theatre transforraed its audience
i n t o a l i v i n g and v i s i b l e e m b l e m of the
aristocratic hierarchy: the closer one sat to the
King, the "better" one'splace was, and only the
King's seat was perfect.
The temporal order of events within the form itself also
reflected

the masque's

intention:

the masque

always

proceeded from the undesirable to desirable, from chaos to

order, which was always brought about by the "king and court
abstracted in emblematic form as gods and goddesses, heroes
and heroines, sun and stars." 29 The symbolism then spread
into the audience with the revels.
Further, while the intellectual thrust pushed the mind
into eternity through its Platonic spiritualism and mystical
theophany, " the political cc.itent was directed toward time
and history,"

as each performance was a celebration of the

king and, increasingly, a statement of his place in the

balance of the universe.

According to Kogan, in contrast to

9
Elizabethan and even early Jacobean paeans, which maintain
an equilibrium between the monarch, nature, and divinity,
the Carolinian eulogies gradually insisted on a geniune
apotheosis. 31 Strong states, " . . . the themes . . . moved
from a contemplation of cosmic harmony and its reflection in
the estate to a conteraplation of the monarch as the genesis
of that earthly and heavenly harmony." 32
Deraise of the Court Masque
For a few years the raasque "held together powerful and
u n s e t t l i n g opposites in a high degree of resolution
. . . ,"33 as no other art form could. The last masques
reflected the monarch and Jones' "passionate belief in their
remedial efficacy . . . in staving off the oncoming tide of
34
disaster."
But the policies of Charles I which incited
the tensions in the populace caused complementary tension in
the masque.

The ultimate paradox was, of course, that the

more insistently King Charles celebrated his Divine Right

tenet, the less the spectacles of celebration did to bring
about a parallel reality in the conviction of his subjects.
Sensitive to foreign influence as well as domestic
pressures, the form which had accommodated themes ranging
from trivial to serious began to shift balance.

Jonson's

literary input had ceased in 1631; without his high level of

coherency and sense of proportion, unity was threatened by
an increase of unrelated entries, in the manner of the
ballet de cour.

The final blow to the masque came, however.

10
w i t h t h e E n g l i s h C i v i l War and t h e s u b s e q u e n t
After

being

tried

by a f a l s e

tribunal

regicide.

under

Oliver

C r o m w e l l ' s i n f l u e n c e , C h a r l e s I was led to h i s e x e c u t i o n on

30 January 1649, o u t s i d e the Banqueting House a t

Whitehall,

t h e s i t e of so many evenings of masqueing.

So i t

was t h a t

t h e need for

p r o p a g a n d a was e l i r a i n a t e d ;
imitated

in

t h e masque as

princely

t h e form had long s i n c e

legitimate

theatre,

and,

Commonwealth, t h a t t r e n d was i n t e n s i f i e d .

during

With t h e

ban on s t a g e p l a y s , d r a m a t i s t s and composers

been
the

Puritan

interpolated

t h e masque i n t o s t a g e p r o d u c t i o n s ; the masque l e n t a c e r t a i n

s a n c t i t y as "music" (not banned by t h e P u r i t a n s ) to d r a m a t i c
p r o d u c t i o n s by s u b s t i t u t i n g the term " e n t r i e s " f o r

"acts."

I t a l s o s e r v e d many d r a m a t i c , t r a g i c , and comedic purposes

w i t h i n the p l o t s of the p l a y s .

During Henry P u r c e l l ' s

time

t h i s type of hybrid a d a p t a t i o n evolved i n t o English d r a m a t i c

opera,

with

t h e m u s i c s e r v i n g more t h a n an

incidental,

inserted purpose.
Masques c o n t i n u e d
produced
though

in

less

spectacular

ways t o

in p r i v a t e horaes and f o r s c h o o l s , as w e l l .
a few e n t e r t a i n m e n t s

reappeared

at

court

as

during

masques,

the

be
Even

Restoration

t h e y were not

true

r e f l e c t i o n s of the S t u a r t masque, c o n s i s t i n g of l i t t l e

more

than s t r i n g s of i n s t r u m e n t a l numbers for d a n c i n g .

11
Description of a Masque
Masques at court were presented several times a year;
the dates of perforraance, concentrated near times of renewal
and epiphany such as Twelfth Night and Shrovetide, were part
of traditional celebrations, but other memorable occasions,
such as royal births and birthdays, weddings, and treaties
warranted masques, also.

Between the years 1605 and 1639,

roughly seventy-four masques were presented, as listed in

Mary Steele's Plays and Masques at Court.

Contemporary

references denote a number of masques staged by nobles and

Inns of Court, as well as in private schools; one may
surmise that the form was experienced by many, for, after
all, court custoras were highly iraitated.

Being a court

entertainment, masques were never held in theatres; most

took place in the Great Hall or the larger Banqueting House
of Whitehall, a rectangularly shaped room, fifty-three feet
wide by one hundred twenty feet long, and designed by Inigo
Jones.
Since no complete score for any one masque exists,
historians interested in recreating the form raust rely on
bits and pieces of extant

information included in the

libretti and scattered scores, plus informed imagination.

Edward Dent, in Foundations of English Opera, provides some
facts and assumptions coricerning the musical aspects and
summarizes the masque from which he draws most of his
information, Lord Hay's Masque (1607).

In this case, the

12
p o e t , Thomas Campion, was a m u s i c i a n and composer of most of
the masque's

rausic

information.
of

the

and

s o was more

By d r a w i n g on D e n t ' s

libretto

of

and

the

account

with

musical

as w e l l

as

L o r d H a y ' s Masque a s i n c l u d e d

and S t r o n g ' s I n i g o J o n e s :
1873,

liberal

in Orgel

t h e T h e a t r e of t h e S t u a r t

fascinating

detail

of A l l a r d y c e

S t u a r t Masques and t h e R e n a i s s a n c e

Stage,

i d e a of an e v e n i n g of masqueing i s

possible.

1937,

that

Court,
Nicoll's

general

In t h e c a s e of t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m a s q u e , t h e

location

was t h e G r e a t H a l l of W h i t e h a l l P a l a c e , "89 f e e t
feet

wide,"

long and 39
an a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e c o r a t e d s a l o n f o r r o y a l t y . 35

At one end of t h e room was a s t a g e ,

seat,

at the other

the

u s u a l l y u n d e r a canopy and upon a d i a s r e f e r r e d

t h e " s t a t e , " with r a i l i n g s b u i l t around t h e s i d e s

Th s p e c t a t o r s

were the

most

richly

noble

and

favored

arrayed

lords hardly less colourful

wooden

steps

which

stadium b l e a c h e r s .

elite
ladies'

of

society,

attended

in t h e i r a t t i r e . "

apparently

and

resembled

audience
"for

to as
back.
"'with

by

their

They s a t on
current

sports

These " b o x e s , " a s t h e y were r e f e r r e d

were c o n s t r u c t e d a l o n g t h e two l o n g s i d e s t o t h e h a l l
and a c r o s s

king's

t h e back

of

the

hall

behind

the

king.

to,

screen
The

by t h e L o r d C h a m b e r l a i n , who o b s e r v e d
t h e c o u r t i e r s a s t r i c t o r d e r of p r e c e d e n c e . . . , " 37

no m i n o r
involved.

was s e a t e d

feat

considering

the

several

hundred

guests

13
One audience was described by a v i s i t o r :
Costumes were provided of such "gorgeousness
. . . t h a t the imagination could hardly grasp the
s p e c t a c l e . The King's cloak, breeches and j a c k e t
were a l l sewn with diamonds, a rope and jewel of
diamonds a l s o in h i s h a t , of i n e s t i m a b l e v a l u e .
The Queen had in her h a i r so g r e a t a number of
pear-shaped p e a r l s , the l a r g e s t and most beautiful
there are in the world; and t h e r e were diamonds
a l l over her person, so that she was ablaze."
Nor were the Royalty alone extravagant.
"Lady Watton had a gowne t h a t cost f i f t y pound
[between $1,250 and 2,000] a yard the embroid e r i n g - - t h e Lord M o n t a g u e - - b e s t o w e d f i f t e e n
hundred pound [between $37,500 and | 0 , 0 0 0 ] in
apparell for his two daughters. . . . "
The l o r d s and l a d i e s of the c o u r t paid for t h e i r own
raasquing

costuraes, often

bejewelled.

beautifully

embroidered

and

Accounts available for reference indicate that

the f i n e s t of a l l f a b r i c s ,
d e c o r a t i o n s were used.

raaterials,

c r a f t s m a n s h i p , and

Costumes for the raasquers generally

reflected Jones' I t a l i a n t r a i n i n g .

Men wore k i l t s k i r t s , or

s h o r t , form-fitting pants which allowed freedora of movement;

molded b r e a s t p l a t e s , under-blouses with a v a r i e t y of s l e e v e
designs, lush capes which draped and swirled, and e l a b o r a t e ,
plumed helmets or other appropriate headgear completed t h e i r
enserable.

Woraen masquers' costumes followed more the dress

s t y l e of the day, again with designs of s k i r t s to f a c i l i t a t e

and show cff the dancing; most of the s k i r t s were well above
the ankles.
decolletage.

Bodices were generally f i t t e d , with p l e n t y of

T r a n s p a r e n t and a i r y f a b r i c s were gathered

14
around pretending "nyraphs," with a raere layer of gauze
40
occasionally used as the only covering over the breasts.
Less information remains that describes Jones' concepts
of the masks; the faces of the masquers in his designs are
bare.

Since the headdresses were an essential element to

the entire costume, it seems unlikely

discarded when the masquers unmasked.

that they were

Perhaps the masks

theraselves were simple vizzards, unadorned and discardable.

Antimasque costume designs do include facial coverings that
appear to have been kept in place. 41
The dancing was always done directly in front of the
king, on a carpeted and soraetimes raised platform, as in
Lord Hay's Masque.

Since dancing was the primary activity

of the masque, a proportionate amount of space was alloted

it.

A ramp connected this particular dancing stage to the

main stage, which was

. . . three feet higher and eighteen feet deep,
which could be curtained off, and was concealed by
clouds at the beginning of the masque. On the
main stage was a grove of trees, with the nine
golden trees, fifteen feet high, which concealed
the masquers. On each side a slope led up to the
bower of Flora and the house of Night respectively
[covered by a double curtain]. The hall appears
to have had a screen and presumably a gallery
above, such as are found in college halls; these
two side scenes were placed close to the screen,
and above, probably built up from the gallery, was
a mountain with the tree of Diana. Behind this
there seeras to have been a group of hautboys in
the gallery, more or less concealed by raore trees,
with another hill rising behind them. The general
idea then of the decorations is to carry the eye
from the floor level by a series of ascents up to
the very top of the hall: this would naturally
lend itself to admirable spectacular effefcts.

15
Musicians were dispersed in several l o c a t i o n s , a common
p r a c t i c e for the t i m e .

Three groups were placed on the

dancing stage; as Campion explains,

" . . . on the r i g h t hand whereof were consorted
ten musicians with bass and mean l u t e s , a bandora,
double s a c k b u t , and an h a r p s i c h o r d , w i t h two
t r e b l e v i o l i n s ; on the other side somewhat nearer
the screen were placed nine v i o l i n s and t h r e e
l u t e s ; and to answer both the consorts (as 'twere
in a t r i a n g l e ) , six cornets and six chapel v o i c e s
were seated almost right against them, in a place
raised higher in resDect of the p i e r c i n g sound of
those instruments."
"The t o t a l nuraber of musicians i s given as forty-two, but if
t h e h a u t b o y s above and t h e m u s i c i a n s on the s t a g e are
included t h e r e must have been a good many raore," adds
D e n t , 4 4 a p p a r e n t l y i n c l u d m g the s t a g e s m g e r s , not
raentioned above.
The story l i n e was simple:

the nine golden t r e e s were

r e a l l y k n i g h t s of A p o l l o , "who i s the f a t h e r of heat and

youth, and consequently of amorous a f f e c t i o n s . " 45 They have
been transformed by the anger of Cynthia, but in honor of
t h i s marriage raay be restored to their o r i g i n a l human s t a t e .
In a kind of dance, the t r e e s began to move u n t i l they were
in groups of t h r e e , at which tiraes Night touched the
t h r e e with her wand and the transformation began.

first

When a l l

were r e s t o r e d , the spectacle continued with p r o c e s s i o n s and

t h e u s u a l masque d a n c e s .

Nine masquers par t i c i p a t e d ;

Campion describes t h a t number as " the most apt for

and d i v e r s i t y of proportion."

change

16
Conteraporary

accounts

audience and p a r t i c i p a n t s
their

places

before

refer

to the

frequently waited

the entrance

of

the

e n t o u r a g e , a t which p o i n t the masque b e g a n .

fact

that

the

for

hours

in

king

and

his

In Lord

Hay's

Masque, t h e order of the evening went as f o l l o w s :

Entrance of the King

A c c o m p a n i e d by m u s i c of t h e oboes
a p p a r e n t l y p l a c e d in t h e g a l l e r y
behind D i a n a ' s t r e e

Consort music

An a i r p l a y e d by t h e g r o u p of t e n
nearest the s t a t e while the c u r t a i n
i s p a r t i a l l y drawn t o r e v e a l t h e
bower of Flora

Song in t h r e e p a r t s

The same a i r as a b o v e now s u n g by

F l o r a , Z e p h y r u s , the S y l v a n s , accompanying theraselves

Speech

Introduces the occasion

masque, the marriage

Song

A m u s i c a l d i a l o g u e for two v o i c e s
a f t e r which the remaining c u r t a i n i s
drawn r e v e a l i n g N i g h t and t h e n i n e
Hours

Speech

A long d i a l o g u e in which the audience

is informed t h a t the t r e e s are
" k n i g h t s of Phoebus, transformed i n t o
t h i s shape by t h e a n g e r of Cynthia;
Hesperus a n n o u n c e s t h a t C y n t h i a has
in honour of t h i s occasion agreed to
t h e i r Leing r e s t o r e d t o h u m a n
shape."

Song

Sung and played by Sylvans

Dance I

On s t a g e by t r e e s t o "Move now withe

measured sound"

Three Speech-Songs

"The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n then t a k e s p l a c e
as i t was a somewhat cumbrous b u s i n e s s , and Inigo J o n e s ' ' e n g i n e ' could
o n l y accommodate t h r e e t r e e s a t a
t i r a e , Campion has done h i s b e s t to
c o v e r up t h e awkwardness by g i v i n g
Night a s e p a r a t e s p e e c h for each

of

the

17
group of t h r e e , followed by a song,
sung, and played by the Sylvans."
Campion's stage d i r e c t i o n s read:
" . . . whereof t h a t part of the stage whereon the f i r s t
t r e e s stood began to y i e l d , and the t h r e e foremost t r e e s
gently to sink, and t h i s was e f f e c t e d by an engine placed
under the s t a g e . When the t r e e s had sunk a yard they c l e f t
in three p a r t s , and the raasquers appeared out of the tops of
them; the t r e e s were suddenly conveyed away, and the f i r s t
t h r e e m a s q u e r s were r a i s e d a g a i n by the e n g i n e . They
appeared then in false h a b i t , yet very f a i r , and in form not
rauch unlike t h e i r p r i n c i p a l and t r u e r o b e . I t was made of
green t a f f e t a cut into leaves and laid upon_cloth of s i l v e r ,
and t h e i r hats were s u i t a b l e to the same."
Chorus

T u t t i f o r c e s sing a s h o r t chorus in
p r a i s e of the k i n g , r e p e a t e d , sung
with echo e f f e c t by five groups of
singers

Dance II

Masquers Main Dance on dancing s t a g e .

Campion's musical effect i s described in the l i b r e t t o a s :

" T h i s c h o r u s was i n manner of an e c h o
seconded by the c o r n e t s , then by the consort of
t e n , then by t h e c o n s o r t of t w e l v e , and by a
double chorus of v o i c e s standing on e i t h e r s i d e ,
the one a g a i n s t the o t h e r , bearing f i v e v o i c e s
a p i e c e , and sometirae e v e r y c h o r u s was h e a r d
s e v e r a l l y , soraeiJLme mixed, but in t h e end a l l
together. . . . "
Speech
Motet

W r i t t e n f o r s i x v o i c e s and s i x
c o r n e t s as the masquers proceed in
and throughout the stage and undergo
further t r a n s f o r r a a t i o n by r e v e a l i n g
another robe ; t o r c h - b e a r e r s proceed
with the masquers

Dance I I I

By the m.asquers on the dancing stage

Revels

Apparently the r e v e l s a r e d i v i d e d
i n t o two p o r t i o n s , with the f i r s t
being the raeasures.

18
Speech
Dialogue

for four voices

Chorus
Speech
Revels

Campion describes these dances as

" 'the lighter dances, as corantos,
lavoltas and galliards. . . .'"

Speech

Dance IV

Masquers Exit
v i o l i n s began
. . . and i t
change of music

Dance.
" . . .
the
t h e f o u r t h new dance
ended w i t h ^ , l i g h t
and measure."

Song

For two v o i c e s , tenor and bass

Chorus

After which the masquers unraasked and

f o l l o w e d t h e King to a b a n q u e t i n g
place.

About the above t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c e n e , N i c o l l

reports:

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as Campion
irritatedly
c o m p l a i n s , t h e d i r e c t o r , through " s i m p l i c i t y ,
n e g l i g e n c e or c o n s p i r a c y , " succeeded in d e s t r o y i n g
the e f f e c t .
Apparently t h e d e v i c e had been shown
t o some p r i v i l e g e d s p e c t a t o r s e a r l i e r in the day,
and some one had f o r g o t t e n t o p u t t h e t r e e s back
in t h e i r p l a c e s a mishap thatc^somewhat hazarded"
the o p e r a t i o n of the " e n g i n e . "
When one c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e h e i g h t of the u n d e r - s t a g e area
was s i x f e e t d e e p w i t h no b e n e f i t

of

(since

on t h e e x i s t i n g

hall

f l o o r i n g ) , and t h a t the l i g h t i n g in t h e s e u n d e r - s t a g e

areas

the

platform

was b u i l t

a below-stage

pit

came frora i n a d e q u a t e c a n d l e s and lamps, one i s amazed anew

a t the i n g e n u i t y of
Lighting

effects.

and v e n t i l a t i o n

above-stage

problems, as noted by Orgel and S t r o n g .

were

also

19
He [ J o n e s ] w a s f o n d o f n i g h t
pieces,
t r a n s l u c e n t s c e n e s and sudden g l o r i e s , e f f e c t s of
t h e s o r t t h a t o p t i m a l l y would r e q u i r e a d a r k e n e d
h a l l ; b u t removing t h e l i g h t s from t h e a u d i t o r i u m
w a s a s l o w p r o c e s s , and e x t i n g u i s h i n g t h e m an
awkward and smoky o n e , and i t i s n o t a t a l l c l e a r
t h a t t h e j : , e s u l t w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d an
advantage.
The t r a d i t i o n a l
chandelier
snuffboy,
As

the

of

lighting

for

a theatre

of

the

c a n d l e s o p e r a t e d by p u l l e y and a t t e n d e d by a

who k e p t t h e w i c k s t r i m m e d d u r i n g
writer

lighting
lighting

has

found

in the Banqueting
in

t i m e was a

that

no

reference

Hall,

structure

it
was

to

perforraance.
this

kind

is probable
provided

t o r c h b e a r e r s or by s p e c i a l l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s
s t a g e d e s i g n . 54
Iraportant stage e f f e c t s

that

the

raostly

by

concealed

were c r e a t e d by c o l o r e d

in

one

finds

sequins,

or

the

liquids

l i t by c a n d l e s and a l t e r e d by s h i e l d s and r e f l e c t o r s .
was a l s o fond of " m e t a l l i c f a b r i c s ,

of

Jones

' oos, '

and

frequent

reference to the s e t s being ' h e i g h t e n e d '

w i t h s i l v e r or g o l d . " 55 The c o s t u m e s o f t h e m a s q u e r s and
audience

alike

added

the

to

with

their

lighting

jewels

effects

and
as

fabrics

would

a reflection

of

have
the

torches.
Music and Dance in the Masque
Composers of Stuart masque music inclade Thomas Campion
(1507-1620), Alfonso Ferrabosco (c. 1575-1628), Robert
Johnson (1583-1633), Henry (1595-1662) and William

(1602-

1645) Lawes, John Coperario (1575-1626), and Nicholas Lanier

20
(1588-1666).

One e x p e c t s e x c e l l e n c e of coraposition in t h e i r

masque music t h a t e q u a l s t h e i r coraposition in o t h e r g e n r e s .

Further,

one assumes m u s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

in t h e f o r t y

or

l e s s y e a r s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e S t u a r t r e i g n t o follow English
m u s i c a l development in g e n e r a l .

Both e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e met,

but t h e importance of the masque i s b e s t understood when one

recalls

that

t h e m a s q u e was a m a j o r

force

in

music

developraent.
Literture

on t h e

complete s c o r e for
exist

subject

stresses

the

l a c k of a

a m a s q u e , b u t enough e x t a n t

examples

t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e s of music t h r o u g h o u t which a

s t e a d y p a c e of change a p p e a r s to o c c u r .

It

is

fortunate

t h a t a s u r v e y of masque musical a s p e c t s can begin with the

masque o u t l i n e d above, for i t s d a t e of 1607 p l a c e s i t a t the
beginning of the s i g n i f i c a n t

h i s t o r y of t h e m a s q u e .

With

t h e p e r f o r m a n c e d e t a i l s g i v e n , and the few songs by Campion

remaining,

a starting

established.

point

A number

of

for
vocal

comparison
and

can

be

instrumental

compositions for t h r e e masques, Triumph of Peace (1634), The

Triumphs of the P r i n c e d'Amour (1636), and B r i t a n n i a

trium-

p h a n s ( 1 6 3 8 ) , which f a l l near the end of the masque's c o u r t

e x i s t e n c e , s u r v i v e in t h e a u t o g r a p h m a n u s c r i p t of

William

Lawes.

musical

These

raake

a final

comment on m a s q u e

evolveraent, of which c e r t a i n p o i n t s a r e n o t a b l e .
Campion's musical s t r u c t u r e i s d e s c r i b e d by Dent as "a
s e r i e s of a g r e e a b l e s o n g s and d a n c e s , which a r e organized

21
into a sort of drama, because the dramatic episodes are
56

introduced

f o r no o t h e r p u r p o s e t h a n t o e f f e c t

this."

Any

o t h e r e x p e c t a t i o n would be beyond t h e t e c h n i q u e of t h e
according

to

Dent.

Campion

intersperses

a variety

i n s t r u m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s , s o n g s , c h o r u s e s , and d a n c e
to achieve

this

dialogue song.

draraatic

dialogue

in v e r s e

n o t a b l e among them i s

songs

(the music

that

show

is

"the

lost)

vocal

of

tunes
the

An e a r l y a t t e m p t a t m u s i c a l c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

a p p e a r s t o be s i m i l a r
other

intent;

time,

to

it
two

line

is

e s s e n t i a l l y m e l o d i c . . . g i v i n g t h e i r a p r e s s i o n of a
s t r o p h i c c o r a p o s i t i o n e v e n l y d i v i d e d between two s i n g e r s . " 57
Also composing

in

t h e same t i m e

A l f o n s o F e r r a b o s c o I I ; t h e son of
of

the

raasques
them i t

high

is

clear

level

that

Ferrabosco's

of

unusual

suggest

singers

"The f o r c e

of

with

or

in

but

uphold

the

Ferrabosco

Jonson's

u n i t y and
Exhibiting

lack

Carapion's

subtle

declaraation,

rhythmic
and

vocal
highly

e x t e n s i v e r a n g e s and c a r r y i n g

powers.

is

was w r i t i n g

From

for

a down-beat

an t i c i p a t i o n s
sions.

accents

c o n c e p t s of

they

is

composer

survive.

frora C a r a p i o n ' s .

sophistication,

"ayre" quality,

deraands t h a t
trained

Elizabethan

and e l e v e n i t e m s from t h o s e m a s q u e s

spontaneous
shifts,

the

a s Campion

same narae, F e r r a b o s c o coraposed f o r e i g h t of

declamation are quite d i f f e r e n t

a

frame

frequently

strikingly

vitiated

tlirough

effective

suspen-

. . . Only one of h i s a i r s h a s a v o c a l l i n e

beginning

C Q

on the first beat of the measure."

22
Ferrabosco's attempts at declamatory
less

significant

and F r e n c h
permeated
rausic

if

it

schools

of

musical

for

the fact

thought

some y e a r s b e h i n d
conservative,

the

but,

that

were .at

w i t h m u s i c a l huraanisra's e f f o r t s

of Greek t h e a t r e .

H u b e r t H.

were not

w r i t i n g might

this

time
the

Renaisance

was

c o n t i n e n t ' s and h e r m a s t e r
notes

Italian

at recreating

England's musical

as Meagher

be

musicians

in a q u o t a t i o n

by C.

Parry,

" . . .
t h e r e was a form o f e n t e r t a i n r a e n t w h i c h
j u s t s u p p l i e d t h e framework r e q u i r e d t o i n t r o d u c e
p a r a l l e l e x p e r i m e n t s t o t h o s e of t h e I t a l i a n
p r o m o t e r s o f t h e "Nuove M u s i c h e , " w h i c h a t t h e
same t i m e r e r a a i n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y E n g l i s h .
The p o p u l a r i t y o f
raasques
a t C o u r t a n d among
a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a s s e s . . . almost compelled
c o m p o s e r s who were c a l l e d upon t o s u p p l y m u s i c for
thera t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r a r t from a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t
o f v i e w from t h a t of t h e o l d c h u r c h c o m p o s e r s and
coraposers of m a d r i g a l s ; . . . . "
"It

i s in the

the

newly

developed
British

raasques

t h a t t h e new

perfected
draraatic

dramatic
music,"

musicologists

Squire both

cite

introduction

J.

the

new

composition; Squire a f f i r m s
direct

Italy

embraced
Meagher

the

newly
60

himself.

and h i s

as a p o s s i b l e
Italian

source

style

John C o p e r a r i o ' s
influence

into

for

the

English

(nee Cooper )
pupils,

Henry and W i l l i a m Lawes, and a d d s N i c h o l a s L a n i e r a s

another

1,

to

states

England

through his

tie

form

reached

A. F u l l e r M a i t l a n d and W. B a r c l a y

Ferrabosco
of

rausic

61

link.

Throughout the years from 1607-1638, definite stylistic

changes occur which follow the style of Ferrabosco rather

23
than

Campion.

Almost

certainly

the

theories

behind

the

p r a c t i c e were d i s c u s s e d a s w e l l .
F r a n c e and I t a l y w e r e e n t h u s i a s t i c
about
t h e i r r e c o v e r y o f t h e m u s i c of t h e a n c i e n t s and
t h e e t h i c a l power which g o e s w i t h i t ; t h i s i s raost
a s s u r e d l y an e v e n t w h i c h w o u l d i n t e r e s t J o n s o n ,
and i t i s i r a p o s s i b l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t would
n e v e r h a v e come t o h i s a t t e n t i o n w h e n h e w a s
w r i t i n g f o r t h e E n g l i s h c o u r t t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s of
t h e new F r e n c h and I t a l i a n m u s i c a l d r a r a a t i c s h o w s .
J o n s o n ' s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e p r o d e s s e , t h e u p l i f t i n g e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f h i s raasques, would
m a k e t h e m u s i c o f t h e " e f f e Jut i " t h e
perfect
m u s i c a l v e h i c l e for t h e m . . . .
I n one a c c o u n t , J o n s o n d e s c r i b e d t h e m u s i c of L a n i e r a s
63
being "stylo r e c i t a t i v o . "
S i n c e none of t h e music
survives,

Sabol d e s c r i b e s

" B r i n g Away T h i s S a c r e d

another

song b e l i e v e d

similar,

Tree":

O c c a s i o n a l l y d i s j u n c t v o c a l p h r a s e s b e g i n on
t h e u p b e a t and c o n t i n u e w i t h s y l l a b i c , c h a n t l i k e
s e r i e s o f r e p e a t e d n o t e s on t h e same p i t c h .
At
t i m e s t h e d r a m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e v o c a l l i n e i s
i n t e n s i f i e d by w i d e s k i p s o r s y n c o p a t e d r h y t h m .
At t h e b e g i n n i n g of e a c h
section,
the
accorapaniment i s c h o r d a l and r a t h e r s t a t i c , b u t a s
t h e c a d e n c e s of each s e c t i o n a p p r o a c h , t h e v o c a l
l i n e b e c o m e s more m e l o d i c , a n d t h e b a s s l i n e ,
d e m a n d i n g a r i c h h a r r a o n i c t e x t u r e by raoving more
rapidly, increases the dramatic
intensity
considerably.
From t h e
at

two-year

observed.

t h r e e above-raentioned
intervals,

by

many m u s i c a l

raasques

produced

practices

The m o s t c o s t l y and m a g n i f i c e n t of a l l

The Triumph of P e a c e
ploy

latter

the

Inns

(1634),
of

William

Lawes

and

details,

one

learns

was p r e s e n t e d

Court

Simon
that

as a

to

the

king.

Ives

and

extensive

the

musicians

and

can

be

masques,
political

With music

by

remaining

singers

were

24
placed

in a s e m i - c i r c u l a r

there

was

specific

instrumentation

( d e n o t e d a s a "syraphony")
a bass

lute,

arrangement

a harp,

on t h e
for

floor,

the

i n c l u d e d "a c o n s o r t of

orchestra
six

a v i o l i n and t h r e e v i o l s "

described as "declaraatory c o n t i n u o . "

that

lutes,

and

songs

Sabol adds:

The f i r s t t h r e e s o n g s . . . i l l u s t r a t e b e t t e r
t h a n o t h e r rausic s u r v i v i n g f o r S t u a r t m a s q u e s t h e
sung-speech s t y l e c a r r i e d to i t s e x t r e m e .
The
v o c a l l i n e of t h e s o l o s , s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e t e x t ,
i s p r i m a r i l y d e c l a m a t o r y , a n d , e x c e p t a s t h e rausic
a p p r o a c h e s c a d e n c e s , few v e s t i g e s r e r a a i n of t h e
b a l a n c e d p h r a s e s , t h e s t r o n g r h y t h r a i c p u l s e , and
t h e s t r o p h i c a r r a n g e m e n t of m o s t J a c o b e a n a i r s .
Aided by i r r e g u l a r i t y i n t h e v e r s e l i n e , t h e v o c a l
l i n e f o l l o w s t h e n a t u r a l i n f l e c t i o n s and p a u s e s of
s p e e c h , a l t e r n a t i n g b e t w e e n s h o r t a p o s t r o p h e s and
long p h r a s e s .
U s u a l l y e a c h s y l l a b l e i s s e t t o one
n o t e o n l y , , a n d t h e v o c a l l i n e s f r e q u e n t l y b e g i n on
off-beats.
D e n t c o m m e n t s t h a t t h i s " t r e a t m e n t of words p r o c e e d s on t h e
lines

w h i c h by t h i s t i m e w e r e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d
in
68
England,"
and p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e m u s i c a l d e c l a m a t i o n
follows Caccini "rather
or M o n t e v e r d i
lyrical

t h a n t h e more d r a m a t i c s t y l e of

. . . since

the masques a r e

a s compared w i t h t h e e a r l y I t a l i a n

Peri

almost

entirely
o p e r a s . " 69

T h e s y m p h o n i e s a r e t w o - p a r t ( t r e b l e and b a s s )
b i p a r t i t e i n s t r u m e n t a l d a n c e forms of t h e alman
v a r i e t y , and s e r v e t h e d u a l p u r p o s e of i n t r o d u c i n g
t h e s o n g s and c o v e r i n g t h e movement of t h e
m u s i c i a n s from t h e s t a g e t o t h e d a n c e f l o o r . . . .
The c h o r u s e s a r e homophonic or i n m a d r i g a l s t y l e .
T h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s y m p h o n y - s o n g - c h o r iis i s
r e p e a t e d a s a s e r i e s of m u s i c a l s c e n e s . . . .
The Triumphs of t h e P r i n c e d ' A m o u r
by t h e

was a l s o

I n n s o f C o u r t w i t h b o t h Lawes b r o t h e r s

on t h e m u s i c .

It reflects

presented

collaborating

t h e s y m p h o n y - s o n g - c h o r us

pattern

25
in t h e

last

two s c e n e s

and u s e s a r i t o r n e l l o

to unify the symphony-song-chorus;

to have been c o n t i n u o u s l y
tonality

and

entire

composed,

(C major and r e l a t e d

ensembles,

the

a draraatic

keys),

i n one number

with

work

Lawes'

a varied

build-up

to

a grand

Dent rerainds t h e r e a d e r t h a t

expect

a musical

climax

decades

later,

themselves

from

the

favorite

sequence

adumbrating opera.

since

appears

such as P u r c e l l

of

chorus

one

cannot

produced

few

"musicians

were j u s t
emancipating
s y s t e r a . " 71 T h i s raasque v a r i e d a

raodal

g r e a t d e a l frora p r e v i o u s c h o r e o g r a p h i c form, a l s o , a s i t

did

n o t h a v e r e v e l s o r an e x i t d a n c e , and o n l y two a n t i m a s q u e s .
B r i t a n n i a triumphans
in m u s i c a l

score

(1638)

survives

t h a n any o t h e r

masque;

many of t h e same m u s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
the Prince
stance,

d'Araour,

more

only s l i g h t l y

it

extensively

also

exhibits

a s The T r i u m p h

more a d v a n c e d .

t h e t w o - p a r t symphonies become t h r e e - p a r t ,

c h o r a l works e n l a r g e t o f i v e - p a r t .
declamatory

songs

r ec i t a t i v e - a r ia ,

and

as

ballads

well

o r g a n i z a t i o n around C major.
Antiraasque

songs

as
72

suit

the

In t h e
there

For

feeling

we 1 1 - d e v e 1 o p e d

characters

in-

four-part

relationship
is

of

and

of
of

tonal

antics;

b a l l a d s , a i r s , c a t c h e s , and o t h e r p o p u l a r v a r i e t i e s

are

usual

provided

for

types.

acrobatics

defining

Sometimes
or

instrumental

a background

characteristic

for

numbers a r e
pantomirae,

but

i s t h a t t h e music c o n t r a s t s w i t h

songs or d a n c e s adjacent

to i t .

Most a n t i m a s q u e

the

the
the

characters

26
were professional actors and dancers, capable of a wide
variety of actions and so requiring a wide variety of music.
One unusual work produced in 1634 is worth mentioning
at this point, especially as Vaughan Williaras was familiar
with it.

Comus was written by John Milton and set to music

by Henry Lawes.

Not produced at court, the libretto shows

marked differences in the masque routine, such as the fact

that only two dances are noted, Comus and his followers
doing measures 73 at the beginning of the raasque and a group
of shepherds dancing another prepared dance near the end.
"His [Lawes] settings invariably serve the lyrics, and the
rhythras are primarily verbal, as the profusion of dotted
eighth and sixteenth notes in the vocal line reveals." 74 As
observed from the five extant examples, his effects appear
varied according to a delicate text-pain t ing, which is
subtle and appealing, so that at times he achieves a
personal quality foreshadowing the operatic aria for its
. ^.
75
mtimacy.
In addition to the vocal music required for the songs
and choruses and the instruraental numbers required for
processionals and entrances, there had to be large amounts
of dance music composed, for the masque was first of all and
above all else, for dancing.
The o r d e r of t h e
raasquers'
d a n c e s and t h e
s o c i a l d a n c e s r e m a i n e d t h e same no m a t t e r what
v a r i a t i o n s were i n t r o d u c e d . . . . The s t r u c t u r e
of t h e S t u a r t m a s q u e , b a s e d on a s e q u e n c e of
m a s q u e a n d s o c i a l d a n c e s , may b e s e e n a s
e s s e n t i a l l y c h o r e o g r a p h i c r a t h e r than l i t e r a r y :

27

1 . Dances and s o n g s of t h e a n t i m a s q u e r s
2.
L o u d m u s i c a n d t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e
s c e n e of t h e masque
3. Song 1
4. Entry dance of the masquers
5. Song 2
6. Main dance of the masquers
7. Song 3
8. The m e a s u r e s and t h e r e v e l s
9. Song 4
_g
1 0 . E x i t d a n c e of t h e m a s q u e r s
The m a s q u e r s a l w a y s had t h r e e t e r m i n a l d a n c e s :
entry dance,

usually

fairly

short,

designed

to

(1)

the

get

the

m a s q u e r s from t h e t a b l e a u where t h e y have been d i s c o v e r e d

the dancing

floor;

(2)

t h e g r a n d , or m a i n , d a n c e ,

t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y i s t h e most c o m p l e x and s y m b o l i c ;
the

exit

dance,

sometiraes

processional, occurring after

very

short,

to

in which
and

(3)

basically

t h e r e v e l s and c o n c l u d i n g

a
the

masque.
Typically,
Often

written

characterized
or

t e r m i n a l d a n c e s were d i g n i f i e d
in

song

form,

the

Jacobean

of

triple

metec.

sophisticated

compositional techniques

an i n c r e a s e d

u s e of

movement

the

the

ones

The C a r o l i n i a n

d a n c e s were much t h e same; t h e y d i d r e f l e c t

periods,

raajestic.

by two s t r a i n s of d u p l e m e t e r f o l l o w e d

two s t r a i n s

freer

and

in

accidentals,

were

by o n e
terrainal

some of t h e

found

in

the

songs,

advanced

t h e b a s s and t r e b l e

h a r m o n i e s , and
l i n e s . 77
For b o t h

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n was u s u a l l y f o r c o n s o r t s ,

surviving
78
instruments.

examples

being

raore

transcribed

for

with
solo

28
The

raeasures

and the r e v e l s were always between the

main and exit dances and seemed to follow c e r t a i n o r d e r s of

the s o c i a l dances of the day by t r a d i t i o n .

The measures

included the raore s e r i o u s d a n c e s , the pavane and alraain.

The slower of the two was the pavane, characterized by duple
rhythm, usually three s t r a i n s , repeated, and in a minor key.
When the tempo was s l i g h t l y increased, the pavane became a
passaraezzo and the music was composed over a ground b a s s .
Also four b e a t s to a b a r , the almain retained the heavier
nature of the pavane, but was a l i t t l e f a s t e r .

Frequently,

i t was used for p r o c e s s i o n a l s , with a p a t t e r n of

steps

forward, then a sraall step backward.

The l i v e l i e r s o c i a l dances were the r e v e l s ; commonly
i n t e r s p e r s e d among the graver d a n c e s , one of t r i p l e meter
d a n c e s , the g a l l i a r d followed the p a v a n e .

A five-step

dance, the g a l l i a r d , was a gay, s p i r i t e d dance and one of

the showpieces for the e x p e r t raale d a n c e r .

A l e s s showy

f i v e - s t e p dance was i t s r e l a t i o n , the sinkapace

pace).

Galliards were replaced g r a d u a l l y with the

(cinquetriple

t i m e d a n c e , s a r a b a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g in Spain and s l o w e r ,
e i t h e r 3/4 or 3 / 8 .

Other t r i p l e time d a n c e s

requiring

l i v e l y and quick motions were the coranto, the l a v o l t a , and

duret.

The coranto was a favorite in early o t u a r t masques;

in 3/2 or 6/4 time, i t had a fast running s t e p .

was immensely p o p u l a r ;

it

The lavolta"

r e q u i r e d a l o t of t w i s t i n g ,

turning action and a leap, or s p r i n g , which the l a d i e s did

29
with the help of their male partners.

A milder type of

dance was the duret, believed similar to the coranto, but a

dance for which no instructions have survived. 79 The
canaries and spagnoletta were additional triple time dances,
both iraported frora other countries and both coraplex in their
required actions.

Another very popular dance was the brawl,

or branle, so named because it was executed in a swaying

movement with the couples in round dance form.

It consisted

of several parts, of which the last was the gavotte, but not
the gavotte
,
80
dances.

familiar

in eighteenth century suites and

At some masques, t h o s e not performed a t c o u r t ,

d a n c e s were s u b s t i t u t e d

for r e v e l s and m e a s u r e s , or for

brawls.

Although e x i s t i n g

country

dance

pre-eminently
weaving of

in i n n u m e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s ,

was d e s c r i b e d
a figure

patterned,

country

by C e c i l

dance, depending

Sharp
.

as

".

. upon

the
the
.

the

c o n c e r t e d e v o l u t i o n s r a t h e r than upon

i n t r i c a t e s t e p s . . . [with a s p i r i t of] g a i e t y and s i m p l e

81
good h u m o u r . "
F r e q u e n t l y , t h e s e d a n c e s were performed
"longways," in long l i n e s , with raen on one s i d e and women on
the

other.

Conclusion
When Vaughan Williams named his work a m a s q u e , he
associated

it with the historical genre reviewed

in the

preceding pages; thus, the concept of the masque remained

even as its context changed.

When nearly three hundred

30
years later, a new group of English artists had something to
say and needed a mode of comraunication, the masque was a
viable option, at least in Vaughan Williaras' thinking. For,
in his essay, "Should Music Be National?," 82 as he discusses
standards of preference that vary araong different ages, the
coraposer suggests that "the clock goes round full circle,"
and that one century may find meaningful what an earlier one
did not.

Perhaps he was his own best example, for he found

potential in the masque for an English statement of music

and draraa that could mirror his own and his contemporaries'
conceptions.

Just what constitutes a masque for

the

composer in the twentieth century is explored in the next

chapter.

31
Notes
Roy Strong, Splendour at Court: Renaissance Spectacle and Illusion (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973),
19.
2
Stephen Kogan, The Hieroglyphic King; Wisdom and
Idolatry in the Seventeenth-Century Masque (Rutherford,
Madison and Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press,
1986; London and Toronto: Associated University Presses,
1986), 37.
3
The Inns of Court are four legal societies which
virtually constitute the English University of the Law.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the students
occasionally produced their own masques, and some performed
in the antimasques at court.
4
Enid Welsford, The Court Masque: A Study in the Relationship Between Poetry & the Revels (Cambridge: University Press, 1928), 140.
Mummings and disguisings were entertainments which
featured masked participants: mummings revolved around a
silent, dice-chance game, while disguisings used scenery and
allegory.
^lbid., 130.
^lbid.
^lbid., 135.
Andrew Sabol, Four Hundred Songs and Dances frora the
Stuart Masque (Hanover and London: Brown University Press
by University Press of New England, 1982), 3.
"'"^Antimasques were inserted dances or antics designed
as a foil for the raasque proper; they were usually of a
comic, satirical, active, or pantoraimic nature, and danced
by professionals or students.
'-'-Sabol, 7.
'^Stephen Orgel and Roy Strong, Iniqo Jones: The Theatre of the Stuart Court, 2 vols. (London: Sotheby Park
Bernet, 1973; Berkeley, University of California Press), 37.
[Author's brackets.]
'^lbid.,

Ibid.

3.

32

'^Kogan, 2 9 .

16
J o h n C. M e a g h e r , Method and Meaning i n J o n s o n ' s
Masques ( N o t r e Dame, I n d i a n a :
U n i v e r s i t y of N o t r e Dame
P r e s s , 1966), 68.
17
Ibid., 66-67. At other times music was used for the
practical if less grand reason of concealing the loud noise
of moving stage machines.

'^lbid., 100.
19
S t r o n g , 53. Strong quotes a p r e f a c e to a t r a n s l a t i o n
of A r i o s t o ' s Orlando F u r i o s o , as w r i t t e n by S i r John H a r i n g ton.
20lbid.
Ibid.
22
Ben J o n s o n , "An E x p o s t u l a t i o n w i t h I n i g o J o n e s "
(Poems, e d . B. H. N e w d i g a t e , 2 9 6 ) , q u o t e d i n A l l a r d y c e
N i c o l l , S t u a r t Masques and t h e R e n a i s s a n c e Stage (London:
George G. H a r r a p & Company L i m i t e d , 1 9 3 7 ) , 1 5 5 .
The
t e n d e n c y for syrabols t o be " r e a d " e v e n t u a l l y became t h e
r e a s o n b e h i n d t h e m a n u a l s of m y t h o l o g r a p h e r s and emblem
b o o k s of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , such as C e s a r e R i p a ' s
I c o n o l o g i a (1593) and Andrea A l c i a t i ' s Emblemata ( 1 5 3 1 ) .
The spoken or p r i n t e d d i a l o g u e i n s e r t e d in the masque (as
e l a b o r a t e d by Jonson) did much to r e i n f o r c e a n d / o r e x p l a i n
t h e d i d a c t i c and m i m e t i c p u r p o s e s ; r a r e l y were p r i n t e d
programs a v a i l a b l e .
23
^^lbid.

24
Strong, 53.
25
Roy Strong, Art and Power (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California:

University of California Press, 1984), 154.

^^lbid., 160.
^^Kogan, 29.
28
Orgel and Strong, 12. Jones used perspective in his
stage settings solely for the royal presence.
29
Strong, Art and Power, 157.
30
Kogan, 30. Charles I was frequently chief masquer.

33

^^lbid.,

276-277.

^ ^ S t r o n g , 171.
Kogan, 27.
^^Strong, 169.
^ ^ N i c o l l , 34.
^^lbid.
^''lbid.,

38-39.

^ ^ A n t o n i o F o s c a r i n i , The V e n e t i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o
E n g l a n d , on t h e wedding f e s t i v i t i e s a t c o u r t ( 1 6 1 3 ) , as
quoted in Mary S u l l i v a n , Court Masques of James I (New York
and London: Knickerbocker P r e s s , 1913), 7 0 - 7 1 .
^^Sullivan, 70-71.
Endnote:
the comparative p r i c e s
r e f l e c t t h e raonetary v a l u e s for S u l l i v a n ' s p u b l i s h i n g d a t e
of 1913.
'^^Orgel and S t r o n g ' s I n i g o Jones i s the source of t h e s e
g e n e r a l d e t a i l s , g a t h e r e d from an overview of Vol. 1.
^"See N i c o l l , 214, for examples.
York:

^^Edward J . D e n t , F o u n d a t i o n s of E n g l i s h Opera (New

Da Capo P r e s s , 1965), 21-22.
^^Orgel & S t r o n g , 115.
'*'*Dent, 22.
^^Campion in Orgel & Strong, 116.
'^^Orgel & Strong, 116.
^"^Dent, 22-23.
'^^Dent, 23.
^^Campion as quoted in Orgel & Strong, 118.
50
Campion, 119.
^Ibid., 120.
52Nicoll, 58,
^^Orgel
Strong, 17.
gel &
& Strong.

[Author's brackets.]

34

54
One major r e f e r e n c e t o t o r c h l i g h t a s i l l u m i n a t i o n i n
t h e B a n q u e t i n g H a l l i s made i n S t r o n g , 1 6 8 . A n o t h e r h a l l of
i m p e r m a n e n t n a t u r e was e r e c t e d i n 1638 in o r d e r t o p e r f o r m
B r i t a n n i a t r i u r a p h a n s b e c a u s e t h e k i n g f e a r e d d a m a g e by
t o r c h e s t o t h e n e w l y i n s t a l l e d Rubens p a i n t i n g s in t h e
Banqueting H a l l .
^^Orgel & S t r o n g ,
^^Dent,
^^Sabol,

17.

23-24.
25.

^ ^ l b i d . , 25-26.
59
Meagher, 77, as q u o t i n g
S e v e n t e e n t h Century, Oxford,
^Ibid.,

77.

^'Ibid.,

77-78.

Parry,

The M u s i c

of

the

196.

^^lbid., 79.
63
Ben Jonson as quoted in Murray Lefkowitz, "Masque,"
in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London:
Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1980), 764.
^^Sabol, 26-27.
Lefkowitz, 764.
66T
K-^
Ibid.

^^Sabol, 28.
^^Dent, 29.
Ibid.
Lefkowitz, 764.
^'Dent, 3 9 .

72
Lefkowitz, 765.
73
The measures were the slower, statelier dances done
in the revels, transformed frora the Elizabethan basse danse,
done usually in a slow 3/2 meter.
74
Sabol, 28.
[Author's brackets.]

35
75 Ibid.
76 Ibid., 7.
77 Ibid., 11.
78 Ibid.
79 Ibid., 17.
80 Ibid.
81
Cecil J. Sharp, The Country Dance Book, Parts I and
II (London: Novello and Company, Limited, 1909; reprint
ed., London: Novello and Company, Limited, 1 9 3 4 ) , 20.
[Author's brackets.]
82
R a l p h Vaughan W i l l i a r a s , N a t i o n a l Music and O t h e r
Essays (Oxford and New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963;
r e p r i n t , 1 9 8 7 ) , 8.

CHAPTER II
CONTEMPORARY BACKGROUND
Dance of all kinds was flourishing
early 1920s.

in London in the

Renewed interest in traditional forras and folk

dances was the focus of one group of enthusiasts; another

group found

the very new, n a t u r a l

"Greek"

expressive and was devoted to furthering it.

movement
A third and

powerful contingent of dance supporters was dedicated to

classical ballet as it had been taught throughout Europe and
presented by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballet Russe.

Such was the

contemporary environraent that each different kind of dance

was active with its own objectives.
Vaughan Williaras, The Masque, and Dance
Ralph Vaughan Williams' interest in traditional dance
and forms is perhaps best understood
extensive work

in light of his

in the regeneration and preservation of

England's musical heritage.

While other composers dedicated

themselves to the same purpose, none of them made

the

traditional elements their own as did this "Grand Old Man"

of English music.

His interest in the masque is apparent

throughout his long life.

In 1905 he collaborated with Gustav Holst to provide
the music for a revival of Ben Jonson's Pan's Anniversary, a
masque believed to have been originally performed
before James I.

in 1620

Further, of the six works for dancing

36

37
composed by Vaughan Williams and listed by Michael Kennedy
in The Works of Ralph Vaughan Williams, five are masques.
Besides Pan's Anniversary, Kennedy lists:

(1) On Christmas

Night, 1926, a masque loosely based on Dickens' A Christmas

Carol; (2) Job, A Masque for Dancing, 1930, concert version,
1931, stage version; (3) Masque for English Folk Dance Society, 1937 (unpublished); and (4) The Bridal Day, composed in
1939 and

first performed

in 1953, libretto

based

on

Epithalamion by Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) and written by

Ursula Wood (later Ursula Vaughan Williams).
Some 53 years after he composed the music for Pan's
Anniver sary, and during the last year of his life, Vaughan
Williams was still considering the masque.
among

the sketches

Notes included

for his ninth symphony reveal these

thoughts concerning the masque's place in British music.

The Masque is a typically English institution. We have never taken kindly to grand opera,
delightful as an importation brought to the
country by young noblemen on the Grand Tour and
set up with all the [pomp] of Italian music and
Italian composers and their sopranos and prima
donnas as a fashionable entertainment.
It has
never, and I believe, never will endear itself to
the heart of the people.
They [the English
people] much prefer the ballad opera which is in a
language they could under-stand. . . . For masques
the great poets of the [land] were pressed into
servicewitness Milton's Comus and Ben Jonsan's
Pan's Anniversary[and] the finest musicians.
In the collaboration for the revival of Pan's Anniversary, Vaughan Williams composed the music and Holst arranged
the dances for orchstra for what was believed to be the
first

recreation of the masque.

The occasion was the

38
Shakespeare Birthday Celebration at

Stratford-upon-Avon.

The music i s u n a v a i l a b l e for s t u d y , but Kennedy i n c l u d e s the

shape of Vaughan W i l l i a m s '
sequence:

introductory

masque, which

follows

instrumental music,

i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c , f a s t dance ( s i m i l a r

to

this

"attention"
antimasque),

song, e n t r y d a n c e , song, pavan, song, g a l l i a r d , r e v e l s , f a s t

3
d a n c e , s o n g , and r e v e l s .
Kennedy reproduces a note on the
program by Vaughan Williams which s t a t e s in p a r t :
"In the music t o the choruses no a t t e m p t has
been raade t o r e p r o d u c e t h e E l i z a b e t h a n s t y l e of
rausic,
but i t i s hoped t h a t the music i s
a p p r o p r i a t e l y siraple.
The rausic for t h e ' M a s q u e r s ' E n t r y , ' t h e ' P a v a n ' and " G a l l i a r d ' a r e
taken from s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d a n c e s . . . . Sorae of
t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l melodies a r e from the composer's
own m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n . . . . In the music of
the choruses a l s o , c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h r a s e s
from English folk music have been i n s e r t e d . R. V.
W."^
When c o m p a r e d to t h e o r i g i n a l
sequence reraains the same.

libretto,

the

There a r e some c o n t e n t

basic

changes:

Vaughan Williams replaced the spoken p a r t s with

instrumental

music

the

and

one

extra

containing references
substituted

hymn,

the

lyrics

of

latter

t o t h e s p e e c h i t was r e p l a c i n g ;

r a p i d tempo dances based on folk t u n e s for

a n t i m a s q u e s , using a change in i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ,

he
the

as w e l l ; he

s p e c i f i c a l l y mentions the use of a "masquers' pavan" as one

dancp ( p o s s i b l y i n t e n d e d to p a r a l l e l
and a g a l l i a r d

and a

raaypole

J o n s o n ' s main d a n c e )

d a n c e for

the r e v e l s ;

concluded h i s v e r s i o n with a r e p e a t of the r e v e l s

a l a s t speech).

he

(replacing

39
Eleven years later Vaughan Williams again used the form
when in 1926 he composed On Christraas Night.

The cover of

the work describes it as:

A Masque with dancing, singing, and raiming freely
adapted frora Dickens' A Christmas Carol by Adolf
Bolra and R. Vaughan Williaras with rausic devised as
a quodlibet of Folk tunes and Country dances by
the latter.
Again, the work eliminates spoken dialogue; miraing is
suggested

in the stage directions which refer soraewhat

loosely to the well-known plot.

The sequence is as follows:

introductory instrumental music (lento), song, grotesque

dance, song, lento, first dance, second dance, solo dance,
third dance, fourth dance, lento, scene change, lento, scene
change, fifth dance (to "Hunsdon House"), sixth dance (to
"Black Nag"), and song.

Motivic coherence is created by the

recurring "Lento" motive, and the familiarity of the tunes

keeps the work light and simple.

Indeed, On Christmas Night

is intended for amateur use, and offers no comparison to Job

in intensity or breadth.

It does, however, along with Pan's

Anniversary, foreshadow sorae general considerations that

raanifest themselves in Job.
Another composition for dance also appears to point
toward Job; Old King Cole, written and performed in 1923 at
Nevile's Court, Trinity College, for Cambridge folk dancer:.,
is described as a ballet by its composer.

From Kennedy's

account, it appears that Vaughan Williams' use of English

folk dances impressed E. J. Dent, who commented.

40

"Whether t r a d i t i o n a l E n g l i s h s t e p s and
f i g u r e s c o u l d be made t h e foundation of a h i g h l y
e l a b o r a t e d b a l l e t i s a q u e s t i o n which I must leave
to the s p e c i a l i s t s in choreography. . . . "
Kennedy's d e s c r i p t i o n
suggestions

for

reveals

the dances,

p r a c t i c e s on the piano s c o r e .

that

the

costuraes,

composer
and

gave

perforraing

Kennedy himself comments:

. . . t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t Old King Cole has

some i m p o r t a n c e in t h e g e n e s i s of J o b , for t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e old d a n c e s m u s t h a v e s e t
V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s t h i n k i n g of more a m b i t i o u s
v e n t u r e s of t h i s k i n d .
Thus, c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s appear

in Vaughan W i l l i a m s '

masques and dance music p r i o r to J o b ;

the use of folk dance

t u n e s , long e s t a b l i s h e d in the English folk c u l t u r e ; the use

of mime t o s u b s t i t u t e

for

t h e spoken or sung d i a l o g u e (On

Christmas Night i n c l u d e s very few spoken and sung l i n e s ) ; a

retention

of

the c o n t r a s t i n g

beginning

of

a work t h a t

antimasque;

and t h e

d a n c e a p p e a r i n g near

could

u s e of

compare with

the

Jonson's

p a v a n e s and g a l l i a r d s

from

s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y dance s u i t e s .
Vaughan Williams enjoyed p a r t i c i p a t i n g in folk dance as
well as w r i t i n g for i t , y e t he had some d e a l i n g s w i t h
types

of

dance,

as w e l l .

His widow,

Ursula

other

Vaughan

W i l l i a m s , e s t i m a t e s the year to be around 1911 when "Ralph

had met Gordon C r a i g
their writing a b a l l e t

and t h e r e was some d i s c u s s i o n

together

so a m e e t i n g was

with Diaghilev and N i j i n s k y a t the Savoy."

of

arranged

Over lunch the

four d i s c u s s e d C r a i g ' s idea of Cupid and Psyche as a b a l l e t

subject,

with Nijinsky dancing both

roles,

but

Vaughan

41
Williams objected to the idea.

The project came to nothing,

as the following conversation shows, but the incident does

prove an affiliation on sorae level.

" L e t me have the m u s i c , " said C r a i g , "and

I ' l l f i t in the s t o r y . " "Impossible," said Ralph,
"you must l e t me have the s c e n a r i o and I w i l l
w r i t e rausic for i t . "
" I r a p o s s i b l e , " said Craig,
" j u s t send t h e m u s i c " - - a n d so t h e y p a r t e d .
N e i t h e r s e n t a n y t h i n g to t h e o t h e r and t h e
projected b a l l e t became another might-have-been.
At about the same time, Vaughan Williaras a l s o knew and
liked very rauch Isadora Duncan and her brother, Raymond.
I s a d o r a i n v i t e d him to her studio to see her
dance, as she wanted him to w r i t e music for h e r .
She said sadly t h a t had they been in P a r i s , she
would have danced for him "without c o s t u m e " - - b u t
her English accompanist would not l i k e her to do
so. He found the melting beauty of her p h r a s i n g
e x a c t l y the s o r t of movement for which he could
w r i t e , and he s t a r t e d work on a c h o r a l b a l l e t
u s i n g G j i l b e r t M u r r a y ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of The
Bacchae.
When Duncan l a t e r d i s a p p e a r e d without l e a v i n g an a d d r e s s ,
t h i s p r o j e c t , t o o , came to nothing, but her i n i t i a l request
resulted in a near-coraplete Vaughan Williaras' c h o r a l work,
The Bacchae, unpublished except for one vocal duet. 14 Mrs.
Vaughan Williaras

raentions

further

social

and

artistic

a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h both Duncans, such as having tea and

attending poetry r e a d i n g s , t h a t i n d i c a t e the t h r e e shared
other i n t e r e s t s , as w e l l . 15
Duncan's n a t u r a l , flowing s t y l e may have

indirectly

been a c o n s i d e r a t i o n as Vaughan Williaras i n s e r t e d

dance

s u g g e s t i o n s s i x t e e n y e a r s l a t e r i n t o his scenario of Job.

At the very l e a s t , one raay speculate t h a t .Vaughan Williams

42
must

have

enjoyed

the company of one who offered

an

alternative to the mania for classical ballet as it was then

being produced on the London stage.

For Vaughan Williams

openly disliked classical ballet as a style;

the body poised

" the use of

on the toe seemed to him a travesty of

nature and made him feel uncoraf or table,." notes

16
Vaughan Williams.

Ursula

Classical Ballet Background

Notwithstanding the considerable interest in English
folk dance and the newer Greek movement, the area of dance
undergoing the most draraatic developraents was classical
ballet.

A national ballet company did not exist in England

in the 1920s, but the eleraents of formation were present:

the strong tradition of dance, both folk and art, as already
discussed; an established preference and taste, largely
formed by a plethora of foreign dancers; and a supportive
public appreciation of dance.

In addition,

indigenous

personnel capable of organizing and sustaining a native

dance company were highly active.
Court dance has already been seen as a defining characteristic of the highly evolved masque, yet forms tend to
change, and an English replacement for the masque failed to
develop.

One striking attempt to create a new dance form

was by an eighteenth century English dancing master, John

Weaver (1673-1760), who proposed a ballet without words in
which the narrative would unfold through mime and movement.

43
"He d e s c r i b e d

his

idea

DANCING, a t t e m p t e d
Ancient

Greeks

as a

'Dramatick

in I m i t a t i o n

and R o m a n s , ' "

of

the

states

Entertainment
PANTOMIMES of

Haskell.

of
the

With

his

ballet d'action,

a s he c a l l e d h i s d a n c e d r a m a , he s t r o v e f o r
18
s t y l e , and t a s t e . "
His f i r s t a t t e m p t t o p r o d u c e a

"unity,

b a l l e t d ' a c t i o n was The Loves of Mars and Venus (1717)

stiraulated

considerable

performances

at

interest

Drury

Lane,

during
but

its

could

which

seventeen

not

compete

c o m m e r c i a l l y w i t h c e r t a i n o t h e r e f f o r t s . 19

"He [Weaver] was

the

evolve

first

theatrical
new

to

see

forms

theatre

that
if

it

dancing

reply

to

was t o make a l a s t i n g

public,"

revolutionary

had

to

and

his

idea

the problems

its

own

i m p a c t on t h e

represented
raised

by

"a

ballet's

transfer

t o t h e p u b l i c t h e a t r e [ a t t h e d e m i s e of t h e c o u r t
m a s q u e ] . " 20
The form moved on t o A u s t r i a , G e r m a n y , and
France,

where,

particularly

George Noverre

E a r l y i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e s u p p o r t of d a n c e

in

b e c a m e , of

r i g h t up t o

becarae s e t

(perhaps unfairly)

Jean

of

England

course,

the

standard

Diaghilev.

in a p a t t e r n which would

n e a r l y two h u n d r e d f i f t y
.

country,

form

ballet

".

latter

its

It

credit

the

for

development.

is given

in

years.

As H a s k e l l

. t h e E n g l i s h m o n a r c h y was n e i t h e r

continue

for

expresses

it,

absolute

enough.

r i c h e n o u g h , nor s t a b l e enough t o f o s t e r
i n Denmark, R u s s i a , a n d , e s p e c i a l l y ,
the

monarchy

remained

a c o u r t b a l l e t , " as
21
France.
Yet, while

uncommitted,

public

patronage

of

44
foreign-trained dancers was notable; in that

situation
22

". . . London found more profit and less risk

..."

London's profit was more than monetary.

The steady

stream of established dancers, both male and female, ballet

m a s t e r s , and

innovative impresarios contributed to the

tastes of the public, as well as to the training of young

dancers.

Such well-known ballet masters as Noverre and

Jules Perrot were employed by major theatres; the public

they influenced remained enthusiastic patrons throughout the
1800's.

They were faithful supporters of the popular

Romantic movement and after it, the spectacular pageants

into which ballet degenerated

in most of Europe.

latter entertainments generally featured

personnel, who achieved

These

Italian-trained

incredible virtuosity and, as

teachers, replaced the French school in London.

The most

famous of the Italians was Enrico Cecchetti, who established

a London school from 1918 to 1923.

From his teaching came a

codified system still important in ballet pedagogy today.

Cecchetti also taught the Diaghilev Company early in its
formation (1909) in Italy.

Meanwhile, while foreign dancers

held the public's attention, most English dancers worked in

provincial houses, small theatre, and music-hall stages,
where they excelled in pantomime and c'^aracter dances.

Many

of them took foreign naraes.

In the early years of the new century, innovative ideas
in ballet were taking form on the continent.

Together with

45
dancers of the French and Italian school, Russian dancers
frora St. Petersburg

and Moscow performed

in the Ballet

Russe, under the direction of the Russian impresario, Sergei

Diaghilev (1872-1929).

Although he did not choreograph a

single dance, Diaghilev was brilliant in sensing successful

and innovative combinations of artists.
Between 1909 and 1929, the contributions of
many of the finest dancers and choreographers and
of some of the most avant-garde, style-setting
painters and composers raade the Diaghilev company
the centre of creative artistic activity. . . . He
became the focus of the ballet world, striving for
the integration of dance, music, visual design,
and libretto into a "total work of^^rt" in which
no one element dominated the others.
Among the names associated with Diaghilev in coll abor a t ion
were Stravinsky, Satie, Picasso, Cocteau, Benois, Bakst,
Pavlova, Nijinsky, Fokine, Massine, Karsavina, Derain, de
Falla, Respighi, Ravel, and Balanchine.
Mary Clarke describes the Ballet Russe's effect on the
English dance scene (the first appearance was in June,
1911).

The a r r i v a l of Diaghileff's Ballets Russes at

Covent Garden in 1911 profoundly and completely
altered a l l former ideas about the a r t of b a l l e t .
I t cannot be o v e r - s t r e s s e d t h a t the D i a g h i l e f f
B a l l e t was a l l - i m p o r t a n t in shaping our modern
c o n c e p t i o n of what might be achieved by t r u e
collaboration of the a r t s of rausic, p a i n t i n g and
d a n c i n g , and without the example of that g r e a t e s t
of a l l companies, b a l l e t would probably never have
risen above the level of a m u s i c - h a l l e n t e r t a i n raent in t h i s country. I t would c e r t a i n l y not have
developed along i t s p r e s e n t l i n e s . The Russian
Ballet was immensely popular in London. . . . The
leading a r t i s t s , musicians, poets, and dancers who
came into contact with i t were influenced.

46
Lydia Lopokova, a former b a l l e r i n a with D i a g h i l e v ,

concurred

with C l a r k e , "'He formed the t a s t e of our g e n e r a t i o n . ' " 2 5

Along with t r a d i t i o n and a p u b l i c , the f o r m a t i o n of
English

dance

company n e e d e d

p e r s o n n e l with a p p r o p r i a t e v i s i o n .

dedicated

an

contemporary

One of t h e s e p e r s o n s was

a young I r i s h d a n c e r , E d r i s Stannus ( l a t e r

Dame N i n e t t e

de

V a l o i s ) , v e t e r a n of eleven y e a r s of dancing when she j o i n e d

Diaghilev's

company.

She o b s e r v e d

for

several

Diaghilev,

whora she c a l l e d

progressed

in d a n c i n g r o l e s from a p p r e n t i c e t o

solos.

" t h a t male w i z a r d , "

Her s o l o e x p e r i e n c e

years
as she

important

i m p r e s s e d her l e s s ,

however,

than the e x p e r i e n c e of
. . . dancing in the g r e a t e n s e m b l e s . . . b e i n g
p a r t of such i n t r i c a t e p a t t e r n s . . . t h a t seemed
t o b r i n g me w i t h i n r e a c h of t h e e s s e n c e of t h e
work . . . [and] seeing the whole g r e a t machine a t
work day a f t e r day.
In 1925 de Valois l e f t Diaghilev to pursue her p e r s o n a l
g o a l of b u i l d i n g a b a l l e t company of her own.
"The Academy of
purposes,
into

Choreographic

Art"

for

her

She opened
teaching

served as i t s premiere d a n s e u s e , and branched out

a variety

assignments.

of

dancing

roles

and

choreographic

A c o n t r a c t with L i l i a n B a y l i s a t the Old Vic

Theatre r e s u l t e d in a c o l l a b o r a t i o n t h a t l a s t e d raany y e a r s ,
through

the

initial

forraation

in 1931 of t h e V i c - W e l l s

B a l l e t , which became t h e S a d l e r ' s W e l l s Company, and

ultimately,

to t h e c h a r t e r

for

on,

t h e Royal B a l l e t of Covent

Garden, E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t n a t i o n a l l y sponsored b a l l e t company.

47
Other supporters shared de Valois' goal, also.

The

death of Diaghilev in 1929 highlighted the need for a native

ballet company.

Dedicated to that end were two motivated

personalities, Philip Richardson and Arnold Haskell, who

became the principal organizers for a distinguished

and

talented

group of artists, m u s i c i a n s , d a n c e r s ,

and

enthusiastic supporters called the Camargo Society.

The

Society felt "there was sufficient talent available

England

in

to produce not a substitute for the Diaghileff

Ballet but something interesting and important in its own

28
right."
Walker describes the Society's aims which were:
to produce o r i g i n a l b a l l e t s before a
s u b s c r i p t i o n a u d i e n c e a t a West End t h e a t r e f o u r
times every y e a r , g i v i n g each time a Sunday
e v e n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h a Monday a f t e r n o o n
repeat.
They i n t e n d e d t o engage t h e b e s t d a n c e r s
in London and work o u t f i r s t c l a s s c o l l a b o r a t i o n s
of c o m p o s e r s , p a i n t e r s and c h o r e o g r a p h e r s for each
new p r o d u c t i o n .
The names o f
are worth

noting.

Diaghilev

were

t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Camargo S o c i e t y
Several

involved,

former
including

principal

dancers

with

L y d i a Lopokova,

Tamara
K a r s a v i n a , A l i c i a Markova, Anton D o l m , and Marie R a m b e r t . 30
C o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p o s e r s s e r v i n g on an a d v i s o r y

committee

for music were:

. . . a l p h a b e t i c a l l y , Arnold Bax, Lennox B e r k e l e y ,
Lord B e r n e r s , A r t h u r B l i s s , G u s t a v H o l s t , H e r b e r t
H o w e l l s , C o n s t a n t L a m b e r t , Malcolm S a r g e n t and
Ralph Vaughan W i l l i a m s .
The s u b s c r i b e r s ' l i s t c o n t a i n s
influential
p e o p l e of t h e t i m e in t h e a r t s .
C u l l e d a t random,
i t r e v e a l s A u g u s t u s J o h n , Edwin L u t y e n s , O t t o l i n e
M o r r e l l , O s b e r t S i t w e l l ^ ^ i h e N e v i n s o n s , Oswald
S t o l l and L y t t o n S t r a c h e y .

48
The Camargo S o c i e t y

gave

its

first

programme

at

the

Carabridge T h e a t r e on October 1 9 , 1930; t h e o p e n i n g was a

huge s u c c e s s and paved t h e way f o r

t h e u n d e r t a k i n g of

Job

In the same y e a r , 1926, t h a t N i n e t t e de Valois l e f t

the

the following

year.

Keynes' Conception of Job

B a l l e t Russe and Vaughan Williams wrote On Christmas N i g h t ,

Geoffrey Keynes had the idea t h a t l e d to J o b , A Masque
R^Il.i.I13.'

Actually,

his

conception

was a m e r g i n g

i n t e r e s t s t h a t had begun in the e a r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s when he

for
of

first

saw two of B l a k e ' s engravings from I l l u s t r a t i o n s of the Book

of J o b .

At t h i s time B l a k e ' s work was l i t t l e known and even

less understood.

The encounter led Keynes i n t o a l i f e t i m e

avocation as c o l l e c t o r

and b i b l i o g r a p h e r

of B l a k e ' s

In 1926 he a c q u i r e d

h i s own c o r a p l e t e

c o p y of

work.

Blake's

I l l u s t r a t i o n s of the Book of J o b , which he d e s c r i b e d as "a

raasterpiece
of c r e a t i v e a r t u n i q u e in England." 32 During
t h i s time h i s growing knowledge was f u r t h e r e n r i c h e d by new
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b r o u g h t f o r t h by a n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t

Blake

s c h o l a r and a s s o c i a t e , Joseph Wicksteed, in h i s study c a l l e d

B l a k e ' s V i s i o n of t h e Book of Job (London and New York,
1910; second e d i t i o n enlarged and r e v i s e d , 1924), which was
the f i r s t s e r i o u s attempt to understand B l a k e ' s work.
At the same time h i s s t u d y of Blake was p r o g r e s s i n g ,
S i r G e o f f r e y was enjoying another c u l t u r a l p u r s u i t ,

ballet.

G r e a t l y impressed with Sergei D i a g h i l e v ' s London p r o d u c t i o n s

49
of the Ballet Russe, he became more personally involved when
his brother, John Maynard Keynes, married one of Diaghilev's
ballerinas, Lydia Lopokova.

So it is that .a culminating of

two pursuits is reflected in Keynes' writing:

. . . long f a m i l i a r i t y with the designs convinced

me t h a t t h e i n n e r t h r e a d of B l a k e ' s drama
possessed a fundamental s i m p l i c i t y a n d that if
t h i s could be s u c c e s s f u l l y e x t r a c t e d i t would
p r o v i d e the theme for a b a l l e t of a kind which
would be new to the English s t a g e . Blake had,
moreover , unconsciously provided in his p i c t u r e s
several s e t t i n g s which could e a s i l y be adapted for
stage scenes, and innumerable s u g g e s t i o n s in h i s
f i g u r e s for a t t i t u d e s and groupings which cried
out for t h e i r conversation by a choreographer into
a c t u a l i t y and movement.
Keynes was aware of some of the problems involved.
. . . s t a g e d e s i g n e r , c h o r e o g r a p h e r , and c o m p o s e r
had t o be b r o u g h t t o a common u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
e n t h u s i a s m for B l a k e ' s p u r p o s e and a t h e a t r e
m a n a g e r h a d t o b e foiand w i l l i n g t o r i s k t h e
financial undertaking.
In

addition,

should

Keynes

felt

n o t be a l t e r e d

"unadulterated
Sir
artists

Blake.

Geoffrey
of

strongly

c o l l a b o r a t i o n began.

the

presentation

from h i s c o n c e p t i o n .

I t must r e m a i n
No comproraise was p o s s i b l e . " 35

began c o n s u l t i n g

the day,

that

and t h e
He f i r s t

twists

with
and

leading
turns

shared with h i s

of

English
creative

sister-in-law

and a r t i s t Gwendolyn R a v e r a t h i s v i s i o n " t o form a

scenario

covering

e n o u g h of t h e s e r i e s t o s u g g e s t B l a k e ' s meaning t o
36
an a u d i e n c e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h h i s e c c e n t r i c d e s i g n s . "
As
Keynes e x p r e s s e s l a t e r ,
"They [ t h e d r a w i n g s ] were r e a d y for the
s t a g e , b u t t h e y had t o be r e t h o u g h t .
The S a t a n
d r a w i n g , ' t h e J e h o v a h [ a n s w e r i n g J o b o u t of a

50
Whirlwind],' and sorae of Job himself could not do
as they stood; they had to be._pared down. The
Behemoth had to be eliminated."
Three scenarios exist today:

Keynes and Raverat's

original notes, handwritten by Raverat; a shortened version

of the original, usually included in programs to the ballet;
and an expanded version devised by the coraposer.

(See

Appendix A.)
With the scenario fairly well set, Keynes and Raverat
sought a producer and a composer.

In 1927 a copy of the

scenario in French and a copy of the Blake engravings were

sent to Diaghilev; Diaghilev turned the idea down, saying it
3p
was "'too English and too old-fashioned . ' "
There was no
other company in the country that might perform the work, a
fact discouraging to the creators.
At about the same tirae, Keynes and Raverat approached
Vaughan Williams, whom they felt would be sympathetic with
"Blake's symbolism and individuality . "3 9 Vaughan Williams
was also the cousin of Mrs. Raverat.
drop-scenes
engravings,
proposed

She painted watercolor

and made t i n y f i g u r e s , d i r e c t l y taken from the

for

scenes.

a toy

theatre,

then

demonstrated

Vaughan W i l l i a m s was i m m e d i a t e l y

with t h e idea and had s e v e r a l

suggestions

Keynes a g r e e d w i t h o n l y two of them:

of

that

the
taken

h i s own,

but

the b a l l e t

be

c a l l e d a masque and t h a t the performance be sur l e s p o i n t e s .

(One can c o n j e c t u r e t h a t Vaughan W i l l i a m s ' o t h e r

suggestions

51
varied too g r e a t l y with Keynes'

c o n c e p t of

"unadulterated

Blake.")
Kennedy s u g g e s t s ,
No d o u b t he f e l t t h a t b a l l e t , through i t s modern
a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h a r t i f i c i a l i t y , s r a a r t n e s s and
i m p r e s a r i o s , was f o r e i g n t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n of an
E n g l i s h work of a r t i n which t h e g l o r y of t h e
s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y masque ( w i t h o u t a p n g s and
p o e t r y ) could be revived in modern form.
Vaughan Williams wrote in 1927 this letter in which his
attitude is further elaborated:
My dear Gwen,
I amused myself with making a sketch of Job--I
never expected Djag [sic] wd. look at itand I'm
glad on the wholebut it really wdnt. have suited
the sham serious really decadent and frivolous
attitude of the R.B. [Russian Bal.let] toward
everythingcan you imagine Job sandwiched between
Les Biches and Ciraaroisianaand that dreadful
pseudo-cultured audience saying to each other "My
dear, have you seen God at the Russian Ballet."
No I think we are well out of itI don't think
this is sour grapes for I admit that it wd. have
been great fun to have had a production by the
R.B.though I feel myself that they wd. have made
an unholy mess of it with their over-developed
calves.
Yours affectionately*
R. Vaughan Williams
The Composition of Job
A letter written during the summer of 1928 reflects
Vaughan Williams' continuing high enthusiasm:

52
The Rew Cottage,
Abinger Common,
Dorking.
Dear Gwen,

I am a n x i o u s l y awaiting your s c e n a r i o o t h e r wise the music w i l l push on by i t s e l f which raay

cause t r o u b l e l a t e r .
I ' v e got the Wicksteed book
but I'ra not going to worry a b o u t t h e l e f t f o o t
and the r i g h t f o o t .
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,
.
R. Vaughan Williaras
In a d d i t i o n

t o r e a d i n g W i c k s t e e d , Vaughan W i l l i a m s

s t u d i e d Job in the Authorized Version of the B i b l e ,

studied

for many h o u r s the Blake e n g r a v i n g s , and went on to develop

h i s own s c e n a r i o , d i f f e r e n t in some r e s p e c t s from Keynes and
R a v e r a t ' s . 43 His very s t r o n g v i s u a l sense provided him with
a c l e a r v i s i o n of t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t ,
references

so he

included

t o both s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s and Blake p l a t e s in h i s

s c e n a r i o , as w e l l as s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s .

Several

referred

would d e p i c t

to

folk

d a n c e s which he f e l t

t i m e s he
his

choreographic i n t e n t i o n s and famous p a i n t i n g s t h a t suggested

g r o u p i n g s and mood.

The music he s h a r e d

f r i e n d , Gustav H o l s t , for H o l s t ' s

with

his

good

criticism.

I s h o u l d l i k e to p l a c e on record a l l t h a t he
[Holst] did for rae when I wrote J o b .
I s h o u l d be
alarmed to say how many "Field Days" we spent over
it.
Then he came t o a l l t h e o r c h e s t r a l
r e h e a r s a l s , including a s p e c i a l journey to
N o r w i c h , and f i n a l l y he i n s i s t e d on the Camargo
Society's performing.it.
Thus I owe t h e l i f e of
Job to H o l s t . . . .
With D i a g h i l e v ' s r e j e c t i o n , however, a performance of
the b a l l e t

seemed u n l i k e l y .

Vaughan W i l l i a m s s c o r e d

his

53
composition for about eighty instruments and called it A
Pageant for Dancing, although it appears when considering
the structure of the work, that he had always intended it to
be a masque.

He conducted the Queen's Hall Orchestra for

the premiere perforraance, October 23, 1930, at the Norfolk

and Norwich Triennial Music Festival.

Placed at the end of

a long program, the work was somewhat of a surprise to the

critics, but it was well received.

Some, like

Richard

Capell, felt the music stood well as a concert piece, but

others "regarded Job as stage music without the stage and
45
urged its complete realization as soon as possible."
Conclusion
This chapter has briefly exposed the reader to the
mixture of backgrounds and interests that met and merged in
the growing

idea of Job.

One sees that the original

inspiration of Geoffrey Keynes began to take on a force of

its own as it was acted upon by the varied personalities
with their individual points of view.

Vaughan Williams'

concept of English dance draraa appeared well established

when Keynes' idea was presented to hira; Raverat's ideas of
scene design and Ninette de Valois' choreographic plans,
explored in Chapter V, will add further dimension to Job.
Thus can be seen the developing of the eclectic character of
the w o r k t h e seemingly unlike elements that interrelate
into one effective experience.

54
Much of the understanding of Job, however, lies

in

one's knowledge of Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job.

It has been noted that Keynes' conception of the ballet
required that subsequent collaborators have an intimate
knowledge of Blake's idiosyncratic rendering.

The plates

themselves served as something of a pivot point around which

each artists's creation revolved; when a question arose on a
point of interpretation, each artist turned to the plates
for elucidation.

Therefore, the next chapter seeks to

familiarize the reader with a background on the twenty-one

plates, focusing on aspects pertinent to the ballet.

55
Notes
M i c h a e l K e n n e d y , The Works of Ralph Vaughan W i l l i a m s
(Oxford:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ) .
2
B r i t i s h Museum Add. M s . 5 0 3 7 8 A.
The a u t h o r
is
grateful
to U r s u l a Vaughan W i l l i a m s for her h e l p in
i n i t i a l l y " d e c i p h e r i n g " t h i s q u o t a t i o n , which was a p p a r e n t l y
an a f t e r t h o u g h t and n o t i n t e n d e d for c l o s e s c r u t i n y .
It is
v a l u a b l e a s V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s ' p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n on t h e
m a s q u e , and s o i s i n c l u d e d f o r t h i s and l a t e r
reference.
[ A u t h o r ' s b r a c k e t s , i n s e r t i o n s , and d e l e t i o n s . ]
^Kennedy,
Kennedy,

422-424.
423.

O r g e l and S t r o n g ,

317-319.

R a l p h V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s and Adolf Bolm, On C h r i s t m a s

Night:
A Masque Adapted frora D i c k e n ' s "A C h r i s t r a a s C a r o l "
(London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 ) .
^Kennedy, 490-493.
g
E. J. Dent, Review of Old King Cole, by Ralph Vaughan
Williams, The Nation and the Athanaeum, 30 June 1923, as
quoted in Kennedy, 178.
9
^lbid.
Gordon Craig was a noted scene designer for British
theatre.
Ursula Vaughan Williaras, R. V. W.: A Biography of
Ralph Vaughan Williaras (Oxford; Oxford University Press,
1964), 94.
Ibid.
"^lbid.

14
Kennedy, 452.
'"^U. Vaughan Williams, 94.
further relates:

Ursula Vaughan Williams

Sometiraes she [Isadora Duncan] would collect

him in her car and drive him about London at
night. Generous and spectacular, she would make
her chauffeur stop, and they would walk along the
Embankment where she delighted to give half-crowns

56
t o t h e h o m e l e s s who s l e p t o u t on t h e b e n c h e s
t h e r e , o f t e n , l i k e sorae e c c e n t r i c f a i r y in her
p a l e e v e n i n g d r e s s , waking thera from
their
newspaper-wrapped s l e e p t o p r e s s a coin i n t o t h e i r
hands.
"^lbid., 1 4 .

17
Arnold Haskell, "The Social Setting," Ballet in Britain, ed. Peter Brinson (London: Oxford University Press,
1962), 15.
^^lbid.
'^lbid., 16.
^^lbid.,

13.

^'Ibid.,

19.

[Author's brackets.]

22
E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , 1 5 t h e d . , s . v . "Western
Dance," by Horst K o e g l e r .
23
Mary Clarke, The Sadler's Wells Ballet; A History
and an Appreciation (New York: Macmillan Co., 1955), 32.
Ibid.
25
Katherine Sorley Walker, Ninette de Valois; Idealist
Without Illusions (London; Hamish Hamilton, 1987), 53.
26,
-^
Ibid.
^^lbid.
^^alker, 97.
29
^lbid..
30,w^
Ibid.
Ibid.
32
Geoffrey Keynes, The Gates of Memory (Oxford, New
Oxford University Press, 1983), 203.

York:
33

Geoffrey Keynes, Blake S t u d i e s :

E s s a y s on His L i f e
and Work (London; Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971), 189.
34
Keynes, Gates of Memory, 203.
^^lbid, 204.

57
^^lbid.
^ Frank W. D, R i e s , " S i r Geoffrey Keynes and t h e B a l l e t
J o b , " Dance R e s e a r c h 2 ( S p r i n g , 1 9 8 4 ) , 20.
[Author ' s
brackets.]
3g

I b i d . , 205.
[Author's brackets.]
But D i a g h i l e v
" k e p t t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n s and I could see d i s t i n c t t r a c e s of
B l a k e ' s i n f l u e n c e in a n o t h e r b i b l i c a l b a l l e t , 'The P r o d i g a l
S o n , ' produced by D i a g h i l e v in h i s next London season [1928,
with music by P r o k o v i e v ] . "
^^lbid., 204.
^^Kennedy, 201.
^"Ibid., 202.
^^lbid., 202-203.
43
Ursula Vaughan Williams notes that
. . . the splendour of the seventeenth-century
English impressed its rhythm on the music. Years
later he set words "Then the Lord answered Job out
of the whirlwind" to the tune he had written for
the Galliard of the Sons of the Morning and they
fitted with only the slightest of alteration. U.
Vaughan Williams, 183.
'^'^Ralph Vaughan Williams and Gustav Holst, Heirs and
Rebels (London; Oxford University Press, 1959), 76. An
interesting note is added by Ninette de Valois in her book,
Come Dance With Me: A Memoir 1898-1956 (Cleveland and New
York; The World Publishing Company, 1957), 99. Before the
first dance perforraance of Job, Holst attended a rehearsal
and felt the orchestra needed raore rehearsal of his friend's
great rausic. When told that the lack of funds prohibited
another rehearsal, Holst put up the raoney himself.
^^Kennedy, 204.

CHAPTER III
WILLIAM BLAKE AND THE SUBJECT OF JOB
The Book of Job
As subjects go, that of the patriarch' Job is universal
in his appeal, for there would seem hardly a thinking person
who does not have personal acquaintance with the questions
of seemingly senseless suffering, divine justice, and the
meaning and purpose of life.
becomes

inforraed

patriarch's

and

of

the

From the raoment one first

story

of J o b , the

ancient

the perceiver's story become one.

The

assumption that Job lived long ago and far away strengthens
the "every-raan" quality.

According to J. Gerald Janzen,

Job's story as told in the Book of Job itself requires for

its understanding probably the least amount of previous
knowledge among the traditional Judeo-Christian scriptures,
yet it portrays an ultimate spiritual transformation.
writers, thinkers, and artists who otherwise
Biblical

tradition

uncongenial

appear

find

That
the

to find Job an

agreeable subject further illustrates its appeal.

Ranking with the great classics of literature in the
world, the Book of Job has been the object of much scholarly
attention, yet the poem eludes definitive interpretation and
authorship.

The poet (or poets, as most sources agree that

the total poem has more than one contributor) wrote of a

2
legend dated "anywhere between 800 and 300 B.C.E." and of a
native of the land of Uz, making the hero of this Jewish
58

59
masterpiece a Gentile.
t r ad i t i o n a l l y

A gentle

linked

irony

to the q u a l i t y

a s s o c i a t i o n perhaps d e r i v e d

is

Job

is

of p a t i e n c e ,

an

frora t h e r e f e r e n c e

that

in t h e New

T e s t a m e n t E p i s t l e of James which s t a t e s , "You have heard of

the p a t i e n c e of J o b . . . ."

Y e t , t h i s view d e p i c t s

less

t h a n one t e n t h of t h e f o r t y - t w o c h a p t e r s which make up the

e n t i r e book, and more i r a p o r t a n t l y ,

ignores the p r o t e s t s

of

J o b , who e x p l i c i t l y q u e s t i o n s d i v i n e j u s t i c e .
The a n c i e n t
Version of
with

poem,

the B i b l e ,

a short

as p r e s e n t e d

is written

i n t h e King James

in symmetry;

it

n a r r a t i v e which d e p i c t s t h e a c t i o n of

legend; a raiddle p o r t i o n i s a long p o e t i c d i a l o g u e ;

s h o r t n a r r a t i v e ends t h e poera.

laws of s a c r i f i c e .

postulates

the

another

Job begins as a p r o s p e r o u s

and s i n c e r e worshipper of J e h o v a h ,

Job's loyalty

begins

a b i d i n g c l o s e l y by t h e

But in a s t r a n g e heavenly c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

is questioned

by S a t a n

the Accuser,

who

t h a t Job i s l o y a l only because he i s p r o s p e r o u s .

God, who b e l i e v e s in h i s s e r v a n t J o b , g i v e s Satan p e r m i s s i o n

to t e s t J o b .
wife,

All t h a t Job has i s d e s t r o y e d , e x c e p t

but Job remains f a i t h f u l

t o God.

Then S a t a n

f u r t h e r with d r e a d f u l p h y s i c a l a i l m e n t s ; Job s t i l l
faithful.

for

At t h e end of the second c h a p t e r , t h r e e

his
tests

remains
friends

a r r i v e to comfort Job; t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n s forra t h e b u l k of

t h e book,

the extensive dialogue

that

falls

into

t h r e e f u l l c y c l e s of a c c u s a t i o n and r e b u t t a l b e f o r e

alraost
it

ends

60
with

an

inserted

from J e h o v a h
In

himself.

the

dialogue

s p e e c h by a s t r a n g e r named E l i h u and words

views
that

of

certain

offers

room

interpreters,
for

diverse

According t o Joseph Wicksteed, the d i a l o g u e

protest

against

suffering

is

the

speculation.
is

"an

exalted

s h a l l o w s o l u t i o n s of t h e p r o b l e m of
4
,"
as e x p r e s s e d in v i v i d p o e t i c idiom,

a b o u n d i n g i n i m a g e r y , p a r a d o x , and i r o n y in h i s

it

newly p u b l i s h e d

Stephen

Mitchell,

The Book of J o b ( 1 9 8 7 ) , p o i n t s

out

that Job's friends'

a r g u m e n t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e c y c l e d
5
a l l u d i n g to J o b ' s g u i l t .
He s u g g e s t s t h e

syllogisras
friends

appear

possibility
afraid
shift

their

innocence

(and

of what

could

happen

thera),

support

against

"conflicting

from

him.

from

last

that
the

question after
created

Job's final

Job

and

Job's

His a t t i t u d e s h i f t s

points out

to

own t e r r o r

therefore
so t h e y

deliver

rebuttals

the

the

that

arguments

text

itself

Whirlwind

question;

constantly-

their

harsh

reflect
to

. . . "
(Mitchell

e v e n b r e a k s d o w n ) , God ' s

such i n t e n s e

him w i t h

sin,

his

himself,

hear

Job

with

rhetorical

i m a g e s and
but

sees

metaphors

the

Voice."

answer r e v e a l s h i s s p i r i t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ;

has not c h a r g e d

the

gradually

have s u b s i d e d

answers

Job " d o e s n ' t

at

implicitly

emotions, addressed to the f r i e n d s ,

When a t

are

into

Job's

judgments

Voice

locked

of

their

t o God.

more

but

"only

convicts

him

God
of

folly in aspiring to understand."

Mitchell concludes.

61
". . . he has faced evil, has looked straight into its face
and through it, into a vast wonder and love."^
William Blake and Job

To W i l l i a r a B l a k e , E n g l i s h a r t i s t ,

poet,

and

( 1 7 5 7 - 1 8 2 7 ) , n e a r i n g t h e end of an a r d u o u s and
life,

difficult

t h e a n c i e n t p a t r i a r c h ' s o r d e a l of a p p a r e n t l y

suffering
something

and s u b s e q u e n t
of

mystic

unjust

r e g e n e r a t i o n may have s e r v e d

a metaphor.

Keynes r e c a l l s

as

Wicksteed's

conjecture
. . . t h a t the idea of Job in s p i r i t u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s b e t w e e n h i s w i f e and h i s f r i e n d s was
suggested to Blake by h i s own t r o u b l e s , f i r s t in
1785 between C a t h e r i n e Blake on the one hand and
h i s b r o t h e r Robert and h i s f r i e n d s on t h e o t h e r ,
and again in 1793 when h i s i n t e g r i t y as a r t i s t and
" p r o p h e t " was t h r e a t e n e d by the f a l s e f r i e n d s who
t r i e d t o d i s s u a d e hira f r o r a , h e c o u r s e he had
marked out for h i m s e l f . . . .
A r e n e w a l of c r e a t i v e v i s i o n i s docuraented by Blake himself
in 1804, but in 1809 he was again d e p r e s s e d by t h e
of an e x h i b i t i o n .

failure

After a period of d e p r e s s i o n about which

l i t t l e i s known, i t would appear t h a t

. . . Blake, l i k e J o b , had passed t h r o u g h t h e p i t
of s u f f e r i n g and come a t l e n g t h to a new and
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i n t e l l e c t u a l t r u t h s t o be
symbolized as J o b ' s s t a t e of r e s t o r e d p r o s p e r i t y .
I t may t h u s be seen how the idea of Job had been
simmering in B l a k e ' s raind for over t h i r t y y e a r s
u n t i l a b o u t 1818 the s t o r y as a whole had assumed
for him a profound s i g n i f i c a n c e in r e l a t i o n to h i s
own e x p e r i e n c e s .
B l a k e ' s a r t i s t i c i n t e r e s t in Job can be followed for a t
least

thirty-five

years

before

the

set

of

engravings

p e r t i n e n t to t h i s study was published as I l l u s t r a t i o n of the

62
Book of Job in March, 1 8 2 5 .

A p e n - a n d - w a s h drawing

dated

c i r c a 1 7 8 5 , showing Job s i t t i n g between h i s wife and t h r e e

friends,

i s d e s c r i b e d by G e o f f r e y

Keynes as " p r i m i t i v e

t e c h n i q u e , b u t t h e c h a r a c t e r s of the component f i g u r e s

in
are

a l r e a d y t h e r e , very much as t h e y a r e shewn in p l a t e 10 of

12
the f i n a l Job s e r i e s . "
Subsequent v a r i a t i o n s depicting
t h r e e v e r s i o n s of t h i s design e x i s t ;

t h e l a s t of t h e

three

i s dated 1793.
The f a c t
Blake's l i f e

that
for

t h e poem of J o b had b e e n a p a r t

so raany y e a r s gave W i c k s t e e d

p o s t u l a t e about the p l a t e s

reason

in h i s landraark s t u d y ,

of
to

Blake's

Vision of t h e Book of J o b .
They a r e . . . perraeated w i t h raany of h i s
d e e p e s t t h o u g h t s and i m a g i n a t i o n s , and, p r o b a b l y ,
even without knowing i t , he often w r e s t s the s t o r y
far frora i t s e v i d e n t i n t e n t i o n , to make i t conform
with h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c conceptions of l i f e .
In t h i s f i r s t a t t e m p t a t an understanding of B l a k e ' s idea of
Job, as well as a l l of B l a k e ' s p i c t u r e s , Wicksteed concluded
t h a t Blake had gone f a r

beyond a mere i l l u s t r a t i n g

of

the

a n c i e n t s t o r y , t h a t the r e n d i t i o n "appeared then most l i k e l y

to be t h e s t o r y of a p r i m a r i l y s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e ;

the

account of raan's inward s t r u g g l e and t r i u r a p h ; t h e c o n f l i c t

between h i s i n d w e l l i n g Good, and E v i l , powers." 14 Wicksteed
proposed

that

illustrations

Blake

had

embedded

his

very

w i t h symbols meant t o be r e a d ,

for

precise
Blake

himself had w r i t t e n ;
"Every Man has Eyes, Nose & Mouth; t h i s Every
Idiot
k n o w s , b u t h e who e n t e r s i n t o &

63
d i s c r i m i n a t e s m o s t m i n u t e l y t h e M a n n e r s and
I n t e n t i o n s , t h e C h a r a c t e r s in a l l t h e i r b r a n c h e s ,
i s t h e a l o n e Wise or S e n s i b l e Man, & on t h i s
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n All Art i s founded.
I intreat,
t h e n , t h a t the S p e c t a t o r w i l l a t t e n d to t h e Hands
& F e e t , t o t h e L i n e a m e n t s of the C o u n t e n a n c e s ;
t h e y a r e a l l d e s c r i p t i v e of C h a r a c t e r , & n o t a
l i n e i s d r a w n w i t h o u t i n t e n t i o n , & t h a t most
d i s c r i m i n a t e & p a r t i c u l a r . As Poetry adraits not a
L e t t e r t h a t i s I n s i g n i f i c a n t , so P a i n t i n g a d m i t s
n o t a G r a i n o f S a n d o r a B l a d e of G r a s s
I n s i g n i f i c a n t m u c h l e s s an I n s i g n i f i c a n t B l u r or
Mark."^^^
The symbolism Wicksteed suggested was simple and d e e p l y
embedded i n W e s t e r n m a n ' s l a n g u a g e and s u b c o n s c i o u s .

The

r i g h t foot or hand r e p r e s e n t e d the s p i r i t u a l , t h e good;

the

left

represented

the m a t e r i a l ,

l e g a l , or e r r o r .

To Blake

the s p i r i t u a l often coincided with " P o e t i c Genius . . . t h e

D i v i n e H u m a n i t y , or a c c o r d i n g to h i s context simply

'God,'

or ' C h r i s t , '

or t h e

Man , a l l

being

essentially

within."

was l i n k e d w i t h

"Great

Selfhood,"

'true'

or ' E t e r n a l '

The l e f t

materialism,

outward,

r e l i g i o n s such as p o l i t i c s .

c o r p o r e a l raan, or

false

In B l a k e ' s raind t h e r e was no

e v i l , o n l y n e g a t i o n of good, no wrong a c t i o n s , b u t wrong

ideas.
R i g h t away one n o t i c e s t h e underlying t e n s i o n p r e s e n t
in t h e e n g r a v i n g s ;
traditional

interpretation

conceived him.
that

one m u s t

the p l a t e s

read

beyond

the

obvious,

of Job to understand how Blake

S. F o s t e r Damon's study of Blake p o i n t s

t h e m s e l v e s warn the v i e w e r ,

K i l l e t h , the S p i r i t G i v e t h L i f e "
i n s c r i b e d on p l a t e 2 ) .

"The

(II Corinthians

Damon s u g g e s t s :

out

Letter

iii:6

as

64
His wife . . . His children . . . The accusing friends are . . . part of him. . . . His devil
is the Accuser within him, and even his God is his
own creation, his own ideal, made in his image,
his Selfhood, and not the true God at all.
It would appear that the entire drama takes place in Job's
soul and must be "Spiritually Discerned"

(I Corinthians

ii:14 as inscribed on plate 1 ) .

Job's sons are not killed in the flesh: they
are dead only to their father, and they reappear
at the end. The devil who destroys them is not an
independent angel but the Accuser in Job's own
brain. The boils which infect him are not ,a. mere
skin disease but a disease of his own soul.
That Blake maintained a free placement of the pictorial
ideas within his book to achieve maximum visual expression
is apparent.

An overall examination of the

twenty-one

plates published as Illustrations of the Book of Job in

March, 1825, reveals the following scheme of

relations

between the designs and the Biblical story:

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapters
Chapters
Chapters
Chapter
Chapters
Chapter

1
2
3
4
12, 14
7, 19
32-37
38
40-41
42

Plates
Plates
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plates
Plates
Plates

1- 4
5- 7
8
9
10
11
12
13-14
15-16
17-21

19

Of the twenty-one plates, a full one-third of them

depict the first two of the forty-two chapters of th-^ poem.
Likewise, the concluding chapter, forty-two, is depicted in
four plates.
chapters.

Twelve plates, therefore, represent three

The remaining nine plates bear the responsibility

65
of d e p i c t i n g the remaining t h i r t y - n i n e c h a p t e r s which r e l a t e
t h e long p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e between Job and h i s f r i e n d s and
the b e g i n n i n g of a t u r n i n g p o i n t for J o b .
point

toward J o b ' s d e s c e n t

into despair;

Eleven

plates

t e n l e a d to h i s

regeneration.
Another

overview

exposes

c o n t r a r i e s n e c e s s a r y for drama.
of d e s i g n

the

similarities

and

For exaraple, the s i r a i l a r i t y

in p l a t e s 1 and 21 c r e a t e a syrametry of d e s i g n in

d e p i c t i n g s i m i l a r scenes of J o b ' s outer l i f e in the domestic

tranquility.

Beginning in p l a t e 2 and c o n t i n u i n g

in

plates

5, 1 1 , 14, 15, and 16, J o b ' s inner l i f e i s v i s i b l e , shown as

an added d i m e n s i o n

l i n k e d with J o b ' s

Accuser.

P l a t e 5 and p l a t e

receiving

alms,

e l e m e n t s of

respectively.

terror;

i d e a l God or

19 p o r t r a y

Job's

Job g i v i n g

and

Both p l a t e s 3 and 11 d e p i c t

immediately

following

the

latter,

however , i s E l i h u ' s dance of youth and beauty in p l a t e 12,

an e f f e c t i v e r e l e a s e from J o b ' s n a d i r and t u r n i n g p o i n t
plate

11.

The s u c c e e d i n g d e s i g n s g r a d u a l l y

resolve

E r r o r of J o b w i t h some of B l a k e ' s most sublirae

in
the

visions.

Following p l a t e 16, t h e f a l l of Satan d e p i c t e d with c o n t r a s t

and moveraent, i s Jehovah b l e s s i n g Job in a glow of heavenly
l i g h t , which c r e a t e s a b e n e f i c i e n t raood c a r r i e d o u t

through

plate 21.
I t was t h e g e s t u r e and raoveraent in t h e s e r i e s

which

d i r e c t e d Keynes' imagination t o the b a l l e t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s ;

however,

later

in the b a l l e t ' s c r e a t i o n , the same e l e m e n t s .

66
p l u s n a r r a t i v e and e m o t i o n ,

became f o c a l p o i n t s for

Ralph

Vaughan W i l l i a m s a s he composed t h e music and N i n e t t e de

Valois a s she p r e p a r e d
following

the choreography.

Therefore,

the

d e s c r i p t i o n of the twenty-one p l a t e s i s designed

to i l l u m i n a t e t h o s e elements i m p o r t a n t to t h e b a l l e t .
s t u d i e s of p a r t i c u l a r

v a l u e to t h i s o b j e c t i v e in t h a t they

focus upon t h e communicative q u a l i t i e s of g e s t u r e and

expressions portrayed

Two

in

the p l a t e s

a r e Bo

facial

Lindberg's

W i l l i a m B l a k e ' s I l l u s t r a t i o n s to the Book of Job and J a n e t

Warner's Blake and the Language of A r t .
Lindberg s t a t e s t h a t in s e a r c h i n g for B l a k e ' s

sources

he " f o u n d a comraon l a n g u a g e of a r t , used by B l a k e and

o t h e r s " 2 0 which c o r r e l a t e d somewhat w i t h Aby W a r b u r g ' s
concept

of

pathos-formulae,

described

as " an

attitude,

g e s t u r e or g r i m a c e , mostly in a human b e i n g , e x p r e s s i v e
character,

feeling,

p a s s i o n , manner, i n t e n t i o n ,
meaning, or merely of motion or s p a c e . ..21

of

thought,

. . . I found t h a t a t t i t u d e s or g e s t u r e s embodying
a s p e c i a l meaning in one work of a r t , t e n d t o
c a r r y t h i s sarae meaning in other works by the same
a r t i s t o r by a n o t h e r .
That i s :
t h e y have a
conventional
raeaning.
A r t i s t s can use p a t h o s fomulae as w r i t e r s use w o r d s ; and, l i k e the
meaning of a work, the meaning of p a t h o s - f o r m u l a
can be m o d i f i e d or a l t e r e d by t h e c o n t e x t . The
s t u d y of ^ h e s e f o r m u l a e i s t h e l e x i c o g r a p h y of
art. . . .
In a d d i t i o n

to t h e p a t h o s - f o r m u l a e

for human e x p r e s -

s i o n , Lindberg n o t e s t h a t scenes i n t e r p o l a t e d by Blake upon

the

scenes

raedieval

of

the B i b l i c a l

poem r e l y on t r a d i t i o n s

and r e n a i s s a n c e t r e a t m e n t s of B i b l i c a l

of

illustration

67
and e x e g e s i s .
such s c e n e

23

Indeed,

as well

b a c k g r o u n d and
the

a s most of

raargins.

seventeenth

dishonesty

Lindberg

offers

eighteenth

such

Consulting

of c r e a t i o n ,
t r a i n i n g . 24

eighteenth

century

w e l l a s w r i t i n g s by B l a k e h i m s e l f
Warner found

"copying"

century

in h i s method

c o n t i n u a t i o n of h i s

for

t h e symbolism placed

Therefore,

and

sources

but

raethods

and h i s

artist
the

each
in

the

was

to

not

result

and

of t r a i n i n g

as

contemporaries,

that

. . . q u i t e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r a s an a r t i s t B l a k e
d e v e l o p e d a s e t o f v i s u a l f o r r a s , g e s t u r e s , and
a t t i t u d e s of t h e huraan b o d y , which he came t o u s e
r e p e a t e d l y . . . . Blake undoubtedly p e r c e i v e d
a r c h e t y p e s o f g e s t u r e and s t a n c e i n t h e work of
p a i n t e r s and s c u l p t o r s , and used them Dj-his own
a r t a s a k i n d of v i s u a l v o c a b u l a r y . . . .
In h e r s t u d y ,
context

of

the

Warner p l a c e s
arts

drew on t r a d i t i o n a l

of B l a k e ' s t i r a e , "

symbols

in

showing t h a t

i c o n o g r a p h y , embleraata, and t h e

l a n g u a g e of g e s t u r e u s e d
and

"these visual
26

by c o n t e m p o r a r y o r a t o r s ,

the

Blake

dramatic
actors,

raimes.
The c o d i f y i n g of meaning of f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n
and g e s t u r e was a p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y and e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y men of l e t t e r s , and
B l a k e and h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s e m p l o y e d
their
r e p e a t e d m o t i f s ^ d a t t i t u d e s f u l l y c o n s c i o u s of
those t r a d i t i o n s .
She i s o l a t e s

four

primary

figures

around

which

b u i l t meaning i n many of h i s w o r k s :
. . . f i g u r e s w i t h o u t - s t r e t c h e d a r m s s t a n d for
c r e a t i v i t y o r , in t h e i r f a l l e n s t a t e , power
p e r v e r t e d t o t y r a n n y ; h u d d l e d and h e a d - c l u t c h i n g
f i g u r e s a r e s y m b o l s of d e s p a i r ;
upward-leaping
f i g u r e s s i g n i f y p s y c h i c e n e r g y ; and d a n c i n g

Blake

68
f i g u r e s appear to be^^ymbols
b o d y , raortal i m p u l s e s .
Each

of

these

figures

or

of

a variation

B l a k e ' s J o b , sometimes r e p e a t e d l y .
expressions

appear

l a n g u a g e of

the

energy

subordinate

of

of

them o c c u r s

Warner n o t e s t h a t
to g e s t u r e ,

that

following

highly developed.

The

intended

to

focus

elements

gesture,

m o v e m e n t , e m o t i o n , or n a r r a t i o n t h a t a r e

t o t h e c o n c e p t of

calm i s d e m o n s t r a t e d

J o b and h i s

evening devotions.
figures,

wife

important

Job' s outer

are

shown

t e n s i o n in t h e

and each c h a r a c t e r h a s an

t h e Hand and Chironoraia;

in

individualized,

is also present

Chirologia;

the

kneeling

The p r a y e r g e s t u r e i s

a common g e s t u r e t o d a y , of c o u r s e ; i t
1644 e d i t i o n of J o h n B u l w e r ' s

life

by t h i s s c e n e a t

and c h i l d r e n

There i s l i t t l e

appropriately reverent gesture.

Language of

of

Plates

Thus d i d J o b c o n t i n u a l l y .

domestic

or s e a t e d

those

Job.

A S e l e c t e d R e a d i n g of t h e

end of a d a y .

the

is

are

in i t s

facial

hands

upon

in

but

readings

P l a t e 1.

the

or

the

still
in

the

Natural

or t h e A r t of Manual

R h e t o r i c a l l u d e d t o i n Warner;
. . . To r a i s e t h e hand c o n j o i n e d or s p r e a d
t o w a r d s h e a v e n i s t h e h a b i t of d e v o t i o n , i n a
u r a l and u n i v e r s a l form of p r a y e r p r a c t i c e d .
by t h o s e who g i v e p u b l i c t h a n k s and p r a i s e t o
most h i q h .
Job's

material

spiritual

life

illustration

life
on

the

is

represented
right.

to adumbrate

on h i s

Little

out
nat. .
the

left,

appears

his

in

the

the g r e a t turmoil to follow,

but

69
the inscriptions in the margin warn "The Letter Killeth, The
Spirit giveth Life, It is Spiritually Discerned."

(The

latter phrase is Blake's own.)

Plate 2.

When the Almighty was yet with rae, When my

Children were about me.

Job's spiritual life is depicted by

the added heavenly diraension, with the topraost

revealing Jehovah in his resemblance to Job.

element

Since Satan is

also present directly above Job, the two conflicting aspects

of Job's soul are aligned.

Wicksteed suggests the angels to

be taking the life-books of Job and his family to Jehovah

and notes that the shadowy images of Job and his wife raight
be indicative of their self-seeking. 30 One notes an element
of tension in Job's posture of entreaty, the separation of
the angels on Job's right and his children on his left.
Warner adds that figures of energy in a non-earthbound
leap, such as that of Satan, suggest a visual form of a
wish. 31 As Satan the Accuser's purpose in the traditional
Job story

is to request a trial of Job, this bounding

figure, along with his imploring hands, appears to uphold

that idea.
Plate 3.

Thy Sons & thy Daughters were eating & drink-

ing Wine in their eldest Brothers house & behold there came
a great wind from the Wilderness ^- smote upon the four faces
of the house & it fell upon the young Men & they are Dead.
A black Satan hovers over the destruction of Job's children
in a gesture of outstretched arms, one of the raost common of

70
Blake's visual symbols in Warner's view.

Usually a symbol

of divinity, the gesture carries with it connotations of

death and self-sacrifice or regeneration.
Thus the gesture can be seen to be complementary to the main themes of Blake's poetry and
thought: man's essential divinity and capacity
for regeneration or, for the aspect of fallen
vision, man's own error of turning that divine
creativity into mental tyranny or spiritual
death. . . . The four attitudes which repeatedly
carry these connotations each have a regenerative
and a demonic aspect. . . .
Lindberg mentions the same figure as being the "pathosformulae for God as the creator and sustainer of the world,
God hovering

full

face, his arms outstretched over his

creation, as if he were encorapassing it or blessing it." 33

Beginning with its origin as a relief of Jupiter Pluvius on

the coluran of Marcus Aurelius and noting its frequent use in
Renaissance art, he also clairas for the figure a subtle
shift of double meaning in Blake's art, believing that Blake
uses it as "the perfect visual expression of his dialectic
34
thought, his idea of the interpenetration of opposites."
Lindberg further claims the use of the figure seventeen
35
times in Job, with certain variations.
Underneath this
significant figure, Job's children attempt to escape their
fate of destruction to no avail.
Plate 4.
Warner

And I only am escaped alone to tell thee.

cites plate 4 as being an excellent exaraple of

Blake's precision design using oratorical moveraents.

raessenger,

The

Job's wife, and Job are each using distinct

71
gestures

that

c a n be corapared

to

mentioned C h i r o l o g i a . . . Chironomia.

those

an

entreaty

suggesting

the

above

For i n s t a n c e , Warner

notes t h a t J o b ' s hands with " h i s o p e n - f i n g e r s

is

in

anguish"

prayer-gesture

as w e l l

as

this

d e s c r i p t i o n in C h i r o l o g i a ;
"Both hands extended out forward t o g e t h e r in
an a c t i o n commodious for them who submit, invoke,
d o u b t , speak t o , a c c u s e , or c a l l by name, i m p l o r e ,
or a t t e s t . . . . " T h i s seems a p a r t i c u l a r l y
a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e for Job to be raaking a t the
h o r r i f i c announcement of t h e m e s s e n g e r , a l t h o u g h
two o t h e r g e s t u r e s from Chicplogia could a l s o have
been adapted here by Blake.
With her h a n d s c l a s p e d above her head, J o b ' s w i f e ' s
signifies
listed

gesture

a natural

e x p r e s s i o n of e x t r e m e g r i e f and i s
i n C h i r o l o g i a as " I weep." 37 Her f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n

emphasizes her emotion, with i t s a n g u i s h and s a d n e s s .

messenger

also deserves a closer

look;

his left

extended with a movement t h a t corresponds with

description,

"To e x t e n d

out

the

speak t o , cry a f t e r ,

r i g h t hand by t h e arm
allure,

c a l l , or warn to come, b r i n g

i n t o , e x h o r t , g i v e warning. . . ."
left

hand i s

Chirologia's

f o r e r i g h t i s the n a t u r a l h a b i t wherein we sometimes

invite,

The

3o

B l a k e ' s c h o i c e of

the

hand i n s t e a d of the r i g h t i s an a d a p t a t i o n s e l e c t e d t o

f i t h i s p e r s o n a l symbolism.

The r i g h t hand i s p o i n t i n g .

In

the background one can f a i n t l y see the other two m e s s e n g e r s

approaching the s c e n e , each one with l e f t foot
P l a t e 5.
the Lord.
Biblical

Then went S a t a n f o r t h

forward.

from the p r e s e n c e of

In one of the scenes Blake i n t e r p o l a t e d

story,

onto

the

J o b i s seen s h a r i n g h i s bread with a b l i n d

72
beggar; h i s wife a p p e a r s t o be s u p p o r t i v e and l o v i n g .

Yet

t h e m o t i v a t i o n of t h e a c t i s in q u e s t i o n , judging by J o b ' s
use of

the l e f t

hand,

although

some s o u r c e s

think

the

p r o t r u s i o n of t h e r i g h t foot shows t h a t Job i s a t t e m p t i n g t o

do t h e

right

thing,

just

not in an a p p r o p r i a t e

spirit.

J e h o v a h ' s downcast countenance i n d i c a t e s h i s s a d n e s s

Satan's

second approach and r e f l e c t s J o b ' s look of s a d n e s s ,

as w e l l .

His drooping p o s t u r e leaning to the l e f t

the d i f f u s i o n

s i d e and

of t h e l i g h t of the halo i s noteworthy.

The

a n g e l s , when corapared with the m i n i s t e r i n g ones in p l a t e

appear

at

t o be w i t h d r a w i n g

emanates from S a t a n .

frora

The scene i s g e n e r a l l y

sense of e r r o r , something not q u i t e

P l a t e 6.

the t e r r i b l e

force

2,
that

imbued w i t h a

right.

And smote J o b with sore B o i l s frora the s o l e

of h i s f o o t t o t h e crown of h i s head.

Continuing t h e

cycle

of d e s t r u c t i o n , Lindberg n o t e s t h a t " t h i s i s a new phase of

t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of God and S a t a n , b e g u n i n p l . 2 and
c o m p l e t e d i n p l . 1 1 . " 3 9 The f i g u r e of Satan embodies the
outstretched gestures discussed
t h e mixed b l e s s i n g

of d i v i n i t y .

above; i t again

signifies

Around the head i s a s o f t

h a l o , and i f t h e arrows and t h e v i a l S a t a n i s p o u r i n g

are

t r u l y an i l l u s t r a t i o n of Job 6 : 4 , as Lindberg s u g g e s t s , then

Satan has power over them. 40 Warner recognizes the huddled,
bent-over

figure

close t o i t s
despair.

and t h e f i g u r e l y i n g p r o s t r a t e with arms

s i d e s as two of B l a k e ' s r e c u r r i n g

images of

T h u s , J o b ' s wife r e p r e s e n t s d e s p a i r coupled with

73
"fear

and w o r s h i p f u l

s u b j e c t i o n , " ^'^ w h i l e J o b ' s form

" t h e p i c t u r e of a raan b e i n g s i c k e n e d w i t h s p i r i t u a l
by

shows

diseases

his

Spectre,
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e d e s p a i r of
42
Eraanation."
Y e t J o b ' s m i s e r y i s o n e from w h i c h he
recover,

as

indicated

The s e t t i n g

And when t h e y l i f t e d

knew him n o t

they

lifted

e v e r y Man h i s

towards heaven.
first

raantle

than

acknowledge

voice & wept,

of

Job's

appears

t o be

thera,

friends

however,

The f r i e n d s '

Eliphaz i s d e f i n i t e l y

off &

and

they
heads

and

their

J o b a p p e a r s t o be

figures

a r r i v i n g on h i s l e f t

in a d i f f e r e n t

p h a s e of

are

revealing;

foot;
the

each

sarae

friend

raoveraent,

of t h r o w i n g back t h e upper h a l f of t h e body w i t h

arms e x t e n d e d

in

corresponding.
notion that

shock,
It

is

surprise,

and g r i e f ,

interesting

to

Plate

8.

on h i s

themselves
eraployed

Let

the

but

left,

figure

of

T h i s tirae J o b ' s w i f e ' s

hands are

hands

Wicksteed's
friends

into

again.

t h e Day p e r i s h w h e r e i n I was B o r n .

dunghill
on h i s

their

their

recall

from t h i s p o i n t of i n t r o d u c i n g t h e

t h e s e r i e s , B l a k e d o e s n o t show S a t a n

her

arabiance.

& s p r i n k l e d d u s t upon t h e i r

The a r r i v a l

looking a t the c r o s s .

sits

hands.

up t h e i r e y e s a f a r

up t h e i r

can

r e a c t i o n on s e e i n g J o b ' s d e c l i n e i s imagined by B l a k e .

Rather

i.e.,

in h i s

sun a d d s a g e n t l e t o u c h t o t h e t r a g i c

P l a t e 7.

rent

by t h e show of p r o t e s t

his

hidden.

his

friends

the wife
despair

as

have

now

on h i s r i g h t .
raentioned

Job

seated

Blake has

in p l a t e

t r e s s e s flow over h e r b e n t f i g u r e
One raight s u p p o s e t h a t J o b ' s

6.
and

wife's

74
and h i s

friends'

a n g u i s h has i n t e n s i f i e d

s i l e n t week h a s p a s s e d .

greatly

as

the

By cursing God's c r e a t i o n of him,

Job i s c u r s i n g God's work and God H i m s e l f .

Adding to

the

b l e a k n e s s of the d e s p a i r i s the d a r k , s t a r k l a n d s c a p e .
P l a t e 9.
of ray f l e s h

There a S p i r i t passed before ray f a c t / t h e

stood up.

hair

Daraon d e s c r i b e s t h i s p l a t e as a con-

d e n s a t i o n of t h e a r g u r a e n t s of J o b ' s

friends.

Eliphaz

r e c r e a t e s h i s v i s i o n for J o b , h i s wife and f r i e n d s , who gaze

with a t t e n t i o n .
P l a t e 10.

The J u s t U p r i g h t Man i s laughed t o s c o r n .

J o b ' s f r i e n d s mock him.

T h e i r hands r e v e a l

rejection

as

r e p r e s e n t e d in C h i r o l o g i a and quoted in Warner;

. . . . The f l i r t i n g o u t of the back p a r t of the
hand o r p u t - b y of t h e t u r n i n g palm i s t h e i r
n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n who would r e f u s e , d e n y ,
p r o h i b i t , r e p u d i a t e , i m p u t e , or t o lay^^^o o n e ' s
c h a r g e , r e j e c t or . . . s i g n i f y d i s d a i n .
Warner goes on t o connect the p a r t i c u l a r motion of the r i g h t
hands to
. . . a g e s t u r e from M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s hand of God on
the S i s t i n e c e i l i n g which I have p r e v i o u s l y c a l l e d
" c r e a t i v e f i n g e r s . " They can as well suggest ^^e
c a s t i n g of a s p e l l or the c r e a t i o n of an e r r o r .
J o b ' s w i f e a l s o d i s p l a y s t h e b a c k s of h e r
h a n d s i n a r a t h e r u n u s u a l g e s t u r e which may be
B l a k e ' s a d a p t a t i o n of B u l w e r ' s c a n o n . . .
" E x c e e d i n g l y turned away" . . . which accompanies
words of " d e t e s t a t i o n , d e s p i t e , and e x p r o b a t i o n . "
If t h i s i s s o , i t i s a touch of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ;
beyond her weeping, s^g i s d e f e n d i n g Job a g a i n s t
his scorning f r i e n d s .
A further

interesting

detail

i s t h a t J o b ' s hand

suggests a n o t h e r g e s t u r e s i g n i f y i n g

strongly

a reward, a fact

l i n k s with t h e i n s c r i p t i o n a t the top of the e n g r a v i n g .

that

75
Plate 11. With Drearas upon my bed thou scarest rae &
affrightest me with Visions.

Job is shown on his bed in

Hell being tormented by a disguised Satan and three other

devils, perhaps the three friends as changed in a dream.
The flames of Hell protrude upward and serve as the source
of light for the engraving.

God's hair appears as an

exaggeration of his hair in plate 2, completing

the

intermingling of God into Satan and Satan into God in this

scene, the nadir of Job. Note the cloven hoof and the serpent which, according to Lindberg, are emblems of both God
and Satan in Blake's art.46 Lindberg also points out that
the illustration itself contradicts or leaves out much of
the passage that it is said to be depicting; Blake adds the
Mosaic law as the tablets issuing thunderbolts at the top of
the plate and Christian hell on the lower portion.

Again is

seen the pathos-formula of the hovering outstretched-arm

figure, now totally arabivalent in its raixture of Divine
Huraanity and fallen man.
Plate 12.
afraid.

I ara Young & ye are very Old wherefore I was

There is contrast in the open pointing figure of

Elihu and the huddled figures of Job and his wife.

The

posture of the friends seems less protected; one of them,

Eliphaz, displays the hand position for rejection described
in plate 10.

"Elihu's attitude conforms with a pathos-

formula for preaching before an earthly audience about heavenly things."^^ Job appears to be attentive to Elihu, who

76
is the first human he has responded to in several plates.
Job's wife is praying and his friends not believing.
Plate 13.
wind.

Then the Lord answered Job out of the Whirl-

The previously mentioned pathos-forraula for God as

creator and sustainer of the universe doraina.tes the scene in

its clockwise raotion; the design is repeated in the margins
five tiraes with two figures shown frora the back.

God's

figure is a reversal of the demon in plate 11; both feet

show, but the right is far more prorainent.
see God

Job's wife can

now as Job can, although the brightness of the

apparition causes her to wrinkle her brow.

excluded from the vision.

The friends are

Eliphaz's posture is described as

similar to the "high made low" in that his attitude is the

pathos-forraula for kinds raade to adrait subjection. 48
Plate 14.

When the raorning Stars sang together, & all

the Sons of God shouted for joy.

This raagnificent design

displays "four great worlds of vision, united by the Divine

Being who appears, as before, in the spiritual likeness of
Job, with right foot uncovered in contrast to the uncovered
49
left foot of the earthly
raan."
The raorning stars are
obviously aligned with the Sons of God in their rausical
expression of God's creation; their outstretched arras
signify worship.

In the earthly scene Job appears to be in

the process of understanding his place in God's world, as he

is shown with a gesture indicating esteera and imploring at
the same time; he seems to be saying, "I respect what you

77
a r e s a y i n g and am l i s t e n i n g
similar
the

raore."

t o t h o s e of J o b , s i g n i f y i n g

three

hinting

friends

have

turned

their disbelief

The D i v i n e
according
motif

for

or

Being

the

previous

are

a s i m i l a r open m i n d ,

but

their

palms f a c i n g

outward,

non-understanding.

i s God-in-Man,

to Blake.

in

The w i f e ' s h a n d s

the P o e t i c

Genius,

Warner s u g g e s t s t h e " c r e a t i v e

engravings

watercolor

is

deliberately

design,

"awakened v i s i o n of J o b . "

perhaps

Later

finger"

modified
to

in p l a t e

from

eraphasize

the

20 J o b w i l l

be

shown w i t h t h i s sarae g e s t u r e .
Plate

15.

B e h o l d now Beheraoth which I raade w i t h

T h i s d e s i g n i s d o m i n a t e d by t h e
separately

in

Job but

placed

hippopotamus-like c r e a t u r e ,
Above t h e m ,

in a s o r t

and f r i e n d s .
cloud, with
J o b and
friends

his

Wicked.

raonsters

together

described

hereBehemoth,

and L e v i a t h a n ,

a sea

raonster.

cloud cave, crouch J o b , h i s

wife,

God i s c e n t e r e d above t h e g r o u p of humans i n a

his

left

wife

reraain

Plate

of

raythical

thee.

hand p o i n t i n g

maintain

their

to h i s

attitude

created
of

world.

esteem;

the

huddled.

16.

Satan

Thou h a s f u l f i l l e d
the Accuser

is

the

thrown

Judgraent

of

the

frora t h e p r e s e n c e of

God, a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e now f u l l y drawn forms of t h e

shadowy

iraages

quotes

Blake's

in p l a t e

2 , J o b and h i s w i f e .

definition

individual

rejects

of

error,

"Last
and

Wicksteed

Judgraent,

'Whenever

any

erabraces t r u t h , a Last
51
Judgment p a s s e s o v e r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l . ' "
God a g a i n h a s t h e

78
book of Law on his lap and

rainistering

angels both in his

halo and near him.

Plate 17.

I have heard

Ear but now my Eye

seeth

thee with the hearing

thee.

With a body

of

the

relaxed

and

ready to receive, Job faces God's light unafraid

while the friends crouch and turn away.
standing firmly on both
his hands

reflect

in

the

open,

God is apparently

legs with the right foot v i s i b l e ;

the "creative fingers," and, indeed, the

stance of God is considered

prophets

and

act

of

a pathos-forraula for

blessing

"gods or

or healing, soraetiraes

.,52
creating."
Plate 18.
the first

And ray Servant Job shall pray for you.

time since plate 5, Job is dressed.

His position

with his back to the world and his face toward God
explanatory

For

is s e l f -

and also another pathos-formula used by Blake.

This is the first spiritual act after

rebirth

for J o b , the

sacrifice on the altar as he prays for his friends.

Plate 1 9 .

Every one also gave him a piece of Money.

This plate resembles two previous d e s i g n s , plates 4 and

the m e s s e n g e r ' s

arriving

bread to the beggar.

a properly

with bad news and

Job's

5,

giving

Now Job receives with humble pride and

respectful

demeanor

the gifts offered

him, a

second spiritual act.

Plate

20 .

There

were

not

found Woraen fair as the

Daughters of Job in all the Land & their Father gave thera
_nh.^r_j^_ta^rice_ araong

their Brethren.

Job now assumes

the

79
pathos-forraula position of the hovering, sustaining figure;
in doing

so, he is united with his God self and Divine

Humanity.

As he relates to his daughters his experience, he

performs a third spiritual act, that of showing the way to

others.

The Divine Huraanity design is repeated behind Job

four times in its positive aspect, once in the demonic

aspect.

Because an earlier water color of the same design

depicted the three daughters each holding instruments of

writing or reading or drawing, there has been, with this
plate, speculation that Blake wished to imbue this Job with
his idea of the highest form of Divine Humanity;

Poetic

Genius.

Another i n t e r e s t i n g point about the p l a t e i s t h a t Job

i s r e l a t i n g to h i s d a u g h t e r s , not sons, a p a r a l l e l to the
s c r i p t u r a l ending.

One notes there that Job d i g n i f i e d

them

with inheritances of t h e i r own and the author dignified them

with naraesCinnamon, Dove, and Eye-shadow.
. . . . The names t h e m s e l v e s . . . symbolize
peace, abundance, and a s p e c i f i c a l l y female kind
of g r a c e .
The s t o r y ' s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y has
shifted frora righteousness to beauty, the e f f o r t l e s s m a n i f e s t a t i o n of inner peace. . . . I t is as
if, once Job has learned to s u r r e n d e r , h i s ^^orld
too gives up the raale corapulsion to c o n t r o l .
Plate 21.

So the Lord blessed the l a t t e r end of Job

raore than the beginning.

This l a s t plate r e f l e c t s the sym-

raetry of the f i r s t p l a t e , yet adds the zest and p r a i s e that

follows a long period of suffering.

I t is s i g n i f i c a n t

that

the family i s pictured playing the musical instruments seen

80
previously hanging on the tree, presumably because they had
nothing to sing about.

Plate 3 shows that music had been

part of the brothers' merrymaking; a lyre and timbrel are

shown under the supine body of a dead daughter.

Music is

not a part of the rest of Job's descent into despair; it

appears again

in plate 14 with the joyous songs of the

Morning Stars.

In the raargins of plates 18 and 20 angelic

music or instruments are pictured, tied in with the renewed

creativity of Job and Poetic Genius.
of plate

The musical emphasis

2 0 , therefore, with each meraber of the family

rejoicing in Job's regeneration with active participation,

is the culmination of the musical theme.

As mentioned by

Lindberg, Job became the patron of music and musicians in

the fourteenth century, supposingly because he knew
the secret of heavenly rausic. . . .

"...

Blake raust have known

Job's relation to rausic, and raade this apocryphal tradition

the central theme of his illustrations. "54
Other k m d s of
creative activity are represented by the daughter singing
from the scroll while another daughter holds a slender book
representing poetry and painting, respectively.

81
Notes
J . Gerald J a n z e n , J o b , I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ;
A B i b l e Comraentary
f o r T e a c h i n q and P r e a c h i n g ( A t l a n t a :
John Knox
P r e s s , 1 9 8 5 ) , 1.
2
Stephen M i t c h e l l , The Book of J o b . t r a n s . and i n t r o duction (Berkeley, California:
N o r t h P o i n t P r e s s , 1987),
xxxi.
3
Jaraes 5 : 1 1 .
4
Joseph H. Wicksteed, Blake's Vision of the Book of
Job (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1910; repr. 1924),
34.
5 .
Mitchell, xiii.
Ibid., XV.
Ibid., XX.
p

Wicksteed, 34.
9
Mitchell, xxxvii.
Keynes, Blake Studies, 178-9.
''Ibid., 179.
'^lbid., 176.
13
Wicksteed, 33.
14
Ibid., 19.
Williara Blake as quoted in Bo Lindberg, Wi11i am
Blake's Illustrations to the Book of Job (Acta Academiae
Aboensis, Ser. A. Vol. 46 (Abo: Abo Akademi, 1973)), 117118.
Wicksteed, 36.
S. Foster Damon, Blake's Job; William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job (Hanover and London; University
Press of New England for Brown University Press, 1982), 3.
'^lbid., 3.
19 .
Lmdberg, 110.
20
Ibid., 114.

82
21
Ibid., 1 1 5 .
Aby Warburg (d. 1933) was a German art
historian upon whose work the Courtauld Institute, L o n d o n ,
was founded .
22
^^lbid.
^^lbid., 125.
24
Janet Warner, Blake and the Language of Art ( K m g s t o n
and Montreal; McGill-Queens University Press, 1984), 9.
25
. .
Ibid., xvii.
^^lbid., 10.
^^lbid., 37-38.
^^lbid., 85.
2Q
^^lbid., 52.
^^Wicksteed, 52.
Warner, 127.
^^Warner, 88.
^^Lindberg, 120.
Ibid.
Ibid.
36
Warner, 49.
^^lbid., 53.
Ibid.
Lindberg, 224.
Ibid.
41
Warner, 120.
Ibid.
43
Ibid., 57.
44
Ibid.
45 Ibid.

83
'^^Lindberg, 266.
^^lbid., 271.
Lindberg, 116.
^^Wicksteed, 101.
^^Warner, 102.
^'Wicksteed, 108.
^^Lindberg, 321.
53
Mitchell, XXX.

^^Lindberg, 349-350.

84

ILLUS. 1. Title page, Illustrations of the Book

of Job, William Blake, 1825, Tate Gallery, London.

85

3v

i.r,Ti. ;. . I- .:

lao

,|{i..... \ - . - | . - : - . . C
'

ii

it\lf**'^*MtiM>!M>

86

ILLUS. 2. Plate 1, thus did Job continually.

87

T U s did J o b

Jli.:ie Wd5 a M . i a i n vv:

L l l d o f U ^ wliose Nx
w a . ' . l l . . <^ t h a t M s n

coatiaaal^y

Ti., l.cn, Kili'K .

w i S prrl'ect fc iipngKt
f . ,i'^'"i J > * < i r W * r ^ ^ ^ 'Cmfr

y*ftrA S l,':iS. ''

\/

*. oue tkat fearca Coi

^
^ cschewiJ Evil <4;tkerc j * i '

na

88

^e

ILLUS. 3 . P l a t e 2, when t h e A l m i g h t y was y e t

with me, when my c h i l d r e n were about me.

89

rrS~

^^ F^'p

gr_2ir^I2fe

:_-

' J'iL i

90

ILLUS. 4. Plate 3, thy sons and thy daughters

were eating and drinking wine in their eldest
brother's house and behold there came a great
wind from the wilderness and smote upon the four
faces of the house and it fell upon the young
men and they are dead.

91

^v

, . , . , U'I..,U,U,^

0=-

/.7//
Inl,

' ' r K v S o i i j ^- l l n l!):ii,-^-!,l,-f'>*'''l'.:e:ilMi^.:: luitl iii-Wm.-ml,i.-iv

r
i'

cldel
.-'-ii

Br,.lll'-r-- l'..'.:i';' - nf.|i.-Jil li'tl-C -J'n. ;, .ju-.r .vi"fl t'r..,!,. ll.,^\'i',l,-i

. : ' ! v\.f\\'^f vc.in;-i "^cn A' ll.'jv . u c OL-VII

l c vy^ii l',. lc'.'i'i.','-,.-; -'.:'"-''''i-;'' i

amam

92

ILLUS. 5. Plate 4, and I only am escaped alone

to tell thee.

93

And 1 onlv am escaped alonc to tell thee. V"7-'^

-^

..X Wllc lirwasyel: Sp'';'l;inC

o ''
. ^ t l rrc rimcal!oHnotlier.aiJ
'\ j
T h c fire of God is atlcti from lu-aven Xr hath biirncd u,. thr ll.-.^ks U tlir
YouneMcn e,. coiuumril iKcni c^ I o n ^ jm cscaprr) .il&nc to t.ll llar

/ I I

94

ILLUS. 6. Plate 5, then went Satan forth from

the presence of the Lord.

95

/ . W / . . / ' I I 4 T A ^ af t>

96

ILLUS. 7. Plate 6, and smote Job with sore

boils from the sole of his foot to the crown of
his head.

97

'"',

, =^ '^" , V ^'"'' ^^'^ '*'''^ - - a J ' '"-M

(Ly^

'^

^^V:

-7C\

it
Aiid sm.ote J o b witli s o r e Boil>
frpiti iKe .'olc of Ki3 foot to tKe cro'wri ol liis liead

..l.-.i...',

'

'J.

t,

IX

..X

:.:..'

98

ILLUS. 8. Plate 1, and when they lifted up

their eyes afar off and knew him not they lifted
up their voice and wept, and they rent every man
his mantle and sprinkled dust upon their heads
towards heaven.

99

\Muil \s\\o\\ wc rtcicvt: Cood

,11 l.lir iiajxd ol God ,'y, VA\\ v/r mjl. ali'o
'.:<:leve Evil

V''

Aiid wkcii tiii'v liftt-ci up iKeir cve5 M.r o jf.W-w liim iiot
i.i-.- Iitte.!. ".!> ..l,i;ii-voice ,5: wrpt.f, tKtv rentfivcry Maii Itis

V^<''''
W

'.\\-I-'''.'-'JL;'1\ 'ii.,'.l'-d>'.i5ti'i)0H t!i.cirK';*ds towarJs Keavin

. M I ' . M I I . :'.,|.-,.ic<^l''^ ....11. .., =,-. , l i . : c i , d o f i l ! L .

'UhMm

100

ILLUS. 9.
was born.

Plate 8, let the day perish wherein I

101

L o !'-t tliat nigil. b o s o l i t a r y

1$: !':t no loyliil voirf: r.cmr. tlLfireii"'

L c t tKe Day pcrisK w K e r e i n 1 w a s Borix

r

Aiul iKev 5dt down wiik liim U|ioii the troimdscvcndAys i-. sVtn

C^"
S

ni^l.lf 4;onr spak-.i vvo,J iinto l.im for il.cy Siwthat h.s gncf
^i_--i.-

wi\svi"ry drc.-ifc

^ .

^ ,,.-"^

.'''^^SS^'-^\m\t

^...y.'''lti"llWilllliP

102

ILLUS. 10. Plate 9, then a spirit passed before

my face and hair of my flesh stood up.

103

/-'....,., PAtTl.-J

104

ILLUS. 1 1 . P l a t e 10, the j u s t u p r i g h t man i s

laughed to scorn.

105

C ' i l ' " - A ' ' ^ " . l ! " l i r v , . i . lli.il'l 1 'l'c

l , . , ' l . ' ! . . . l l - . ,.,l:,-. I 1. ', .".r.rl.'.'.'
H . ' - , . ' | i . l . " | . ..,.,. \\\ , |ill\ ,,o,i.,w

vl.l

0''"vr'l..'ir';.

i'o,. 1 h,-1, in.l;,! C A !) uli i c - 1 ' - ,1 ....

'Tli..ii>?hli>^ -ilu ' . . ' . ' t w i l l ! i.-u-i , , v l - , . ,

;I -

"fic J-aSl UpnsKt M''"i is l.iasKed to scorn

'.'i,
.' ' \ , , ( '.^
. '._; ^ J
r I.

v^\

'

M.,a:'ha' .iUrn..rj\\'>'i:'.-.'l.:..r!-. . l . v / i IJ!crir..,'Uc

l.-c. .r.ctl,. ^l.l.. dljov. -v.^i^ Ciir :..x.. I'.^n.^rlll iiavdi lar.lJ.:-..

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^ ' ^ ^

.l."','^',lir..UojuJj...lv,,t,H-!,

'

/IvJ^

^'

'

106

ILLUS. 12. Plate 11, with dreams upon my bed

thou scarest me and affrightest me with visions.

107

^^--'c-.:\

"''""|i"",';'^lilr.,,H,,,i ^ V * '
^

':

--...".'r-iV'c;.

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\

- . i l l u l i . i . , > . i r i s l i a i . . r r . r . . , J m t . . j j . . V i r l r . f U r i (' l i . ' M , ' - w ,..l. M

, . ; , t .1 :. . . i - , . , . . . . , . ; ^

^^->v^'Vil!vDreani3 uponmy teri tliou 3i-.arril mc -ajriii-;lilrst iii.?^

^ ^^>-=^r-T''=^S,^^
\.

VvllKVl5101lS~^-

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NMyovuii |)srsici.lcmr JJl7ud i..lrciiut .';.\li',;rio,li.il)ii..yflcsll.ClMll-l|liw worJs

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tlif E.irlK /.'.ttrrmv .sUlr. iL.slrov ili-..Tl.i': I...J,- yi-t iiMny ll'-l'-!"!"''"''^ .^^;.
^ -vl , I vli.ill ..,>., Ilr Mv.vWt>.i.^ .""'""
'^^^izl^MhMl^j'-^^^^
' _" y|.,."-.-ii' .J^i^^rM; 'Min,..,-,:i/';,i.1 .iii 11"'' '' ::!},''Jiy-^'^ " i>'^y"''.-i"t'r"'<

108

ILLUS. 13. Plate 12, I am young and ye are very

old wherefore I was afraid.

109

...,lklfwl>|..v'^.
'{rA,,,I,,,..--1.k... ^ / , -= '' r,';'.,'

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110

ILLUS. 14. Plate 13, then the Lord answered Job

out of the whirlwind.

111

^^^^XX4^Wr/..X-.r.A'...*-".-^- /'"-"i'-^'-' " - - - '

112

ILLUS. 15. Plate 14, when the morning stars

sang together, and ail the sons of God shouted
for joy.

113

114

ILLUS. 16. P l a t e 15, behold now Behemoth which

I made with t h e e .

115

.-.." iiiy yuHe.-.'^""'! il - ."I-CMU.H,,

.'
J,, r.iir ol li r>brnarle
^ ''"

/.: !

116

ILLUS. 17. Plate 16, thou hast fulfilled the

judgment of the wicked.

117

i,.fl p,.H,tf,.t ft t*,A't tttrrHtM*fth *H\. ^,. tv.'.'f"'. nuJ-r. A^.J/ ../*.

/-....

118

ILLUS. 18. Plate 17, I have heard thee with the

hearing of the ear but now my eye seeth thee.

119

'\.
V-

'

J...ll..|i".Mi-^-'
.,

'

"

" '

'iii'.-uhl
' '

1.. . 1 . . , . , : ,

/;

.' ,j , . ,
''-.,',,(/

" - ' , . - , -

,
'

'

'

"/.

>/,'h.
V

/ '

J
1 Uavc li'-.irJ tli.-t ^nll. tKi: l..-.irina ol tl - Ejr i>.il ruw. n y Evc fec'.J\ t'Rie/^^X ''^

120

ILLUS. 19. P l a t e 18, and my S e r v a n t J o b

pray for you.

shall

121

L--i:.\ . . . . a - : U . i f,',- f f ..r^c'.s.'-l.tttl,

J I32S U MW / / n ' ' l ' \ i / . ' ...'--^ .'. ^f ^ "

122

ILLUS. 20. Plate 19, every one also gave him a

piece of money.

123

lk ^ ^

i vt-ry cinc also c'avc lum a piccc .jfMcutv

\
* - ^

^*'

i''

v^ t<
r.r!ii> Mrrry ritrluiiiKfVrct'er

'

. .

. 1 . : ' - , . . .

7:'<'yf^'\

A . . .

124

ILLUS. 21. Plate 20, there were not found women

fair as the daughters of Job in all the land and
their father gave them inheritance among their
brethren.

125

i-nV< /'^jli^h..^

7tf.. C.-C r'."rf, y^n/t'- ifitS

b^

126

ILLUS. 22. Plate 21, so the Lord blessed the

latter end of Job more than the beginning.

127

-So trlic L o r c i blcfsed tke latter eii.J(<f J o b

rtore tha.li tlie begirxtimff
Al'"tcrtk'isJc.tlivL'J
311.
ii.l.i.n.lr-,1. .^-.fi-i'W yrjvj
C..^,livl,lS 5,-,.i>; , t r l | i ,

\_^vf T Y ^ V ^ / ^ ^ - ' ' '

('^
f7;.j
'^*'^
lnl.,..r-,t&Hc, ^.r..,^"'

.-v,.,ifourC;cnr,ii.:,i.;

SoJcb died ,

9 ic U L.t''lavs

, l,...i |....l..el'l'u.t
i'i,'-'./
.i.'

'

..-,,;..

,',.,-,-,'...-;.,

t
'-

"^ ^ T '

CHAPTER IV
THE MUSIC OF JQB

The music for

J o b i s s c o r e d for

the f u l l

orchestra

typicaj. of the l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h

with

the

inclusion

saxophone

in

of

organ

E flat,

(optional),

xylophone

and

centuries

bass

flute,

g1ockenspie1.

( O r c h e s t r a t i o n for a smaller t h e a t r e o r c h e s t r a was arranged

by C o n s t a n t L a r a b e r t . )

The o v e r a l l

structure consists

of

n i n e s c e n e s ; Scene IX p r e s e n t s a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of Scene I ,
thus c r e a t i n g a m u s i c a l symmetry which follows t h e
of t h e B l a k e p l a t e s .

symmetry

Each scene f u r t h e r f a l l s i n t o musical

forms c o n s i s t i n g of s h o r t ,

self-contained

e p i s o d e s which

c r e a t e t h e c o n t r a s t i n g mood, atmospheric c o l o r , and rhythinic

variety pertinent
tightly unified

to t h e d a n c e .

by t h e

recurrence

themes,

and,

general,

t h e composer u t i l i z e s

techniques:
ostinati,

of

Yet t h e e n t i r e work

course,

of v a r i o u s

following

polytonality,

poly-chordal

tonal

harmonies.
one t o n a l

centers,

structures,

p e n t a t o n i c i s r a , and

to a n o t h e r ,

often

bassi

pandia-

obscurance

non-functional

Modulations a r e u s u a l l y abrupt as he moves

center

In

stylistic

modal m e l o d i e s , p e r c u s s i v e and p e r s i s t e n t

t o n i c i s m , q u a r t a l harmonies, polyphonic d e v i c e s ,
of

motives,

t h e o n - g o i n g drama i t s e l f .
the

is

a far d i s t a n t

from

one; in

a d d i t i o n , d o m i n a n t - t o n i c movements a r e almost non-ex i s t e n t ,

as a r e t r a d i t i o n a l

cadential

final.
128

formulae,

both i n t e r n a l and

129
Since Job i s stage music, throughout the

rausical

score

Vaughan Williaras s u g g e s t s the a s s o c i a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r

musical

raotives

with

extra-musica1

elements

by

simultaneously introducing musical ideas as he refers to the

character(s)

or a c t i o n in the stage d i r e c t i o n s .

In t h i s

way, he c r e a t e s m u s i c o - d r a r a a t i c d e v i c e s which can be

i s o l a t e d and which permit a s t u d e n t of the s c o r e to make
i n t e r p r e t i v e assumptions with some degree of s u r e t y .
c o u r s e , m u s i c a l m o t i v e s a r e o n l y as e f f e c t i v e
processes of which they are a p a r t .

Of

as the

Like c h a r a c t e r s in a

drama, they have meaning only when seen in r e l a t i o n to other

melodic u n i t s and elements of the musical process, harraony,
rhythm, c o l o r , timbre, and t e x t u r e .
In the following musical a n a l y s i s ,

the author

has

attempted to keep both the musical and dramatic functions in

mind when d e t e r m i n i n g form.

Frequently each s e r v e s the

other, so t h a t no e x p l i c i t d i s t i n c t i o n must be made.

One

must r e c a l l , however, t h a t Vaughan Williams was placing into

his music the poetic function of the masque to be reinforced
or developed by the raovement and gesture of the dancers.

It

would appear t h a t t h i s n a r r a t i v e function takes precedence

over the musical process in a few i n s t a n c e s .

That i s , of

c o u r s e , the p r e r o g a t i v e of the composer in achieving the

balance he i n t u i t s as proper between the v a r i o u s f a c e t s of
his a r t i s t i c conception.

130
As noted earlier, Vaughan Williams also inserted other
suggestions he felt appropriate to his vision of staging the
ballet.

(See Chapter II.)

In order to focus on the rausical

elements and process, however, only those stage notations

which

the

author

feels are inseparable

frora Vaughan

Williams' dramatic intent in the unfolding of the rausic are

included in the musical analysis below, while others are
discussed separately.
Music Analysis
Scene I
Introduction
A B A^*" Interlude I C Interlude II A^
Interlude Coda
A (m. 1-24)

The music of J o b b e g i n s v e r y q u i e t l y
t h e a t r e w i t h a lowered c u r t a i n .
in t h e v i o l a s , f l u t e s ,

in a

darkened

The opening theme i s heard

and t h e melody of t h e f i r s t

An accompaniment of ascending open f i f t h s

harps .

in the bass v i o l s

i s j o i n e d by second v i o l a s and second h a r p s , w i t h t h e

moving i n t e n t h s .

The melody moves within a narrow r a n g e ,

not exceeding any s i n g l e movement more than a f o u r t h ,

irregular,
g

rainor/g

archaic

internal

phrase s t r u c t u r e .

w i t h t h e above e l e r a e n t s ,

religious

compositional practice

bear n o t e :

Two m o t i f s in the f i r s t

in an

A key c e n t e r

dorian,

calmness.

celli

connotes

of
an

and a

settled

two b a r s of t h e

opening

t h e i n t e r v a l of a fourth (m. 1) and the

triplet

131
figure (m. 2) of the interval of a fifth with a passing tone
nearer to the beginning of the fifth rather than the end.

Example 1 (m. 1) Al

u
^

Example 2 (m. 2) A2

Shortly the English horn and c l a r i n e t repeat the three

note figure of A2 in m. 8.

The two-bar solo i s

interrupted

by an a b r u p t new k e y , a - f l a t minor , which s h a t t e r s

established

t o n a l i t y of g m i n o r .

the

At t h e same t i m e , a

d e r i v a t i v e of A2, a l t e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y by extension and

with added chromatics, i s heard again in the f l u t e s .

i
^

Example 3 (m. 10-11) A3

The statement of A2 (Ex. 2) now grows somewhat bolder ,
although never exceeding araezzopiano dynaraic level. This
chroraatic derivation, so tentative in its first declaration,
outlining b minor, permeates the winds and harps and hovers

132
above the s t r i n g s , s t i l l

in a - f l a t minor.

The r e s u l t i n g

b i t o n a l i t y i s s h o r t - l i v e d , as the s t r i n g s subtly s h i f t back

to the opening melody and t o n a l i t y , brought about in the
middle of m. 16 as the v i o l i n s r i s e to a melodic climax to
fl.

The b i t o n a l i t y disappears, returning a l l to g modality.

Simultaneously,

the dynamic l e v e l begins to d e c r e a s e as

melodies descend and fade back i n t o the q u i e t n e s s of the

beginning.

The sound of a b a s s f l u t e

l i n g e r s above a

d i a t o n i c accompaniment of open fifths in solid p a t t e r n s of

eighth n o t e s , the f l u t e foreshadowing the shape of the next
s t a t e m e n t as the accompaniment points in retrospect to the
beginning b a r s .

So non-assuming does the opening

appear

compares to a s t i l l country atraosphere

that

it

section

momentarily ruffled by a gentle breeze before i t r e t u r n s to

its original s t i l l n e s s .
Yet, w i t h i n t h i s f i r s t

s e c t i o n of twenty-four

bars,

Vaughan Williams has, in musical terms, s e t in motion what

Blake began in two-dimensional, visual terms in p l a t e s 1 and
2.

One r e c a l l s the peaceful scene of Job and his family in

t h e i r family d e v o t i o n s , the dozing a n i m a l s , t h e

gestures.

devout

The merest h i n t of the horror to come is best

understood only in r e t r o s p e c t i t is the i n s c r i p t i o n on the

altar
Life."

in the margin, "The Letter Kil.leth, the S p i r i t giveth

The d i a t o n i c n a t u r e of the opening theme s u g g e s t s

this untroubled,

s e r e n e raood and i s r e i n f o r c e d by the

pastoral scene depicted by the backdrop.

(For the backdrop

133
as designed by R a v e r a t , see Appendix C.)
chroraatic dissonance

i n t r o d u c e d in ra. 10 c r e a t e s the

h i n t of unease or i n s t a b i l i t y .
what B l a k e

subtly

In o p p o s i t i o n ,

I t would a p p e a r ,

hinted at v i s u a l l y ,

the
first

then,

that

t h e coraposer

has

similarly depicted musically.

The m u s i c a l p r o c e s s h e r e can be r e d u c e d
terras,

however.

Certain

procedures

emphasize t h e i n t e r v a l of a p e r f e c t
reflection

of t h e f o u r t h

to

sraaller

seera d e s i g n e d

fourth:

the

to

imraediate

in t h e t r i p l e t of m. 2 , A2; the

solo of A2; t h e d e r i v a t i v e m o t i v e , A3, standing in r e l i e f

the p r e v a i l i n g d i a t o n i c i s m and t o n a l i t y ,

as w e l l a s to

to
the

f i g u r e of i t s o r i g i n , A2; and the numerous r e p e t i t i o n s of A3

throughout

t h e w i n d s and h a r p s .

m. 133 and t h e Coda,

figure

implicitly

i s in t h e f u l l - b l o w n

in

two-octave

c o n n e c t e d t o Job in dramatic c o n t e x t and

explicitly specified
Thus, t h e f o u r t h

it

When A3 next a p p e a r s ,

in Vaughan Williams' s t a g e

directions.

a p p e a r s t o be the i n t e g r a l element in the

primary raotive of t h e e n t i r e work, t h a t motive

representing

Job.
B (m. 25-71)
As the B section opens, the orchestra is reduced to two
flutes, then other winds and strings join, suggesting the
intimacy of faraily, as the first of several dances of Job's
children begins.

The section is ternary in form, a (m. 25-

48), b (m. 49-62), a (m. 63-71).

The daughters dance first;

134
an i m i t a t i v e t r e a t r a e n t of t w o - b a r
continuing

in g d o r i a n .

segraents weaves a theme

Then the f l u t e s pick up a counter

i[i^i ["li 01 r^

1 (m. 25-26)

2 (m. 38-39)

3 (m. 49-50)

Example 4
melody as the men d a n c e , bassoons now e n t e r i n g
the f i r s t
strings.
b minor/g

tune,

accompanied

A change

of

in open f i f t h s

terapo

and

in t h e

in the melodic

c o n t o u r of

lower

center

s h a r p minor rounds out the dancing t h a t

a l l the sons and d a u g h t e r s (m. 4 9 - 6 2 ) .

fourth

tonal

to c a r r y on

to

includes

The i n c l u s i o n of the

t h e t h r e e dance

themes

135
again

eraphasizes

the

short

section

is

characterized

to

homophonic

contrapuntal

iraportance

g d o r i a n , b minor, E f l a t ,

of

this

interval.

by a s h i f t

and

tonality

This

in t e x t u r e

frora

ranging

from

back t o g.

A-*- (m. 72-84)

A3, the motive first heard in m. 10, is now extended
and experienced in the form that is so integral to the work,
in Ex. 5.

For the duration of this discussion, it will also

be referred to as the "Job" theme.

3

^^M
f

The dancing theme is

^m

Example 5 (72-73)
uninterrupted; it continues in the winds in a rather static
fashion, serving as a counterpart to the A3 in the violins.
Contrast is provided in the active descending A raotive and
in an as'cending line played by the celli, violas, horns,
bassoons, and ball clarinets in ra. 76. M. 80-84 function as
a codetta, with a reference to the B section before the
thematic fragraents subside to ppp.
Both B and Al reflect on the opening scene, somewhat
like an aria in an opera functions by allowing the perceiver
to linger in the established eraotive aura.

The dances of B

also allow the coraposer to set a firm irapression of the

136
c l o s e i n t e r a c t i o n of the family d e p i c t e d in p l a t e s 1 and 2,
as d e s c r i b e d m u s i c a l l y by t h e i n t i m a t e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and
the u n i f i e d melodic s t a t e m e n t s .
insertion

The b l e s s i n g

by V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s

r e f e r e n c e t o Job 1 : 5 .

It

itself

i s an

i n t o t h e s c e n a r i o and a

i s n o t a b l e t h a t Job b l e s s e s

his

c h i l d r e n a s t h e y d a n c e , as if he c a r r i e s the

responsibility

for

own

their

s i n even a s t h e y go a b o u t

their

designs.

A l t h o u g h t h e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t Job speaks t h e
s e n t e n c e , " I t may be my c h i l d r e n have s i n n e d , " o n - s t a g e

Job

a c h i e v e s t h e b l e s s i n g by the age-old g e s t u r e of r a i s i n g

his

arms

and

in

the

closeness

shape

creates

of

a V.

This

picture

of

care

t h e p e r f e c t c o n t r a s t t o the t h r e a t about

to corae.
I n t e r l u d e I (m. 84-93)
This f i r s t
musical

ideas.

i n t e r l u d e c o n t a i n s two d i s t i n c t l y

T h r e e m e l o d i c l e a p s , a minor s e v e n t h , a

minor n i n t h ,

and a major

boldly

the dramatic

into

tenth,

p l a y e d by p l u c k e d s t r i n g s
pattern exeraplifies

which,
heaven.

dissonant

introduce Satan,

arena.

In s y n c o p a t e d

and b a s s o o n s ,

the

leaping
rhythras

three-bar

a c o n t r o l l e d , yet increasing

with a rushing c r e s c e n d o .
by q u i c k ,

separate

urgency

A r e p e a t i s expanded and followed

thirds

and f o u r t h s

in t h e

trurapets,

a s V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s i n d i c a t e s , a r e an a p p e a l

to

137

i
k

h
i

ai^

Pf (>e/c..
^3

3^

-,^

j" bg iy- *

te

Example 6 (m. 85-87, m. 92-93)

I n t e r l u d e I (m. 94-109)
A second idea of Interlude I occurs as heaven gradually
opens and displays God sitting in majesty, surrounded by the
sons of God (as in Blake II). The line of Angels stretches
from Earth to Heaven.
In a grand

gesture of homophonous sound spread

throughout the full orchestra and spanning six octaves, the

three-note motive A2, now reversed and in 3/2 meter, ascends
from lower strings and harps to the higher registers of the
winds.

(See Appendix D, Illus. 72, for the full score.)

'

Example 7 (m. 94-109)

138
The use of c r o s s - r e l a t i o n s (in m. 98-99, 103-104, 107108) in the winds and carefully spaced instrumentation lends
an a i r of s p a c e , m a j e s t y , awe, and u n a t t a i n a b i l i t y to t h i s
brief passage t h a t reveals God on his throne, surrounded by
the Sons of God and by angels t h a t spread from e a r t h to
heaven.

" . . .

the l i s t e n e r cannot miss the sense of power

behind a l l t h i s massive q u i e t n e s s ; . . ."

deliberately
effecting

The composer

a v o i d s c o n v e n t i o n a l harmonic movements,

an e x p a n s i v e p a n d i a t o n i c i s m with t h e winds

perpetuating the arabiguity as shown above.

Significant

to

the growing thematic unity i s the notion that the raotive of

A2 i s now linked with God, establishing Job's connection

to

his S p i r i t u a l Self.
C (m. 110-133)
In " b r o a d , modal l y r i c i s m , "

A3 becomes the opening

melodic material for two eight-bar s t r a i n s of the saraband,

the f i r s t

of three sixteenth-century dances celebrating the

s p i r i t u a l essence.

The t r i p l e rhythms r e v e r b e r a t e in the

reversal of A3 used in a l t e r n a t i o n .

The addition of t r i a d i c

chords for the previously open octaves emphasize mostly the

lowered-seventh of the mixolydian mode; an o c c a s i o n a l b sharp used enharmonically with c-natural threatens even the
mixolydian.
The focus s h i f t s from the dance in ra. 126 back to the
m a j e s t y of God.

From m. 126-133 the rausic is

closely

r e l a t e d to t h a t of I n t e r l u d e I (m. 97-109) with

falling

139
phrases of an octave echoing the earlier patterns.

The

action is a continuation of the adoration for God.

Interlude II (ra. 134-161)
Musically and draraatically, the focus shifts toward
Job, as a heavenly conversation in its chilling implications
argues his fate.

A juxtaposition of triads centered on b

frora the brass and winds disrupts the adoration:

"God

arises in His majesty and beckons to Satan" (m. 134-137),

referring musically to the "Attention" heard

earlier.

According to stage notes, Satan steps forward; his "steps"

are strongly fortissimo, in intervals of fourths beginning
with F, then coursing squarely upward on flat keysb flat,
e flat, a flat, d flat

(m. 1 3 8 - 1 4 3 ) .

Such

deliberate

placement draws attention to the interval, as well as the

regularity of the movement.
Briefly, from m. 144-148, is heard the motive of the
beginning

b a r s , only

to be rudely pushed aside by the

Attention motive, in m. 149-156, as Satan challenges God.

This is answered by one long statement of A3 that could
serve as a portent of the trials to come in its four-bar
descent before it struggles to turn upward again.
Coda (ra. 162-187)
After

this

( t h r o u g h m. 1 7 8 ) .

the

saraband

returns

From m. 178-187 t h e

in

raotives

its

entirety

representing

140
the worship of God a r e r e i t e r a t e d , then d i e out as the s t a g e
d a r k e n s , and the scene e n d s .
D i s c u s s i o n of A n a l y s i s
A d i s c u s s i o n of Scene I i n c l u d e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
expository
important

function

as w e l l

as draraatic

eleraents

t o the a n a l y s i s of the music i t s e l f .

its
not

Predictably

enough, t h e p r i n c i p a l d r a m a t i s p e r s o n n a e a r e i n t r o d u c e d

as

primary musical m o t i v e s , y e t c e r t a i n elements c r u c i a l t o the

peculiarity
manner

of

Blake's

in which

introductions.
examples

in

illustrations

Vaughan

figures
that

Al

of t h e f o u r t h

and

A2 a n d

the

The s u b t l e chromatic

in f i g u r e A3 a p p e a r s t o d e p i c t

v a s c i l l a t i o n , perhaps

corruptibility.

Job's

subsequent

alteration
t h e h i n t of

humanness,

or

The m o t i f s heard as Satan appears on s t a g e

in I n t e r l u d e I a r e ones of g r e a t c o n t r a s t
in f a c t ,

his

t h e s e f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t J o b ' s soul and

i t s l i n k t o the s p i r i t u a l .

or

accomplishes

One r e c a l l s the seminal r e l a t i o n s h i p of the

interpretation

unease

Williams

a r e s e t up by t h e

the angular

quality

to the A m o t i f s ;

and a g g r e s s i v e

raovement

of

t h e s e motives s u g g e s t the l e a p i n g , c o n t o r t e d f i g u r e of Satan

which a p p e a r s in p l a t e 2.

In e i t h e r medium the placeraent of

the f i g u r e i s q u i t e d i v i s i v e i t s e p a r a t e s J o b ' s outward ,

earthly
figure
assume

life
is
it

from

his

inward, heavenly one.

Since

i n o p p o s i t i o n m u s i c a l l y and v i s u a l l y ,
is

intended

to s i g n i f y

an o p p o s i n g

the

one may
concept;

141
therefore,

the f i g u r e could be i n t e r p r e t e d as the other

aspect of J o b ' s s o u l , as represented by the Satan f i g u r e .

Yet in the next s c e n e , Vaughan Williaras returns to Al
and develops a d i s t o r t i o n of the p e r f e c t f o u r t h , the augmented f o u r t h , long associated with the dangerous and dark,
the diabolus in musica.

Surely t h i s raotive is the other a s -

pect of J o b ' s s o u l , if the o r i g i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

motives i s v i a b l e .
postulation, " . . .
representing

I t more c l o s e l y follows

the

Wicksteed's

Jehovah and Satan raust be conceived as

a s p e c t s of J o b ' s own soul contending

for

v i c t o r y , " an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n known to the coraposer.

If t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s accepted, the function of th
Interlude I motives i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t .

In much the same

way as i t has been introduced in t h i s f i r s t s c e n e , Vaughan

Williams c o n t i n u e s to u t i l i z e t h i s motive to do p r e c i s e l y
what i t s design does so well i t breaks into an e s t a b l i s h e d
musical p a t t e r n
differentness.

and c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to i t s e l f and

its

When one c o n s i d e r s t h a t Blake d e p i c t s Job

and God as p h y s i c a l l y resembling each other, t h i s special

use becomes s i g n i f i c a n t .

Satan i s d i f f e r e n t .

From the

beginning i t would seem that Blake i n t e r p r e t s God as united

with J o b , a l w a y s i n n a t e l y p r e s e n t

in J o b ' s b e i n g and

humanness, and Satan always as the outside force.

This view

would tend to r e f l e c t the relationship of Job and Jehovah in

the Book of Job as well, and i s a point perhaps referred to
by Vaughan W i l l i a m s when he i n d i c a t e s

in t h e

stage

142
directions
affection.

of the Coda, "God regards him

[Job] with

..."

Therefore, rather than considering the Interlude ISatan motives as standing for a part of Job's soul, it would
seem that they serve a slightly different function.

For one

thing, the interruptive eleraent of the figure in its first

appearance opens the way for the conflict to occur:

to

Satan's appeal the heavens appear, thus allowing Satan to

approach God and God to relinquish Job to Satan.

It would

appear, then, that the composer uses the motives as a sort

of catalyst to his dramatic intent, with the A motives
solidly representing the essence of Job.
Another consideration is that the Interlude I-Satan
motives point to the conflict and the narrative function of
the music

in much the same way as the poetry of the old

masque did; they draw attention

happen.

to something

about to

For that reason, the Interlude I-Satan motives will

be referred to in two ways:

the melodic leaps denoting the

presence of Satan and the quick chords as the Attention

motive.
Along with introducing the musical motives associated
with the primary characters of the drama, Vaughan Williams
also set-^ up the underlying musical structure in Scene I,
for there can be no doubt that the Job, Attention, and God
motives provide the primary thematic unity of the work.
Secondary characters

and c o r r e s p o n d i n g

motives

are

143
i n t r o d u c e d as they appear in the n a r r a t i v e .
raelodic

Most of these

ideas are e i t h e r p a r t of J o b ' s v a r i o u s t r i a l s and

s t r u g g l e s , or lead toward the regeneration of Job.

An i n t e r e s t i n g e x c e p t i o n i s J o b ' s c h i l d r e n .

I t has

been noted t h a t t h e i r p a s t o r a l dances which appear near

beginning of the work f u l f i l l

the

a function soraewhat l i k e an

a r i a , and c e r t a i n l y they help e s t a b l i s h the

trouble-free

atraosphere of p r o s p e r i t y necessary to the beginnings of the

draraatic c o n f l i c t .

In Scenes I I I and VIII the c h i l d r e n

(or

sons and wives) again appear as passive p a r t i c i p a n t s ; they

do not i n i t i a t e or f u r t h e r
upon.

a c t i o n , but r a t h e r are acted

Their function appears to be one of conveying an a i r

of s o c i a b i l i t y or sharing.

If so, the c h i l d r e n ' s

function

in the draraa i s a phatic one in which their presence i s raore

one of m a i n t a i n i n g c o n t a c t between the p e r c e i v e r and the
draraa by simply providing a l i t t l e breathing space.
Scene II
S a t a n ' s Dance of Triumph
Introduction A B C A Interlude Coda
In j u x t a p o s i t i o n to the t o n a l h a r m o n i e s and

fluid

rhythms concluding Scene I , Scene II is characterized by the

n o n - l y r i c a l l e a p s and d i s s o n a n c e s already associated with
Satan, underscored with i n s i s t e n t , whirling b a s s i

ostinati.

Vaughan Williams organizes these elements in such a way that

the movement's formal s t r u c t u r e of I n t r o d u c t i o n A B C Al
Interlude Coda r e f l e c t s the following:

f i r s t , an exposition

144
of t h o s e motives t o which he i s r e f e r r i n g

from Scene I ; a

d e v e l o p m e n t of motives in A, B, and C; and a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n

of motives in A l , I n t e r l u d e , and Coda, the l a t t e r
certain

of

the musical

musical a s s o c i a t i o n s of

extending

i d e a s of A and i n c l u d i n g

i t s own.

extra-

All t h i s is achieved

at

p r e s t o terapo.
I n t r o d u c t i o n (m. 1-30)
The ear s e n s e s t h e p r e s e n c e of Satan onstage before
eye s e e s him, as t h e l i g h t s slowly come up.

the

Opening with a

growling o s t i n a t o of minor seconds and r e s t a t i n g the l e a p i n g

motive in e x a g g e r a t e d

s l o w n e s s , t h e composer

stimulates

t e n s i o n by a l o u d , b r a s s y a f f i r m a t i o n of f o u r t h s , crowned by
chords

pointing

backward to the A t t e n t i o n motive

heard

e a r l i e r where the a s c e n t i s q u i c k , uneven, and u s u a l l y of a

minor t h i r d (see Ex. 6 ) .
subtly

varied

instability,

in

A,

These a r e the t h r e e b a s i c eleraents

B,

and C t o p e r p e t u a t e

general

f r e n e t i c e n e r g y , and a menacing s p i r i t .

A (m. 31-66)
Vaughan Williams a c h i e v e s t h i s e f f e c t

in s e v e r a l

ways.

In A he s u s t a i n s t h e chords in the winds and b r a s s for seven

b a r s d u r i n g which the f o u r - b e a t o s t i n a t o , based on the t r i tonal

i n t e r v a l of

p a t t e r n of
triple

raeter,

JTT)

p-a
}}

s h a r p , moves in a s q u a r e
(m. 2 1 - 2 7 ) .

the r e s u l t i n g

rhythmic

Begun on a weak beat of

s y n c o p a t i o n works a g a i n s t

p l a c e m e n t of t h e c h o r d s s t a t e d

the

in t h e winds and horns and

145
creates a sense of disor ientation.

Two bars before A, the

ostinato shifts to c-f sharp as Satan's dance begins; for

eighteen bars it begins on beat one in the pattern
j j Jj J

(ni. 29-48).

of

The companion melodic line for this

whirling ostinato moves mostly on beats one and three in

small, erratic intervals heard in the violins, trombones and
trumpets, clarinets and flutes, but colored insistently by
the xylophone which punctuates the staccato.

uimM

This line

Example 8 (m. 31-48)

l e a d s i n t o c h o r d a l movement (m. 49-54) b u i l t around f,
flat,

and b minor (heard in the trombones in ra. 1 4 - 1 9 ) ;

chords

are

heavily

p r o l o n g e d movement.

accented

because

of

the

upward,

the

ostinato

s h i f t s a g a i n (m. 55-58) i n t o the f o u r - b e a t p a t t e r n

indicated

above.

At t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e ,

their

b-

The b r a s s and f l u t e s

( i n m. 58-66) sound f o r t h a

d e r i v a t i v e f i g u r e of m. 20-24, w h i l e t h e s t r i n g s and w i n d s
continue t h e o s t i n a t o .
B (m. 67-96)
At B t h e composer adds t h e marking of Con fuoco, and
indeed, t h e

raelodic

l i n e , s t i l l in the same i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n

146
as above, achieves an added intensity with unison voicing,
legato movement, and narrow range.

It seeras to settle in

riffiftmtitm

T^

Exaraple 9 (m. 68-74)

place as the first phrase ends in a question (m. 67-79); the
answer

is a second

phrase

(m. 8 0 - 8 9 ) , pitched

lower,

harmonized, suppleraented by snare drum, and limited to the

winds.

The ostinato for the first phrase is a pattern that

emphasizes the downward accent and is heard in the lower

strings, with some doubling in horns, clarinets, English
horns, and bassoons.

It outlines the interval of b-f.

For

the second raelodic phrase, the ostinato is played by all the

strings and ends on the second beat of three; it outlines ad sharp.

At the return of the third Attention motive (m.

92-95), the ostinato again returns to its square pattern, as

it has twice before.
C (m. 96-112)
The tempo raarking Moderato alla raarcia at C indicates
the change of accent, and a textural contrast is achieved as
well, as the brass establishes in two bar units an energetic
upward surge.

At the apogee of the raelodic moveraent, tutti

forces join a fortissimo descent.

The entire phrase is

147

ft^

Example 10 (m. 96)

r e p e a t e d and a mixture of ascending runs interspersed with
the m o t i v e of C r u s h

into a chromatic t r i p l e t

figure

r e m i n i s c e n t of the beginning of the Job theme in Scene I .

Indeed, the complete Job f i g u r e i s f i n a l l y
cascade of f a l l i n g

reached in a

f o u r t h s over a two-octave span (m. 111-

112).
A"'- (m. 113-123)
I t f a l l s d i r e c t l y into a recapitulation of A (ra. 31-48)
now inverted i n s t r u m e n t a l l y ; the o s t i n a t o i s heard mostly
from the winds, and the e r r a t i c , staccato melodic line of B,
complete with xylophone, is joined by pizzicato s t r i n g bass
and c e l l i .
Interlude (m. 124-156)
The final drama of Scene II follows the swiftly passing
Al.

All the fury of Satan's leaps are released in slowly

articulated phrases (ra. 124-141); therainorsecond ostinato

pattern fluctuates between pp and ff, joined before a repeat

148
by a sweep frora Cl to C3.

A "coup de theatre" i s saved for

the b r a s s , high s t r i n g s , and winds, for one hears the theraes

for the f a m i l i a r

" G l o r i a in excelsis Deo" (ra. 142-149) and

"Dies Irae" (m. 150-155) come through the maze of seconds

buzzing

in the background,

as " S a t a n k n e e l s

a d o r a t i o n before God's t h r o n e . "

fragments

A flurry

bf

in mock
thematic

(m. 156-166) span the indicated action of Satan

slowly r i s i n g and standing before God's throne.

mighty unison o u t b u r s t ,

Then, in a

the e n t i r e orchestra resounds with

J o b ' s theme (Coda, m. 167-173), as S a t a n s i t s

in God ' s

throne.
Scene III
Minuet of the Sons of Job
and Their Wives
1
2
A B A Interlude A Coda
A (ra. 1-48)

Unaware of the pending c a t a s t r o p h e suggested by the

irapudence of S a t a n ' s actions in the preceding s c e n e , J o b ' s
sons and w i v e s c o n t i n u e t h e i r
dancing.

custoras of f e a s t i n g and

Again, the o r c h e s t r a t i o n i s reduced; in c o n t r a s t

to the f u l l and menacing sounds s t i l l foremost in the mind's

e a r , s o l o oboe, c e l l o , harp, and two flutes weave the basis
for "formal, statuesque and s l i g h t l y voluptuous"
on s t a g e .

The composer s p e c i f i c a l l y

moveraents

i n d i c a t e s t h a t the

choreography i s not to follow t r a d i t i o n a l minuet p a t t e r n s ,

however, and, a l t h o u g h the dance is written 3/4 raeter, the
internal phrase s t r u c t u r e is free frora t r a d i t i o n a l

patterns

149
associated with therainuetof the stylized suite. What the
coraposer achieves is a return in atraosphere to the earthly
well-being of Job's faraily and earlier pastoral prosperity.
This he accomplishes with three simple melodic motifs.

1 (m. 4-8)

^^^M

2 (m. 7-8)

x^u'i'iiyi

3 (m. 7-9)

c. /. 7-9

Exaraple 11
The f i r s t and most a c t i v e i s a f i g u r e based on a
third

(1),

first

Underlying
accompaniment

its
(3)

h e a r d i n t h e o p e n i n g b a r s of the b a l l e t .
unhurried
first

quality

stated

p r e s e n t e d by the f l u t e s .

is

softly

joined by t h e s o l o c e l l o , as the t h i r d

an

ascending

in t h e h a r p ,

rausical

From i t s b e g i n n i n g ,

extends in l e n g t h , u s u a l l y by the i n t e r v a l of
(2) s e r v e s as a s o r t of p u n c t u a t i o n

then

idea, (2),
(1)

rainor

is

exhibits

an i r a p r o v i s a t o r y q u a l i t y , i n c r e a s i n g i t s range as i t

Motif

rainor

slowly
thirds.

to t h e musical

150
d e c l a r a t i o n of

(1);

period,

as i f

raelodic

figures

its

stateraent

and r e c u r r e n c e

b r i n g i n g an end to a s t a t e r a e n t .

The upper

a r e accompanied t h r o u g h t e n t h s

t h r o u g h i n t e r v a l s of f i f t h s

forra a

achieved

and s i x t h s and encorapassing a

v a r i e t y of t o n a l i t i e s e minor, f - s h a r p minor, e - f l a t
a minor, c - s h a r p major, b - f l a t minor, and b minor .

raajor,
In

raost

of t h e s e p a t t e r n s , the d e l a y of the t h i r d of the chord u n t i l

b e a t t h r e e o b s c u r e s t h e t o n a l i t y as long as p o s s i b l e , while
constantly

recurring

false-relationships

a l s o add to

the

tonal ambiguity.

Cymbal c r a s h e s occur in ra. 8, 1 1 , 16, 19,

25,

and

28,

35,

38,

41, adhering

to

the

coraposer's

suggestion,

"They hold golden wine cups in t h e i r l e f t hands

7
which they c l a s h a t -i- (each t i r a e ) . "
The p h r a s i n g of t h e
o s t i n a t o l e a d s t o a rainimura of rhythraic s t r e s s .
There i s a t e x t u r a l
t i o n of

openness achieved by the corabina-

t h e s e e l e m e n t s , b u t as t h e a b o v e

progress,

ideas

t h e t e x t u r e begins t o t h i c k e n , so t h a t by the end

of A, in m. 4 3 - 4 8 , c l a r i n e t s ,
contingent

rausical

b a s s o o n s , and a f u l l

string

add t o the i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y , as well as t o the

contrapuntal effect.

In t h e s e same m e a s u r e s ,

intensity

i n c r e a s e d m e l o d i c a l l y by an expansion of melodic
in the f l u t e s and oboes.

An i n t e r e s t i n g

is

fragments

coloristic

effect

occurs when t h e v i o l a e n t e r s in m. 24 and p l a y s a de-'='cending

chromatic p a s s a g e from a - f l a t t o c , while the basso o s t i n a t o
moves from e

rainor

tone of t h e v i o l a

to f-sharp

rainor.

The r i c h ,

s t a n d s o u t in c o n t r a s t

sonorous

t o t h e h a r p and

151
flute;

the r e f e r e n c e to the Job raotive i s strengthened by

t h i s c o n t r a s t and repeated in the oboes in m. 35-37.

B (m. 49-56)
Then a subtle shift of key center drops the listener
into a curious series of eight bars which juggle melodic
gestures among different groups of instruments.

Open fifths

on c-sharp/g-sharp form an underlying pedal point maintained

throughout the eight measures in the celli and contrabassi,
while the dominating motives hover over e mixolydian.

These

same motives are stated first in the clarinets, then the

flutes and bassoons, then the violins and violas, and,
finally, back to the clarinets.

The shifting textures

compare to the effect of a spotlight that rapidly flickers

across focal points.

The bare perceptibility and overall

effect also creates a sort of musical version of pentimento,

for farailiarity haunts the ear.

Buried deep within the

fluttering sixteenths and eighths is the A2raotive,as shown

below.

^)

t*r
4

JJP-IW

rA i FP
w

Example 12

152

A-^ (m. 57-71)

When A r e t u r n s in m. 57, i t i s with i n c r e a s e d
in f u l l

orchestra,

and combines s e v e r a l

grandeur,

important

ideas.

The c motive p e r s i s t s in the f l u t e s and b r a s s , while the Job

motive

is

heard

statements).
m o t i v e of

in

the v i o l i n s

Strikingly

rainor

(m.

effective

57-63 c o n t a i n

also

s e c o n d s in ra. 66-67 i n

is the
the

two

extended

flutes

that

p o i n t s backward t o the rainor seconds of Scene I I .

I n t e r l u d e (m. 72-76)
When Satan's Attention motive reappears in ra. 72-76 and
Satan simultaneously reappears on stage, the reference could
serve as a portent, for "The dance stops suddenly.
dancers fall dead.

The

Tableau as in Blake III."

A^ (m. 77-94)
In a f o r t i s s i m o
fills

the a i r ,

statement

full

of d r a m a , J o b ' s

therae

i n d i c a t i n g t h e g r e a t l o s s for J o b , stunning

in shock and agony (m. 7 7 - 8 6 ) .

Fragments of a f l i c k e r

memories

and s t r i n g s

through

the winds

i n m.

like

87-95,

g r a d u a l l y reduced in dynamics and l e n g t h .

Coda (m. 95-102)
The last seven bars reflect the accompaniment, Ex. 11
(3), alone.

There can now be no melody for dancing, as the

dancers are dead .

153
Scene IV
Job's Dream
A B C Coda
A (m. 1-25)
Job's
peacefully

experience

of

nightmarish

visions

begins

enough, c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s u s t a i n e d mood of

meditation and r e p o s e .

One major

raelodic

idea i s

treated

c o n t r a p u n t a l l y and succeeds in depicting an untroubled raood

with i t s n o n - c l u t t e r e d t e x t u r e , l e g a t o raovement, and
dynamics.

The m o t i v e i s s t a t e d in the r i c h n e s s of
f*J|
T H ^

soft
the

f^-^ ^w

_ >

ppp
Example 13 (m. 1-3)

violas, played above a sustained e, before it passes through

the upper strings.

It grows out of itself, as so many of

Vaughan Williams'raotivesdo, winding diatonically within a

narrow range.

In m. 15, the violas take over the inverted

pedal of e (the other dominant key of this section, one beat

after the first violi'is have entered and coinciding exactly
with the celli and contra bass entry).

This latter entry

occurs simultaneously with the rising of the curtain,

revealing a sleeping Job figure on stage left.

Bars 15-22

154
consist of a canon at the double octave between violins and
lower strings two beats apart. The violas extend the last
element of the canon two and one-half measures (m. 22-24),
finally ending significantly with the interval of a fourth;
the pedal of c-sharp is maintained in low strings.
B (m. 26-72)
Abruptly
consisting

of

the

c-sharp

quarter

pedal

leads

notes played

t o a new m o t i v e

by t r o m b o n e s ,

s t r i n g s , and bass c l a r i n e t s which forms a throbbing

and t h e f o u n d a t i o n
Above t h e o s t i n a t o ,
begins

to b u i l d ,

This m o t i f

for

a c o m p l e t e change in

a restless, disjunct

reaching a full

( E x . 14) c o n t i n u e s u n t i l

atmosphere.
raotif

in ra. 2 9 - 3 2 .

i t reaches a two-bar

r e f e r e n c e t o J o b ' s theme in m. 36-37.

i j- ^J^J^J

ostinato

rausical

statement

low

^i^

Example 14 (m. 29-32)

At t h a t

moment,

stage

directions

indicate,

Satan. . . . Satan s t a n d s over Job and c a l l s up

V i s i o n s of P l a g u e , P e s t i l e n c e ,

"Enter

terrifying

Famine, B a t t l e , Murder and

9

Sudden Death who p o s t u r e b e f o r e J o b .

. . . "

P l a g u e and

P e s t i l e n c e e n t e r a t bar 39, during a condensed v e r s i o n of m.

26-37.

At t h e e n t r a n c e of Famine (ra. 4 8 ) , Ex. 14 becoraes

the germinal element for two immediate v a r i a n t s

in m. 4 8 - 5 2 ) :

(both

heard

one (Ex. 15) i s heard in the winds (m. 48-52)

155
and a second of staccato nature (Ex. 16) an be found in the
strings.

This sequence inverts in m. 53-58, with the flutes

Ifj. I ||'^ h
Example 15 (m. 48-49)

_L J Jtf*^-*^H-*gEr3
PP

Example 16 (m. 48-49)

and a solo trumpet adding a third idea, reminiscent of God's
theme, in the same bars.

After another reference to Job (m.

56-58) in the strings, the rausical texture changes; Battle

enters, and the music of the trumpets introduces Ex. 17.

^te

^
fF
Example 17 (m. 59-60)

From m. 59-72 t h e t e x t u r e of the o r c h e s t r a

two d o m i n a t i n g

ideas:

i n 3 : 5 p a t t e r n s

squareness of rhythms a s a c c e n t e d
with t h i c k

alternates

chords in g r e a t

in Ex. 17 i s

the

with

martial

juxtaposed

f o r t i s s i m o s l a s h e s s t r i k i n g on

the weak b e a t s b e t w e e n ; t h e w i n d s , in ra. 6 1 - 6 5 , r e s o u n d a

156
motive of their own while the strings create a foundation of
erratic intervals.
C (m. 73-85)
Suddenly the Attention theme of Satan breaks through
the fury of moveraent and sound, answered by three bars of a
whirring variation of minor seconds. This repeats and leads
into a bold mlange of motives introduced earlier in the B
section.

In fortissimo, a rapid tempo, and thick texture,

the terrors rush into an encounter with the Job theme, m.

86-91.
Coda (m. 86-97)
The theme of Job wails from the strings and flutes,
breaks apart into smaller fragments and quickly dies away,
taking the horror of the scene away but Job's well-being
with it.
As noted in Keynes' comments on the development of the
scenario, some of the ideas in the plates had to be
rearranged.

Because certain of the plates depicted scenes

too violent for recreation on the stage (probably because of

technical limitations as well as taste), other ideas are
substituted.

This scene condenses Job's affliction of boils

(plate 6 ) , Eliphaz's vision (plate 9 ) , and the heinous

monsters pictured in plate 11.

The substitutions reflect

realistic tribulations dreaded by every man, however, rather

than supernatural sorts of horrors.

157
Scene V
Dance of the Three Messengers
A B A-*- Coda
A (m. 1-11)
Job i s now confronted by t h r e e messengers who b e a r
news t h a t a l l he t r e a s u r e s has been d e s t r o y e d quotations reflect
emotionalisra

of

the a g i t a t i o n ,
this

tragic

anxiety,

the

The musical
and

extreme

moment by means of

three

d i s t i n c t melodic i d e a s .

1 (m. 1-2)

^ I'I i'rt^i'rfi^
2 (ra.

3-4)

3 (ra.

6-7)

fc

yn

Exaraple 18 (ra.

1-7)

A lone oboe introduces (1), beginning and ending on f#

1 and ending on f# 2, above a pedal on G, thus leaning on
the conventional harmonic relationship of the raised seventh
to its tonic to create a certain aura of anticipation.

Lest

158
c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y be taken too f a r , however, the composer
forms t h e a s c e n d i n g s c a l a r p a t t e r n

in a manner

which

i n c l u d e s a major t h i r d and p e r f e c t f o u r t h , but omits the

second and f i f t h of the s c a l e .
r e p e a t e d before

Three times the p a t t e r n

is

(1) i s completed, now i n c l u d i n g English

horns and other oboes.

The p a t t e r n b r e a k s , but the b a s i c

character

is sustained

i n t o a second r e f l e c t i o n of the

statement.

The twisted c o n f i g u r a t i o n and "rush

forward

p u l l back" s o r t of rhythmic s t r u c t u r e suggests a message of

great d e s p a i r .

While the f i r s t message l i n g e r s , (2) begins

in a p l a n g e n t bass c l a r i n e t ,

s e t a p a r t by the beginning

i n t e r v a l of a fourth and concluding with a double

A t h i r d messenger

a p p e a r s w i t h new

raotive

trip.let.

(3)

in the

bassoons; i t i s marked "cantabile" and i s more l y r i c a l

its predecessors.

than

Lacking the rhythraic t u r n s , i t builds

frora a f i f t h up a fourth, then f a l l s back a fourth.

B (ra. 12-39)
Theraes of the messengers merge into a thicker

dialogue

in B, as the s e c t i o n begins with a f l u t e quotation of the

Job motive above a d pedal in the contra b a s s i ; the
i s d o u b l e d by a muffled

latter

timpani and moves q u i e t l y in a

steady progression of quarter beats throughout the e n t i r e B

section.

The composer s u g g e s t s t h a t "A sad p r o c e s s i o n

passes a c r o s s the back of the s t a g e , culminating

funeral

cortge

of

Job's

s o n s and t h e i r

in the

wives."

Certainly, the timbre of the s e c t i o n appears to c a r r y out

159
his intent.

Vaughan Williams also contrasts the descending

pattern of the Job theme with the inclusion of a complete

dorian scale on d in the violas, a device he used earlier in
the B section of Scene I.

The mind's ear notes the repeat

of (1), then picks up (2) in the violins, and (3) in the

bassoons before the entire cycle is repeated, using
different instruments for some messages, the same for
others.

As the cycle repeats a third time, the texture

thickens; violas now sustain the pedal d and the horns pick
up the gently rising scalar passage.

Unexpectedly, the

entire string section unites in a statement of b (except for

the d pedal still in the contra bassi), and this leads ihto
a drop onto a low D sustained by celli.
Al (m. 40-42)
Gently

the

perceiver's

ear

is guided

through

r e i t e r a t i o n of t h e messengers and t h e i r sad a s s o c i a t i o n s

a
as

the t h r e e themes r e t u r n in r e v e r s e o r d e r .
Coda (ra. 43-57)
As t h e

final

fragment

of

(1)

echoes

in

the

high

d i s t a n c e , t h e v i o l a s p l a y the d o m i n a t i n g theme of Scene IV

(Ex. 13 a b o v e ) .

"Job s t i l l b l e s s e s God.

'The Lord gave and

the Lord h a t h taken away, b l e s s e d be the name of the L ' - r d , ' "
q u o t e s t h e composer

in t h e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s .

To d e p i c t

t h i s s t a t e m e n t of f a i t h , he develops the dream raotive i n t o a

moving c o u n t r a p u n t a l

statement,

limited

to t h e

strings.

160
Just

before

t h e m o t i v e d i s a p p e a r s , however, t h e horns

into a casual

four-bar

sixths outline,
end n o t e s , a

canon with

the v i o l i n s .

slip

The

from t h e peak of t h e p h r a s e s t o t h e

lush

repeated

fourth.
Scene VI
Dance of J o b ' s C o r a f o r t e r s
A B C A-"- D

A (m.

1-17)
Close

behind

t h e p r e s e n c e of f a i t h

looms t h e

presence

of e v i l S a t a n now a p p e a r s , e n t e r i n g t h e s t a g e a s a
reference

to h i s leaping motive is heard.

as t h e m u s i c c l e a r l y i n t r o d u c e s t h e
coraforters.
really

reproach

sympathy.

Their

But

indicated

memorable of

in

the

the motives

dance

[it]

( s e e B l a k e V I I I and X ) . "

likewise

of

alone,

friends,

Job's

is at

develops
12

The f i r s t

music.

The

associated

with

comforter
a drop

suggesting

falsity,

recreated

throughout

(1)

frora

thus

first

into

one

anger

first

c-sharp

delineating

and

major

in a near

difference

identical

to

theme
c

A somewhat

being

that

fashion
the

around g,

turning

is

saxophone.
which

natural,

second

is

twisting

second p o r t i o n a l s o seems t o c e n t e r around c ; t h e p a t t e r n

sequenced

is

most

a s u b m o t i v e which

t h e movement.

of
and

with J o b ' s friends

begins with his

E into

are

The change of s p i r i t

h e a r d i n t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t o n e s of t h e E - f l a t

starts

He i s n o t

I n t h e view of t h e c o m p o s e r , t h e s e f r i e n d s

"wily hypocrites.

pretended

trio

partial

with
half

is
the
is

161

plft*- h

EV*(:

1 (m. 7-9)

Mw|.

2 (m. 18)

3 (m. 24)

Example 19
extended an interval wider.

The comforter concludes his

solo as he began it, with the same two-note figure that

deteriorates into a near-repetition of itself.

Underneath

this melody a steady placeraent of chords is seenc rainor,

c-sharp, g-sharp, g minor, f-sharp, a minor, f minor, and e
minor.

Each is played on weak beats of the measure.

Given the composer's intention to draw Job's friends as

reproachful, accusing hypocrites and recalling associated
mannerisms, it is easy to speculate about what one hears.
The twisting quality of the latter portion of the motive
lends itself well to a imagined wringing motion of the
hands, and the timbre of the E-flat saxophone, played with
the appropriate expressiveness, could be said to emulate the
nasal inflections related to whining.

One notes also that

162
t h e t w o - n o t e dropping f i g u r e , heard ten tiraes in s u c c e s s i o n
in m. 12-17, becomes monotonous enough t h a t i t resembles t h e
i r r i t a t i o n of
nagging.

an a r g u m e n t

The u n s t a b l e

d i s o r i e n t s the

t h a t has l a p s e d
tonality,

of

into

mindless

course,

further

listener.

B (m. 18-23)
I n t e r r u p t i n g t h i s whining p a t t e r n i s the
second c o m f o r t e r

(Ex. 19 ( 2 ) ) .

raotive

of

In j u x t a p o s i t i o n t o

(l)'s

obsequious l a m e n t , (2) a t t a c k s i t s s u b j e c t with energy.

q u i c k n e s s of t h e rhythmic p a t t e r n ,
implies a different
is

raindful

section
quick

of

rest

to

The
(1),

s o r t of intended argument, p e r h a p s , and

the rhythra p a t t e r n

in Scene I I .
eighth

in i t s c o n t r a s t

the

in t h e o s t i n a t o

A f t e r the i n i t i a l JjJ) /
and

three-eights

of A

pattern,

figure

with

the
its

exaggerated change in dynaraics, p t o f r e p e a t s s e v e r a l tiraes

in t h e w i n d s and t r u r a p e t s

(m. 2 0 ) .

The c h a r a c t e r of the

motif,

along with the one-bar crescendo

create

t h e t o t a l e f f e c t of a p u l l i n g o u t - l e t t i n g go motion,

as i f

something

is

being

offered,

from pp t o

then

ff,

retracted.

Accompanying c h o r d s c o n t i n u e to r e t u r n to the t o n a l c e n t e r
of c , a l t h o u g h the p l a c e m e n t p a t t e r n c h a n g e s to

emphasize

d i f f e r e n t weak b e a t s .
C (m. 24-36)
Now it is the third comforter's turn to speak.

Ex. 19

(3) begins a short, four-bar, jabbing tirade heightened by a

163
brash b r a s s and b a s s o o n e n s e r a b l e .
raaintain

These

instruraents

C throughout the cliraactic build-up which follows,

while the horns, winds, and s t r i n g s add the counter

PQ

, momentarily.

the s h o r t ,

raotif,

A subsequent statement i s homophonous,

rhythraic m o t i f s extending i n t o f o u r t h s for a

s t r o n g , stomping e f f e c t ;

while the r e s t of the orchestra

j o i n s in a t r i l l of minor seconds (m. 30), the downward rush

of the deep-toned trombones, t u b a s , and b r i g h t trumpets

is

emphasized, then change into a tiny d e t a i l of accent in the

c o n t r a s t i n g movement a t the end of the motive, with the
trumpets ascending and the tubas and trombones descending.
The motives begin growing more t e r s e u n t i l f i n a l l y
become a s i m p l e , t h r e e - n o t e f i g u r e ,
motion in m. 35-36.
own t a i l . )

they

in constant recurring

(One i s reminded of a dog chasing

its

imm

iwile

'.

ff

Exaraple 20 (m. 35)

A-" (m. 36-45)
In the middle of t h i s frenzy, the music stops abruptly,
and the s a x o p h o n e ' s p l a i n t i v e cry r i s e s in the q u i e t n e s s .
There i s r e s t a t e m e n t of a l l of a,

but t h i s time i t

complimented by a s o l o c e l l o w i t h a somewhat
counterraelody of i t s own.
that points downward.

Notable i s the

raelodic

is

raocking
raotion

164
D (ra. 46-94)
Suddenly, t u t t i f o r c e s proclaim J o b ' s o u t c r y , " ' L e t the
day

perish

wherein

I was

born.'"

In

shattering

f o r t i s s i m o , t h e f u l l - b l o w n Job theme d e s c e n d s from h i g h G2

in

the

figure

first

violins,

s o l i d l y l a n d i n g on c l .

i s begun one b e a t

creating,

along

with

after

the

in t h e

crash

of

receives

particular

violins,

the p e r c u s s i o n ,

r e v e r b e r a t i o n as j o l t i n g as a t h u n d e r b o l t .
motive

second

The same

One p a r t of

n o t i c e , c to e - f l a t

and

chromatic d e s c e n t , as well as r e f e r e n c e to the S a r a b a n d ,

a
the
its
as

shown below.

fc

'U^JJJJ i J J JtJ
ff
^

2t

Example 21 (m. 54-56)

The f o r m e r

motive

p e r m e a t e s most of t h e

before i t i s brought i n t o a u n i s o n s t a t e r a e n t
As i t

settles,

tubas have been a s s o c i a t e d

tension.

in m. 5 4 - 5 5 .

t h e God t h e m e , e x p a n d e d , resounds frora the

trombones, t u b a s , h o r n s , and c l a r i n e t s .

with S a t a n ,

orchestra

the

Since trombones and

in p r e c e d i n g s c e n e s

incongruity

itself

contributes

As "Heaven g r a d u a l l y becomes v i s i b l e ,

mysterious veiled

sinister

figures,

primarily

raoving

to

the

showing

in a s o r t of

165
parody of the Sons of God in Scene I,"-*-^ the coraposer
continues to draw out the resulting suspense, as inra.6971, where the motive is harmonized in thirds and fourths inn
all but the lower instruments in each group.

Then, the

entire orchestra takes a gigantic breath, and the Job figure

comes thundering down again in m. 72-73, but is caught in
mid-flight by a rush of ascending fourths similar to those
in Scene II, m. 111-112.
full score.)

(See Appendix D, Illus. 73, for

This orchestral technique appears to connote

urgency and extreme tension.

"Heaven is now lit up. The

figures throw off their veils and display themselves as

Satan [is] enthroned, surrounded by the hosts of Hell."
The series repeats, and at the absolute apogee of eraotion,
in FFF following a brief fermata, the last statement of
despair is wrung from Job, as Satan stands, now in power.
"Job and his friends cower in terror."

Job's motive

quivers in tremolo and gradually becomes a reflection of the

former Example 21, while two statements of Job, again in
horns and trumpets (m. 85-88), trombones and tubas (m. 8892) affirm the seriousness of the moment.

The vision of

Job's downfall fades from view on a single tone of d-flat.

166
Scene VII
Elihu's Dance of Youth and Beauty
A B C
A (m. 1-40)

Within seconds of the growling threat of d e s p a i r , the

e n t i r e s p i r i t of the b a l l e t s h i f t s from death and f a i t h l e s s ness to one of l i f e and hope.

Heard above a d - f l a t

pedal

c o n t i n u i n g from the disappearance of the vision of h e l l , a

solo v i o l i n b e g i n s , a s , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , Elihu approaches
J o b , h i s w i f e , and h i s f r i e n d s on the stage.

The opening

s t r a i n s of the v i o l i n revolve around the tonic and dominant

of D major; with the d - f l a t pedal viewed enharmonically as
c - s h a r p , a t o n a l c e n t e r of D major

is implied.

A one-

measure i n t r o d u c t i o n which e s t a b l i s h e s the mood for

e n t i r e section leads to the principal theme of A.
of A i t s e l f

meanders

through

three

the

The therae

statements,

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by the beginning motive ( a ) , as seen in ra. 2,

14, and 20.

Treated with a d e l i c a t e rubato, i t

'ivTirwiiWny^
Exaraple 22 (m. 2-4)
is e x p r e s s i v e and improvisational in character, implying an
intimacy of r e l a t i o n s h i p and an i n n o c e n c e of
B a s i c a l l y A i s b u i l t of three small raotivic u n i t s :

spirit.
(a) as

167
shown in Ex. 22; (b) the f i g u r e of A2 as shown in Ex. 2, now
i n v e r t e d and r e v e r s e d ; and (c) rhapsodic p a t t e r n s of v a r i o u s
lengths.
The f i r s t s t a t e r a e n t b e g i n s on d 2 ; as t h e

contrabassi

d r o p t o b , t h e t o n a l c e n t e r s h i f t s between D major/b minor,

and t h i s ambiguity p e r p e t u a t e s i t s e l f throughout A.
A2

raerges

from t h e m e l o d y .

At the beginning of the second

s t a t e m e n t (m. 14-19) on e 2 , t h e c e l l i and v i o l a s

chord f o r

two b a r s ,

Twice,

t h e n r e v e r t to b minor.

forra a C

This passage

a l t e r s s i m i l a r melodic i d e a s in t h e p r e c e d i n g s t a t e m e n t
extending

intervallic

moveraent and r h y t h m i c

Statement 3 begins on bar 20, a l s o on e 2 .

the e n t i r e

by

variety.

The t o n a l i t y

for

s e c t i o n h o v e r s around b , C, G, and F, then back

to b .
These t h r e e s i m i l a r

ideas have led

up t o

the

lush

c l i m a x h e a r d in b a r s 31-32 as the A2, in ppp, i s heard high

above a drop in the t h r e e lower s t r i n g s and h a r p t o
minor.

Especially effective

e-flat

i s the composer's placeraent of

the e - f l a t

i n t h e v i o l i n on t h e second h a l f of b e a t

The b r i e f

moment l e f t

hanging

is

followed

by

one.

further

rhapsodic development and an eventual s e t t l i n g in e f f e c t ,

m. 3 8 - 4 0 , of t h e end of the melody and t h e key of A
A final

t o u c h of d - s h a r p

major beginning B.

leads into

in

raajor.

the e m i n o r / c - s h a r p

168
B (m. 41-62)
In the short B section the winds offer a contrast to
the strings of A.

In a gently nudging question (could it be

seeking truth?) from m. 41-47, a clarinet in A, supported by

bassoons and harp, begins a dialogue in m. 41-47, which is
repeated in part by the violins in m. 48-51.

m ^m

y*-^

The solo

Example 23 (m. 41-42)

violin

breaks

from t h i s

response and,

in a r a m b l i n g

romantic manner e x t r a o r d i n a i r e , begins i t s f i n a l

the

three-note

figure

that

statement:

m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g of

previous statement i s r e v e r s e d ,

a n d , w r i t t e n as a

passage
motive.

includes
Shifting

additional
chords

state

with God's,

references

beneath

the

its

triplet

w i t h an added c h r o m a t i c , resembles the A3 theme of J o b .

if b l e n d i n g J o b ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l

and

As
the

t o t h e A2 (God)
twisting,

often

c h r o r a a t i c v a r i e g a t i o n of A's theme a r e c , b - f l a t minor, and

b minor; a t t h e l a s t m i n u t e , the f i g u r e moves i n t o a h i g h d
t h a t i s s u s t a i n e d t h r e e b a r s i n t o C.
C (m. 62-92)
The s u s t a i n e d d2 a c t u a l l y

i s a l i n k t o t h e Job theme

t h a t permeates t h e t e x t u r e of the b e a u t i f u l
Sons of

the

Morning,"

the

second

"Pavane of

in a s u i t e of

the

dances

169

r e l a t e d t o heavenly s u b j e c t s .

That the o r c h e s t r a t i o n

for C

excludes a l l b r a s s (except an o c c a s i o n a l touch of horns) and

that

t h e form f o l l o w s a n o b l e g r a n d e u r

t h i s s e c t i o n which r e v e r s e s
established

at

shines behind

the

the nadir

end of Scene V I .

the s t a r s .

seeras f i t t i n g

Dira f i g u r e s

of

Job's

"Heaven

for

spirit

gradually

a r e seen d a n c i n g a

solemn d a n c e .

As Heaven grows l i g h t e r , they a r e seen t o be

the Sons of t h e Mornmg dancing before God's Throne." 17

M:
l E

fp_
^

mi ^m
:

r p

ffij

# # - - *
3-

i^m
^

Example 24 (m. 62-66)

Two evenly paced s t r o p h e s of 4 -t- 2 f e a t u r e

the

above

g e n t l y d e s c e n d i n g m e l o d y , enriched by a counterraoveraent in
the lower s t r i n g s and b a s s o o n s ; G raajor i s the t o n a l
At t h e sarae t i m e ,

i n m. 6 5 - 6 7 ,

maintained

3 for

d2 and

the v i o l i n s ,

center.

who

have

t h r e e b a r s , move i n t o a s l i g h t

170
variant of Elihu's melody heard in m. 51-52; when the second
strophe begins, the violins again sustain d2 and d3, then
move up one step to e2 and 3. Again, Elihu's message fills
three bars before the pavane returns for a 3 -i- 2 strain (m.
74-78), with a tonal shift to d-flat minor.

Three measures

repeat the moving figures in a polytonal e minor/crainor(ra.

79-81) before the structure of the stylized dance breaks
down completely into restatements of fragments associated
with the dancing and the previous Elihu-Job statement.

In a

solid, homophonous rush the scene ends with the violins

rising as high as heaven itself on the fifth of the chord.
Scene VIII
Galliard of the Sons of the Morning
A B C D
A (m. 1-13)
The f i r s t

thirteen

b a r s a r e a n e a r - i d e n t i c a l musical

flashback t o Scene I , m. 149-161, when Satan c h a l l e n g e s God,

" ' P u t f o r t h Thy hand now and touch a l l t h a t he h a t h and he
w i l l c u r s e Thee t o Thy f a c e . ' " 18 As if unaware of the t u r n
of e v e n t s in Scene V I I , S a t a n now a p p e a r s t o c o n f r o n t God
and t o

claim

different

"the

than

victory

Job."

G o d ' s answer

however,
19
"pronounces s e n t e n c e of banishment on S a t a n . "
The f u l l

Satan

over

anticipates,

S a t a n m o t i v e , l e a p s and A t t e n t i o n

announces h i s a p p e a r a n c e , as t h e c h o r d s r o l l
w i n d s , h o r n s , and t r u m p e t s .

for

is
God

motive,

through

the

When God banishes S a t a n , the

171
three-octave statement signifying Job is firmly stated,
ending on C.
B (m. 14-49)
Abruptly, the key changes to D as the first strains of
the galliard unfold two 5-1-4 patterns in which the violins
and trumpets carry the melody, to be joined by oboes and
English horns.

The melody deftly skips the seventh as it

expands over a considerable range in a spirited fashion,

connoting vigor and buoyancy.

The accompanying harmonies

> ^

f"'ij^^i''^irriri
^ s s
^

'}n*4rCoJo

Example 25 (m. 14-18)

are thick chords played in the lower s t r i n g s , the two harps,
and lower winds.

They are placed on the second and third

beats, for the most p a r t , and thus c r e a t e c o n t r a s t and an

opposing accent.
The t h i r d

s t r a i n of 5 -f 4 (m. 32-40)

momentarily

threatens the q u a l i t y of key with i t s lowered seventh in m.

33; i t a p p e a r s as an answer to the f i r s t s t r a i n ' s question.
Horns replace the trumpets, and the harmonies are kept from
t o t a l d i a t o n i c i s m by the addition of g-sharp in violas and
harps (m. 39), which creates an i n t e r e s t i n g dissonance with
the a in the v i o l i n s and f l u t e s .

The concluding nine bars

172
of the dance (m. 41-49) return to d/b minor, with the tubas
and trombones j o i n i n g s o l i d l y in the accorapaniment.
overall

effect

i s one of a b r i s k ,

a l m o s t sea

The

chanty

c h a r a c t e r , c o n s i s t e n t in i t s rhythmic s t r u c t u r e and r o l l i n g
melody.
B (m. 50-96)
B i s characterized by a wide interplay of motives which
weave in and out of the musical s t r u c t u r e like t h r e a d s in a
tapestry.

B a s i c a l l y , t h e r e are five motives to i s o l a t e .

The f i r s t two mark the beginning of the f i r s t cycle and pass

rapidly,
reference

a sixteenth

f i g u r e which c o n c e a l s A2 and a

to t h e A t t e n t i o n motive.

motives occur in m. 53-56:

A t h i r d and f o u r t h

a p a t t e r n s t r o n g l y resembling

the melodic contour of the t h i r d s t r a i n of the g a l l i a r d ,

first

p l a y e d by t h e o b o e s , h o r n s , and t r u m p e t s ,

and

harmonized in t h i r d s ; and a s t r i n g accompaniraent that moves

in extended rhythmic values and consists of f o u r t h ,
and f i f t h .

A fifth

octave,

idea i s heard in m. 57-59 in v i o l i n s ,

c l a r i n e t s , English h o r n s , and second h o r n s , joined by the

t u b a s ' d e s c e n d i n g , chroraatic figure reminiscent of Satan's
triumphant dance.

This eleven-bar s e r i e s is begun anew in

m. 6 1 , with the d i f f e r e n c e that the l a s t two melodic ideas

are extended s l i g h t l y .

As the second s e r i e s progresses, the

tension i s heightened by increased dynamics, repeated

short

motifs, and a final ritardando j u s t before the draraatic c l i max i s r e a c h e d .

At t h a t p o i n t ,

the composer

indicates.

173
"Here S a t a n
20
Curtain."

falls

out

of

Heaven.

. Black

out

and

Now t h e t u b a s j o i n t h e f l u t e s , b a s s o o n s , the

b r a s s , s t r i n g s , and p e r c u s s i o n in a j u b i l a n t

c o r a p l e t i o n of

the dance of v i c t o r y .
C (m. 97-154) A l t a r Dance
The mood c h a n g e s t o a t r n q u i l , q u i e t l y u p l i f t e d raood
to t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s

of:

. . . Enter (on e a r t h ) Young raen and Woraen p l a y i n g

on i n s t r u m e n t s ; o t h e r s b r i n g s t o n e s and b u i l d an
altar.
Others decorate the a l t a r
with
f l o w e r s . . . . Biit J o b m u s t n o t p l a y on an
instrument himself.
T h r e e g r o u p s of
a l t a r dance.

i n s t r u m e n t s s h a r e t h e melody of

the

Oboes and English horns i n t r o d u c e the therae of

r^ifjriqirpiii
Exaraple 26 (m. 98-101)
four b a r s ,

followed

by t h e

clarinets

and

flutes.

The

m e l o d i c o u t l i n e a p p e a r s to be r e l a t e d to the opening t h r e e
n o t e s of Scene I .

A pedal

point

of

rainor

in

second

i n v e r s i o n s u g g e s t s the t o n a l i t y , but the predorainance of the

d in t h e p e d a l de-emphasizes the s t a b i l i t y of g minor.

The

second melodic idea i s the theme of J o b ' s dream from Scene

IV which e n t e r s

in u n i s o n upper s t r i n g s

winds c o n t i n u e t h e a l t a r dance.

(m. 1 1 3 ) , as the

174
D (m. 127-145)
The composer now merges heavenly and earthly references
in a strong, affirming, final stateraent. The pavane returns
in m. 127; whereas in its initial appearance in Scene VII,
m. 62, the dance itself was interwoven with Elihu's theme,
in its reoccurrence the dance is laced with Job's dreara
theme frora Scene IV.

The altar dance begins again in the

winds in m. 128, and these three gently flowing, lyrical

ideas interrelate until, in m. 146, a tableau is indicated.
Coda (m. 146-154)

The t a b l e a u

i s h e l d as t h e o r c h e s t r a

extends

resources into three long, slow, p o l y t o n a l s t r e t c h e s :

first

its
the

two sound g major above e - f l a t major, f a l l i n g to g

through b - f l a t , and the I s t , in fff,

p l a c e s d - f l a t over e-

f l a t , drops to b - f l a t , and holds g.

Scene IX
Epilogue
M. 1-30

Vaughan Williaras was found of epilogues in his music,

and the p r e d i l e c t i o n coincides n i c e l y with the e p i l o g u e in
the Book of Job.

The composer's d i r e c t i o n s indicate a scene

l i k e the opening s c e n e , with J o b , older and more humble,

s i t t i n g with h i s w i f e .

The m u s i c a l r e c a p i t u l a t i o n

is

l i k e w i s e t r u e to the opening of the b a l l e t , a very s l i g h t l y

altered A frora Scene I :

a s u b t l e revoicing evidenced in

measure nine with the a d d i t i o n of the horns mellows the

175
clarinets, and the texture in the winds is limited to flutes
and oboes, as the three daughters enter and sit at their
father's feet.

The chromatics included in the A3 figure

disappear in bar 16.

ft H V

i^

Perhaps the restive aspect of Job's

r
^
I
T
^
4Jj I Yri dS

Example 27 (m. 16)

s o u l h a s now s e t t l e d
reference
solo,

into a diatonic

reflection.

t o J o b and h i s dream o c c u r s

backed

momentarily

softly

by t h e

by f l u t e s .

second

in t h e b a s s

violins

As t h e a s c e n d i n g

A last
flute

and

joined

open

fifths

accompaniment b l e n d s i n t o the descending melody, the s t o r y

of Job ends on a firm b - f l a t ,

reached through the s i x t h .

176
Notes
The s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s quoted in the following a n a l y s i s
a r e as Vaughan W i l l i a m s w r o t e thera and a r e t a k e n d i r e c t l y
from the o r c h e s t r a l s c o r e , as published by Oxford U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 , London, or from t h e p i a n o t r a n s c r i p t i o n by
Valley L a s k e r , p u b l i s h e d in 1931, a l s o by Oxford U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s . Measure numbers run c o n s e c u t i v e l y w i t h i n s c e n e s .
2
So d e s c r i b e s D o n a l d Tovey of Vaughan W i l l i a m s '
P a s t o r a l Symphony, b u t t h e t e r m s d e s c r i b e t h i s p a s s a g e in
j o b as w e l l .
Symphonies and Other O r c h e s t r a l Works; Essays
in Musical A n a l y s i s (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19359; paperback e d . , 1981), 524.
3
Wilfred M e l l e r s and Alec Harman, Man and His M u s i c :
The S t o r y of Musical Experience in the West (London: B a r r i e
and J e n k i n s , 1962; r e p r . , 1980), 977.
4
Wicksteed, 5 1 .
Ralph Vaughan W i l l i a r a s , J o b , A Masque f o r
(London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1934), 16.
^lbid.,

Dancmg

40.

^lbid.
o

This c o n d i t i o n i n p a i n t i n g o c c u r s when an e x i s t i n g
d r a w i n g or p a i n t i n g i s c o v e r e d by an o v e r p a i n t i n g , but i s
d i s c l o s e d when t h e p a i n t of t h e o v e r p a i n t i n g becoraes
t r a n s p a r e n t , a s can happen w i t h a g e .
The u n i n t e n t i o n a l
r e f e r e n c e t o a n o t h e r work may be f a i n t , b u t s t r a n g e l y
f a s c i n a t i n g or d i s t u r b i n g .
In t h e m u s i c a l e x a m p l e , t h e
reference is hardly unintentional.
Q

Vaughan Williams, 41.

'^lbid., 63.
Ibid., 66.
-'^lbid., 67.
'^lbid., 74.
"^lbid., 75.
"^lbid., 77.
Ibid.

177
17 I b i d . ,

84.

18 I b i d . ,

16.

19
20
21

Ibid.,

90.

Ibid.,

96.

Ibid.,

98.

CHAPTER V
JOB ON STAGE
Early
answered

in

1931 Miss

a letter

deterrained

from

Dame)

Keynes

in

Ninette
which

concerning

the

a meeting

choreography

between

de

By t h i s

the

group,"

using p o i n t e s

time

and s t a g i n g ; Vaughan W i l l i a r a s
amateur

and was r a t h e r wary t h a t de V a l o i s would

propose a c l a s s i c a l
been c o n c e r n e d ,

collaborators

" h i s m u s i c c o u l d o n l y be s t a g e d by a d e d i c a t e d

folkdance

Valois

she d e c l a r e d

i n t e n t i o n to stage the b a l l e t , Job.

Keynes had e n g i n e e r e d

felt

(now

en p o i n t e

however,

in her

approach.

He n e e d n ' t

have

a s "de V a l o i s had no i n t e n t i o n

choreography

and was f a r

t o o much

of
in

t u n e w i t h t h e whole c o n c e p t i o n t o i n t r o d u c e any j a r r i n g s t e p
2
drawn from c l a s s i c a l b a l l e t . "
As i t w a s , de V a l o i s '
involvement

in choreography

divertissements,

plays,

dancing r o l e s p r i o r

for

and

to J o b ,

ballets,

operas,

Walker,
eclectic

de V a l o i s '

as well

had p r e p a r e d

v a r i e d and u n i q u e demands of t h e work.

approach

ballet-plays,
as

her w e l l

numerous
for

the

According to Kathryn

t o J o b was w e l l - s e r v e d by h e r

background.

The e l o q u e n t , e x p r e s s i v e g r o u p i n g s and g e s t u r e s o f J o b and h i s f a m i l y r e l a t e t o h e r u s e of

movement i n Greek d r a m a . Masked and e x p r e s s i o n i s t
d a n c e i s e f f e c t i v e l y e m p l o y e d by t h e Comf o r t e r s . . . . L y r i c a l f e e l i n g and c u r v i n g f l u e n t
l i n e a r e b r o u g h t i n frc". p l a s t i q u e movement, w h i l e
E n g l i s h f o l k d a n c e y i e l d s s t e p s and p a t t e r n s t o
e v o k e t h e p a s t o r a l h a p p i n e s s of J o b ' s c h i l d r e n .
For E l i h u , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e g o o d , s h e t u r n s
t o c l a s s i c a l d a n c e and f o r S a t a n s h e e v o l v e s a
v i b r a n t p e r s o n a l i d i o m o u t of c l a s s i c a l and e t h n i c
178

179
sources.
A l l a r e corabined w i t h t h e u t r a o s t
confidence and c o n t r o l , proving t h a t she was in no
way a d i s c i p l e of any one s c h o o l or s t y l e but a
c h o r e o g r a p h e r who c o u l d s e l e c t a t w i l l fc^om the
whole range of s o c i a l and t h e a t r i c a l dance.
Choreographers

vary

in t h e i r

approaches

to

their

c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s e s ; for Darae N i n e t t e t h e r e needed to be an

iraage:
. . . i t i s t h e s p i r i t behind a l l chore-ography;
and once p r o j e c t e d i t i s developed, or replaced by
another t h a t shows some form of p r o g r e s s in t i r a e .
T h e r e raust b e , e v e n i n t h e most a b s t r a c t of
b a l l e t s , a sense of harmony, a sense of r e l a t i o n s h i p between one passage and a n o t h e r .
To a i d

Dame N i n e t t e

Blake's designs into

complete

set

of

completely soaked
whole of B l a k e ' s

the

in her p r o c e s s of

raoveraent,

transforming

Keynes p r o v i d e d her w i t h a

reproductions

"'.

. so she was

in B l a k e and she g o t an idea a b o u t

r a n g e a b o u t movement, n a t u r a l l y .

n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y ;

I had

I lent Ninette

books on B l a k e and t a l k e d with her about h i s s t y l e ,

the

the

that's

a l l . ' "^
De V a l o i s developed her "image" by t r a c i n g over B l a k e ' s
d e l i c a t e d e s i g n s , sometiraes superiraposing groups and f i g u r e s
from one d e s i g n to a n o t h e r .

The f a c t t h a t she c o n s u l t e d a

number of B l a k e ' s d e s i g n s other than those of

Illustrations

of the Book of Job i s seen in her d r a w i n g s ( I l l u s .

23-31),

some of which a r e t a k e n frora B l a k e ' s w a t e r c o l o r s of Coraus:

for i n s t a n c e , in I l l u s . 23 the upper f i g u r e s are frora Coraus,
P l a t e 6, and t h e lower feraale figure frora P l a t e 8.

She was

180
a l s o f a r a i l i a r with B l a k e ' s e a r l i e r drawings of Job and the
Comforters ( I l l u s . 31).
In t h i s way she absorbed the " f e e l " of Blake and so
r e l a t e d in as seminal a manner as p o s s i b l e B l a k e ' s twodimensional movement to her ideas of k i n e s t h e t i c expression.
She came to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g so profound t h a t one c r i t i c
commented, " I t i s remarkable . . . that . . . every movement
in i t

[Jpb] produced a p i c t u r e

t h a t Blake

raight

have

painted."
De Valois' meticulous a t t e n t i o n to the s m a l l e s t

detail

in the engravings i s p a r t i a l l y responsible for her success.

As she emphasized to t h i s author, she consulted the p l a t e s
themselves whenever a q u e s t i o n o c c u r r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in
7
r e g a r d s to p o s i t i o n i n g t h e h a n d s .
Although t h e o r i e s
concerning B l a k e ' s v i s u a l language of gestures had not been
formulated a t the tirae de V a l o i s was s t u d y i n g

Blake's

d e s i g n s , she a p p a r e n t l y i n t u i t e d t h a t B l a k e ' s d e l i b e r a t e
a t t e n t i o n to the hands warranted her own s i m i l a r

efforts

with her dancers.

The d i s c u s s i o n t h a t follows examines de Valois' vision
of the choreography, as far as i t i s p o s s i b l e to determine
from the a v a i l a b l e information.
t h a t she g i v e s t h o u g h t f u l
Raverat's original

I t is immediately apparent

consideration

to Keynes and

conception and to Vaughan W i l l i a m s '

musical and staging ideas.

Yet, her own concepts bring to

l i f e the o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t o r s ' work in a unique manner.

It

181
must be n o t e d , however, t h a t to v e r b a l l y d e s c r i b e dance
raoveraent i s a d i f f i c u l t

task in the best of circurastances.

Ideally such an endeavor would involve repeated observations

of a l i v e p e r f o r m a n c e ,

o r , as a s u b s t i t u t e ,

v i d e o t a p e of the b a l l e t .

a film

or

Another p o s s i b i l i t y would be to

work from a notated b a l l e t score (provided one i s

familiar

with the type of notation used).

In t h e c a s e of J o b , however, none of the above i s
available.

The b a l l e t i t s e l f has not been in the r e p e r t o i r e

of the Royal B a l l e t in the l a s t several years.

No films or

v i d e o t a p e s of t h e e n t i r e p e r f o r m a n c e have been made.

S a t a n ' s Dance of Triumph in Scene I I i s t h e o n l y
recorded in n o t a t i o n ;

i t can be read in Benesh notation at

the I n s t i t u t e of Choreology, London.

II i s recorded

scene

Similarly, only Scene

on v i d e o t a p e , and i t i s u n a v a i l a b l e

for

viewing except to union dancers of the Royal B a l l e t .

Yet, much about Job i s c l e a r l y remembered by b a l l e t
m i s t r e s s e s who taught the dance.

In addition, sketches for

c e r t a i n dances are a v a i l a b l e from de V a l o i s '

original

notebooks, and other dances are recorded in figure drawings

which are held in a p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n .

Many photographs of

various p r o d u c t i o n s and a few a r t i c l e s by s p e c t a t o r s and

c r i t i c s p r o v i d e additional insight and d e t a i l , as well.

By

c o n s u l t i n g the e x t a n t sources and through i n t e r v i e w s

in

person and by telephone with Dame Ninette, two former b a l l e t

m i s t r e s s e s , Joy Newton and Jean Bedells, and the a s s i s t a n t

182
director of the Institute of Choreology, Adrian Grater, it
is possible to relate certain aspects of the choreography to
the musical and visual elements of the work.

(The latter

"read" and demonstrated and Scene II notation for the author

on a rooftop high above Toronto, Canada; he kindly allowed
his interpretation to be videotaped.)
If the above sources are considered through a scene-byscene approach, however, as in the preceding music analysis,
the inconsistency of available information leads to a rather
uneven discussion.

Almost no information is available for

some dances, while another exists in minute detail.

An

intriguing and comprehensive picture of relationships can be

seen, however, when the dances are grouped in the following
manner.

Several of the dances involve larger resources than

other dances and relate in fundamental ways to the original

intentions of Keynes, Raverat, and Vaughan Williams.

These

dances set the tone for the entire work and create coherency
in the dance drama; they are the Pastoral Dances of Job' s
Children and the Minuet of Job's sons and wives, the suite
of heavenly dancesthe Saraband, Pavane, and Galliard, and
the Altar Dance of Scene VIII.

A second category is created

by two solo dances written for two opposite characters,

Satan, in his Dance of Triumph in Scene II, and Elihu, whose
Dance of Youth and Beauty in Scene VII.
establishing

In addition to

this contrast of good and evil, the Benesh

notation and videotaped demonstration of Scene II provide

183
the source for a detailed look at de Valois' choreographic
techniques for Satan's solo.
designed

A third group of dances are

to indicate essential characterizations; these

latter dances of secondary characters, War, Pestilence, and

Famine from Job's Dream, the Three Messengers, and the Three
Comforters, are preserved in stick figure drawings which are
remarkably revealing in their intent.
Scene Design
Like a medieval morality play, the stage of Job is
divided into two levels:

the broad steps represent heaven's

space, crowned by God's throne, and accented by a backdrop

depicting a night sky with stars.

Illus. 32 shows the stage

design as preserved in the Benesh notation for Scene II.

Illus. 33 is the backdrop used for heaven.

The area in

front of the steps represents earth; three different drop

scenes that reflect Blake's plates 1, 7, and 21 are used in
conjunction with the front area:

Illus. 33 and 34 are used

in Scene I; Illus. 33 is seen again in Scene VII and VIII,

and Illus. 35 is the backdrop for Scenes IV, V, VI, and in
VII for

the dance of Elihu.

background

I l l u s . 36 becoraes

the

for the Altar Dance in Scene VIII and the

Epilogue, Scene IX.

These arrangeraents of staging directly

reflect the concepts of Keynes and Raverat as written in

g
their first scenario.
The designs by Gwen Raverat were used frora 1931 until
1948.

At that time, the company raoved into the Royal Opera

184
H o u s e , Covent G a r d e n ,
Ballet

still

t h e t h e a t r e frora w h i c h

perforras.

the

Royal

Because t h e s t a g e i s l a r g e r

than

those p r e v i o u s l y used (and other r e s o u r c e s were g r e a t e r ) , de

V a l o i s decided t o have the s e t s r e d e s i g n e d .
undertaken

by J o h n

Piper,

long s u c c e s s f u l

d e s i g n e r for many t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c t i o n s .
far

removed from B l a k e ' s

T h i s t a s k was

influence,

as a

His d e s i g n s

stage
are

as can be seen by the

p h o t o g r a p h s , but t h e b i - l e v e l d i v i s i o n of heaven and

hell

remains.
The Large Group Dances
The first group of dances under consideration utilize
ten or more dancers on stage at one time:

the Pastoral

Dances, Minuet, and Altar Dance of Job's children and wives,

and the suite of heavenly dances, the Sarabande, Pavane, and
Galliard.

In these dances de Valois sets up a number of

elements necessary to the drama.

She establishes the

charac ter izations of Job, his wife, and God, and reinforces
the dramatic atmosphere stipulated by Keynes and suggested
in Vaughan Williams' music.

In addition, she carries out

many of Vaughan Williams' stage suggestions, while creating

her own personal idioras whichraostlyconcur with the ideas
of the other collaborators.

Her faithfulness to Blake's

configurations is clearly shown in available photographs.

The same photographs indicate a visual coherency created by
similar or repeated gestures and groupings at keyraoraentsin
the drama.

185
One recalls that Blake interpreted the story of Job as
taking place in Job's mind, so his struggles between good
and evil are depicted on stage with a relatively static Job
character; to reinforce the idea of inner, raental activity,
raost of the dancing takes place behind or to the side of
Job, not in front of or for him.
character.

Yet Job is not a weak

As Walker points out about Job, his wife, and

God, "The eye is drawn to them unfailingly at key moments,

by a significant gesture or by the deployment of other
figures on stage."

Adding to the sense of Job's presence

and mental involvement is the frequent use of the Job motive

in the music; the listener's mind, and eye, too, perhaps,
turn to Job.
De Valois directs this central character through
concise, concentrated moveraents appropriate to the garaut of
emotions he experiences throughout the work.

Her Job is

congruent with Vaughan Williams' portrayal of Job's psychological states as presented in therausic,although one could
surraise that vascillations of the intimate personality are
more easily represented in the musical process than the
choreographic one.

This effect is an iraportant exaraple of a

fundaraental expectation set up by Keynes, then carried out

in two reinforcing ways by de Valois and Vaughan Williaras.
Job's soraewhat passive deraeanor in Scene I is also valuable
for the contrast it creates with his adversary in Scene II.
Scene I opens on earth with Job and his wife sitting on

186
stage l e f t ,

Job occupying a l i t t l e s t o o l of a b o u t

i n c h e s , h i s wife a s h o r t e r

eighteen

one of a b o u t n i n e i n c h e s , and

t h e r e they remain for the m a j o r i t y of the draraa.

J o b ' s wife
throughout

shows r e t i c e n c e

the

ballet;

and d e p e n d e n c e

on

she i s d e s c r i b e d by G r a t e r

danced the r o l e of Job in i t s r e v i v a l in t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s )

Job
(who

as "a

g e n t l e s u p p o r t , always very near Job and moving c o n c u r r e n t l y

with him."

Richard Jennings writing

in t h e

Spectator,

d e s c r i b e d her as p a s s i n g "her days in a somnolent or p l a c i d

12
trance,"
y e t p h o t o g r a p h s show h e r i n a number of
a p p r o p r i a t e r e a c t i o n s to J o b ' s p l i g h t .

Her c h a r a c t e r

never

p r o j e c t s a judgment, as does the B i b l i c a l w i f e .

J e h o v a h i s a t h i r d c h a r a c t e r whose e s t a b l i s h m e n t
e s s e n t i a l t o the drama.

As e x p e c t e d , h i s p l a c e m e n t in

is
the

c e n t e r of the s t a g e i s a l s o the p i v o t p o i n t around which the

heavenly forces dance.

In t h e o r i g i n a l production God i s

r e f e r r e d to as J o b ' s S p i r i t u a l S e l f
conflict

with

the

to a v o i d any p o s s i b l e

t h e n - c u r r e n t Blasphemy Laws.

Keynes

r e l a t e s , in d i s c u s s i n g t h e concern,
I t was a s c e r t a i n e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e L o r d
C h a m b e r l a i n ' s l i c e n s e did not have to be obtained
a s no words were used i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . . .
a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y was invoked by providing Jehovah
w i t h a mask^so a s t o make the p r e s e n t a t i o n q u i t e
irapersonal.
The ten c h i l d r e n e n t e r a t m. 25 in the music, in l i t t l e
g r o u p s or s i n g l y

straight

from t h e w i n g s , or

diagonally

across t h e s t a g e , as i n d i c a t e d in de V a l o i s ' d e s i g n s
37).

Their

tranquil,

(Illus.

p a s t o r a l dances are important

in

187
perpetuating

the

coraplacency,

of

dances

offer

also

collaboration

doraestic

Job's

life

contentraent,
before

evidence

of

de

of

Valois

the

round

them.

The

corapleteness
Vaughan

first,

of

Williaras'

followed

men, t h e n " H e r e t h e women g r o u p t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e

t h e men move s l o w l y

even

S a t a n e n t e r s it."'''*

with

s u g g e s t i o n s t h e woraen d a n c e a l o n e

perhaps

by

the

raiddle

and

Then v i c e v e r s a "

(Illus.

38).
Vaughan W i l l i a m s p r o v i d e d
these dances

additional

of J o b ' s c h i l d r e n .

suggestions

"The f i g u r e s of t h i s

s h o u l d t a k e s u g g e s t i o n s from t h e d a n c e s ' J e n n y p l u c k
and

'Hunsdon

dance
pears'

H o u s e , ' " he w r o t e on t h e p i a n o s c o r e .

John P l a y f o r d ' s

E n g l i s h Dancing M a s t e r ,

to "Jenny pluck

pears"

that

of

the

tune

From

and

steps

show t h e d a n c e t o be a round d a n c e

for t h r e e men and t h r e e women.

resembles

for

(The t u n e ,

the opening

in 6/8

b a r s of Scene I . )

meter,
"Hunsdon

H o u s e , " from The C o u n t r y Dance Book, i s a s q u a r e d a n c e f o r

e i g h t . 1 7 T a k i n g V a u g h a n W i l l i a m s ' s u g g e s t i o n t o raean t h e
o v e r a l l s p i r i t and s t y l e of t h e d a n c e s , one n o t e s
dances

are

dances.

indeed "country,"

"Jenny pluck

pears"

Vaughan W i l l i a m s s u g g e s t s :
t h e woraen c i r c l i n g
the c i r c l i n g .

the

r a t h e r t h a n c o u r t or
features

such

that

both

classical

circling

t h e men c i r c l i n g t h e women,

raen,

changing d i r e c t i o n s ,

With a l t e r n a t e l y

joined

as
then

repeating

and u n j o i n e d

hands

w i t h t h e women, t h e men t a k e t u r n s s e t t i n g t h e i r p a r t n e r s
front

of

them,

honoring

them.

In

"Hunsdon H o u s e "

in
the

188
movements i n c l u d e c o u p l e s raeeting in p a i r s in the c e n t e r of
s q u a r e , s t e p p i n g back, women moving through the s q u a r e , then
r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r o r i g i n a l p l a c e s .
back, then face each o t h e r .
simple

footwork

regrouping;

with

Couples t u r n back

C l e a r l y , both dances

a great

deal

of

and t o w a r d s v a r i o u s p a r t n e r s

but

result

feature

grouping

both i n c l u d e a l o t of t u r n i n g in a l l
in

to

and

directions
relatively

uncomplicated p a t t e r n s .
De V a l o i s '
folkdances,

if

dances
not

the

follow
steps;

the
her

spirit
patterns

of
are

g e o m e t r i c , and she adds some k n e e l i n g and r i s i n g

38).

Actually,

these

her d e s i g n c o i n c i d e s with the old

more
(Illus.
raasque

d a n c e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t groupings were raore eraphasized than

foot-work; t h i s was a p p a r e n t l y caused by the raanner in which
the s p e c t a t o r s

were s e a t e d o n

t h r e e s i d e s of t h e

hall,

looking down on the d a n c e r s .

The f i r s t of s e v e r a l tableaux v i v a n t , a l s o i n d i c a t e d
Vaughan W i l l i a m s '

in

d i r e c t i o n s , occurs when Job slowly moves

to the c e n t e r of the s t a g e where t h e c h i l d r e n group around

hira, a s in p l a t e 2 1 .
Analysis,
children

Scene

I,

gradually

Job b l e s s e s the c h i l d r e n (see Musical

A) a s t h e y d a n c e ,
exit

indicate t h a t

the c h i l d r e n

final

plate

plate,

the s t a g e .

which

(De V a l o i s '

form a p a t t e r n s i m i l a r

21, rather

change i s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e

after

than p l a t e 1; t h i s

the
notes

to

the
rainor

the c h i l d r e n a r e s t a n d i n g

s t a g e and t h e raoveraent i s b r i e f . )

on

Walker, w r i t i n g in 1987,

189
stated that de Valois had "a remarkable instinct, and
courage, for determining when to use dance and when to allow
pose and tableau to create an effecta talent more usual in
Oriental than m Western dance drama." 1 8 That instinct
surely was developed with such scenes as the ones described
above, although it would appear that in this instance it was
the composer who placed the tableaux rather than the choreographer.
De V a l o i s ' f a i t h f u l n e s s

t o the Blake p l a t e s i s seen

in

her s k e t c h e s of a n g e l s drawn in her o r i g i n a l sketchbook, as

seen in I l l u s . 39 ( C ) , ( E ) , (A), as l a b e l e d by t h e

artist.

These g r o u p i n g s f i r s t appear in Scene I ' s Saraband, then the

Pavane in Scene V I I , immediately followed by the G a l l i a r d in
Scene V I I I .

The C h i l d r e n of God, danced by t h e

merabers of t h e c o r p s de b a l l e t ,

are

seen wearing

female
long,

f l o w i n g gowns; the Sons of the Morning a r e a s e p a r a t e group

of a n g e l s and wear wings; t o g e t h e r they c r e a t e the e f f e c t of
". . . c e l e s t i a l e c s t a c y of the Children of God and the Sons
19
of the Morning, e n d l e s s l y raoving on the s t a i r s of heaven."
Available
setting

in

photographs

raotion

show de V a l o i s '

B l a k e ' s fluid configurations.

with the k n e e l i n g f i g u r e s w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d
Illus.

success

in

Beginning

r i g h t arras in

3 9 , p a r t C, one can see the aniraa^e v e r s i o n s as they

group around God in I l l u s . 43 and 44.

These p o s t u r e s

relate

to the many k n e e l i n g f i g u r e s seen in t h e Blake e n g r a v i n g s ,

i.e.,

plates

1,

3,

9.

De V a l o i s

reproduced

the prone

190
figures of Illus. 39, part E, in the designs captured in
Illus. 43, 44, and 45 at the beginning of the ballet and in
Illus. 46, taken at the end of the Galliard in the final
minutes of the ballet.

The title page and the raargins of

plates 12 and 29 show her points of inspiration

in the

curving streams of heavenly beings, Illus. 39, part A.

The

beautiful circles of angels she adapted in Illus. 42, top

and bottom, appear to also come from the above platesin
addition, she found models in plates 2, 5, and 16.

In the

choreography, these curved, leaning angels are identified in

Illus. 47 and 48.

A fourth design, a standing figure with

one arm outstretched, is sketched by de Valois in Illus. 40,

center, and also originates frora the margins of plate 12; it
is seen in Illus. 43, 49, and 52.
Her interpretation of the Sons of the Morning

with

wings appears to be that the arms were outstretched even

with the shoulder before Satan's fall (Illus. 47, 48, and
50) and in a V-shape, as is shown in plate 17, after Satan's
fall (Illus. 51 and 5 5 ) .

Her differentiation is perhaps

because the former gesture permeates the work, while the

latter is specifically depicted in plate 14, aligned with
Job's regeneration and his victory over Satan.

Remaining

sketches, Illus. 42, lower right, and Illus. 41, part a,

demonstrate perhaps some of the kneeling positions taken in
the moveraent

(Illus. 49 and 5 2 ) .

All the sketches are

easily imagined moving to the flowing, serpentine lines of

191
the music and appear compatible with Blake's visual configurations, as well.
The Galliard serves a function apart frora the other
heavenly dancesit actually furthers the narrative of Job.
God banishes Satan; the Sons of the Morning

( see Music

Analysis, Scene VIII, Sections B and C ) , together with the

Children of God, drive Satan frora the heavenly spaces during
the dance.

Frora de Valois' notes, one can see her use of

two groups, each raade of at least four Sons of the Morning

20
and six to eight Children of God.
Her rudimentary drawings
show her raaintenance of symmetry and balance as the heavenly
forces surround God and carry out his demand.

Illus. 50

demonstrates this moraent in Scene VIII.

One writer, Joan Lawson, discussing the dances of Job's
children and the heavenly forces, describes thera as ". . .
mostly like early primitive dances with their easy steps and
circular or siraple braiding patterns." 21

The Dancing Tiraes,

July, 1948, adds that de Valois has turned these moveraents

. . . into things of great beauty by developing
broad arm and head movements, which often become
symbolical gestures of great significance. She
has designed some exquisite pas-de-deux and group
work to demonstrate the lov^-'^^ ^^^^"^ J o b ' s
daughters, sons and their wives.
Lawson likens the dances also to ritualistic processions
23
used at the altar of a god.
Jean Bedells describes them
as containing "languid moveraent, soft and fluid, with no
extreraes and a very plastique quality.
limited

Dancing as such was

. . . walking around to the music, arm moveraents.

192
taking

groups

. . . interrelating

in that way, no dance

,,24
steps."

The simple raovements in these dances of Job seem far

removed frora c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n .

Yet, according to Lawson,

they a r e e f f e c t i v e in t h e i r folk t r a d i t i o n because they are

performed according to rules of c l a s s i c a l technique.
Among t h e most i m p o r t a n t r u l e s for t h i s
technique are the turning-out of the legs, the use
of a c o n t r a s t i n g l i n e ( ^ a u l e m e n t ) which d e t e r mines the angle at which a pose or step should be
p l a c e d , and the acquiring of "aplomb," or a b i l i t y
to balance and hold any p o s i t i o n . . . . The dances
of J o b ' s s o n s and d a u g h t e r s a r e raade more
i n t e r e s t i n g becax^e of t h e i r constantly changing
e?paulement. . . .
One notes also de V a l o i s ' response to the suggestion
Job was not of a c l a s s i c a l b a l l e t t r a d i t i o n .
dance c r i t i c s t r y to c a s t
skilled dancers.

that

"'Let those

i t with a n y t h i n g but

really

A production requiring such dancers j ^ a

b a l l e t , although i t may not use one moveraent of an everyday

class l e s s o n . ' "
Lawson f u r t h e r

a s s o c i a t e s p o s i t i v e values with J o b ' s

children and the heavenly forces with the use of pauleraent.

She notes t h a t "good" characters are frequently portrayed on
stage in such a manner t h a t t h e i r bodies are e a s i l y and
completely seen by the audience.

"They [Job's children and

the heavenly forces] are a l l p o t e n t i a l l y good characters and

thus can be seen at any a n g l e . "

In c o n t r a s t , a lack or

limited use of ipaulement contributes toward negative values

in Lawson's view:

193
[Satan] dances alraost e n t i r e l y facing the audience
with l i t t l e use of p a u l e r a e n t .
But h i s l e g s a r e
a l w a y s s t r e t c h e d and t u r n e d out to t h e i r f u l l e s t
e x t e n t . This raakes h i s raovement seera f u l l y e v i l ,
f o r t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be no o t h e r _ a n g l e to h i s
c h a r a c t e r , and thus he confronts u s .
In a d d i t i o n ,

the

expressiveness

use

of

t o a pose or

"shouldering"
raoveraent,

lends

a point

used a s t h e d a n c e r s mime a new d r a m a t i c

event

great

frequently
or

with

s o m e t h i n g a s s i r a p l e a s r e a c h i n g t h e edge of t h e s e t , and
thus changing d i r e c t i o n , but adding i n t e r e s t
29

and b e a u t y

at

the sarae tirae.

The n a t u r a l i s t i c ,
dances a l s o c o n t r i b u t e
discussing

n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g movements of t h e s e
to the

i d e a of

"Movement a s V i s u a l

"goodness."

Metaphor" in her

In
book,

Moveraent and Meaning, Anya Royce w r i t e s t h a t c u l t u r e s e s t a b lish

raeanings

for p a t t e r n s of m o v e m e n t p o s i t i v e v a l u e s

in

the West a r e b a s e d on " t h e Greco-Roman i d e a l s of c a r r i a g e

and movement t h a t r e p r e s e n t beauty and
open p o s t u r e

aristocracyerect,

and s l o w , e x p a n s i v e g e s t u r e s .

By c o n t r a s t ,

n a r r o w , c r a r a p e d , j e r k y raovements a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
u g l i n e s s and p o v e r t y . " 30 Joan Lawson c o n t i n u e s to r e f e r to
t h e c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e movements i n S c e n e I ,
d e s c r i b i n g them as being
. . . g i v e n a d e e p e r meaning by the way in which
[the] s t e p s a r e p e r f o r m e d .
The j o y o u s u p t u r n e d
faces of t h e d a u g h t e r s with the hands held high in
t h a n k s g i v i n g and the l i g h t - s t e p p i n g f e e t a r e based
on t h e f a c t t h a t a t moraents of happiness t h e r e i s
a tendency for evervone to f e e l l i g h t e r and d e s i r e
to r i s e in the a i r .

194
I t appears t h a t while Darae N i n e t t e was c r e a t i n g her
dances to physically reserable the Blake p l a t e s , she was also
c r e a t i n g an e f f e c t
intention.

p a r a l l e l to Vaughan Williaras' musical

By a l l

a c c o u n t s , de Valois has b u i l t

these

preferences into her choreography because Vaughan Williaras

followed

t h e sarae s e t of p r e f e r e n c e s in h i s music.

De

Valois e x h i b i t s a remarkable s e n s i t i v i t y to the music and,

as far as can be t o l d from the a v a i l a b l e information and
a l s o from s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s ,

she

is

able

to

create

c o r r e s p o n d i n g e f f e c t s with her d a n c e r s , by following the

composer's melodic p h r a s e s and f l u i d

rhythmic

values.

I l l u s . 53 and 54 show diagonal, angular p a t t e r n s , connoting

tension in these scenes of Satan and Job's children.
In c o n c l u s i o n , the dances discussed above c r e a t e a
strong sense of v i s u a l coherency t h a t c o i n c i d e s with the
Blake p l a t e s and the music.

De Valois follows the o v e r a l l

symmetry created by the s i m i l a r i t y of p l a t e s 1 and 21, which

Vaughan Williams r e c r e a t e s in his score in Scenes I and IX.
Just as the composer varied his opening bars to s e t t l e on a
t o n a l c e n t e r , she regroups Job's family to resemble Blake's
final design.

She a l s o c a r r i e s

t h e symmetry i n t o

shaping of groups within the individual dances.

her

Her use of

similar poses for the Children of God and the Sons of the
Morning in the beginning and final scenes effectively brings
the drama to a conclusion.

195
The Solo Dances
De V a l o i s c h o r e o g r a p h e d

two s o l o d a n c e s

for

Job:

S a t a n ' s Dance of Triuraph in Scene I I and E l i h u ' s Dance of

Youth and B e a u t y in Scene V I I .
standing

in

relief

preceding

photographs.

"fascinatingly

to

the

The former

fluid

is visible

poses captured

in

as
the

D e s c r i b e d by v a r i o u s c r i t i c s

as

. . . d i a b o l i c a l l y b e a u t i f u l , ""^^ "an a t h l e t i c

fiend,

naked and g r e e n , "

" a g i l e and v i g o r o u s , " and " . . .
a w h i r l w m d , " 3 4 S a t a n d i s p l a y s a t e n s e and s i n i s t e r
demeanor.

His moveraents a r e d e s i g n e d

corapressed,

frenetic

astonishing

solo,

energy.

"This r o l e ,

to eraphasize a
with

its

i s s t r o n g , a r r o g a n t , superhuraan,"

one

states

Walker.^^
For

a detailed

look

at

r e l a t i o n s h i p with the other

de V a l o i s '

choreographic

e l e m e n t s of t h e b a l l e t ,

dance which e x i s t s in Benesh n o t a t i o n i s a s u i t a b l e

One r e c a l l s

this

source.

t h a t in the music a n a l y s i s , the composer uses a

few w e l l - c h o s e n eleraents with which to c r e a t e an atraosphere

of m a l e v o l e n c e in Scene I I .
p. 1 4 3 ) .

(See Music A n a l y s i s , Scene I I ,

Upon c l o s e examination, de Valois a p p e a r s t o have

used a s i r a i l a r

t e c h n i q u e w i t h g e s t u r e and

b e g i n s S a t a n ' s Dance w i t h an orainous f i g u r e

gesture

of

angular

raoveraent.
frozen

t e n s i o n , yet throughout the

She
in a

swiftly

changing p a t t e r n s , a few b a s i c movements appear t o r e c u r

variation,

creating

s e n s e of e v i l .

in

an e v e r - b u i l d i n g and t i g h t l y coherent

Satan's entire

being

is involved

in

the

196
dance, of c o u r s e , but the g e s t u r e s and movements a r e l o o s e l y
s e p a r a b l e ; t h e four r e c u r r i n g movements seera to

eraphasize

the arras, the t o r s o ,

(The f a c t

long s t r i d e s ,

and juraps.

t h a t Scene I I e x i s t s i n Benesh n o t a t i o n makes i t

for

a r e a d e r of Benesh t o r e e n a c t the s t e p s .

possible

The following

d i s c u s s i o n i s based on the videotaped d e m o n s t r a t i o n of

a reading,

as mentioned

interpretation;
intentions

of

it

earlier,

and

is

does not n e c e s s a r i l y

the choreographer

the

such

author's

reflect

the

or t h e a g r e e m e n t of

the

d e m o n s t r a t o r , a l t h o u g h every e f f o r t has been made t o do s o .

The d r a w i n g s

are

by t h e a u t h o r or a r e t r a n s c r i b e d

from

photographs of t h e movement.)
S a t a n ' s Dance u t i l i z e s the s t a g e and s t e p s , as shown in
I l l u s . 3 2 , from t h e Benesh n o t a t i o n .

He b a l a n c e s on t h e

b a l l of h i s f e e t , p l a c i n g the r i g h t foot on the fourth

and t h e l e f t back on t h e s i x t h .

His arms a r e e x t e n d e d

step
in

the manner shown, w i t h h i s hand held in c l a w - l i k e t e n s i o n ,

s i m i l a r t o S a t a n ' s hands in p l a t e 6.

By the tirae bar 49 i s

reached

is fully

in

the

repeat,

the

stage

lit

and

the

movement b e g i n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with the musical motive heard

in the o b o e s , E n g l i s h h o r n s , and v i o l i n s .
quick, wide c i r c l e s ,

Satan raakes t h r e e

u s i n g both arras in o p p o s i n g

raotion.

197
(See I l l u s . 32 for the Benesh n o t a t i o n of t h i s raoveraent.)
At ra. 58, he c o i l s i n t o himself as i f he were

suddenly

s t r i c k e n with an abdominal ache; quickly he extends back

u p r i g h t , and p o i n t s one arm upward, one f o r w a r d .

The

c i r c l e s of the arms and the curls and points are two of the
moveraents varied in subsequent s t e p s .
At bar 67 Satan parades hiraself near the front of the
s t a g e in a s t i f f - l e g g e d march which resembles a goose-step,
arms r i g i d a t s h o u l d e r - h e i g h t , and palms turned outward.
The step includes a curious stomping effect with the sole of
the f o o t .

Legs are c l e a r l y turned i n , rather than turned

out, as i s usually the case in c l a s s i c a l b a l l e t ; with the

c o n t o r t i o n of the t o r s o , the e f f e c t
extremely angular s t r u t .
rausical

i s of an exaggerated,

This leg moveraent begins with the

s e c t i o n C and i s another figure v a r i e d in l a t e r

movements ( I l l u s . 59).

The second v a r i a t i o n of the jumping motion occurs in

m. 8 4 - 8 5 , as S a t a n makes r a p i d c i r c l e s which end in a
flexing motion t h a t generally s i g n i f i e s strength, leaping as
he f l e x e s .

Rather than drawing inward, the upper body turns

198
s l i g h t l y opposite from the legs, with the arms remaining at
s h o u l d e r - l e v e l and the f i s t s curled inward.

This sequence

of goose-steps and juraps ends with a backward turn, as Satan

faces the t h r o n e , kneeling
moving s t a g e r i g h t .

raockingly

in front of i t , and

After turning three times, he returns

to center s t a g e , then the sequence is repeated.

A second kind of stiff-legged marchwith the l e f t

leg

swinging widely around the l e f t sidepropels the deraonic

dancer in a z i g - z a g path from stage r i g h t to s t a g e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g with the music in m. 96.

left,

He faces the throne

with h i s arras extended in a wide-V, then p i r o u e t t e s

s i n g l e t u r n s t o a c o u n t of t w e l v e .
audience again, in center stage.

Now he f a c e s

in
the

He begins the third s e r i e s

of juraps, landing in the t r i p l e t s of m. 107-108.

torso is twisted into a contorted figure.

Again the

As he jumps he

gestures with one arm, then another, then t o g e t h e r , a t h i r d

s e r i e s of jumping and fist-shaking a c t i o n s .

At m. 111-112 Satan begins the third s t r i d i n g motion.

This moveraent requires the dancer to begin the s t e p on one
side and follow through h i s body to the other s i d e , as the
legs extend s t r a i g h t .

At m. 124-140, the music begins to

199
gather

forces

for

its

c l i r a a c t i c ending of

triuraph; Satan again shakes his f i s t s

incident)

angrily

t h i s dance of

( the

fourth

toward the t h r o n e , and, s t i l l facing

e x e c u t e s an a t h l e t i c

rocking-leaping

c a r r i e s him a l l around the s t a g e .

in E x c e l s i s D e o . "
of t h e s t a g e ,

it,

s o r t of f i g u r e

that

I t i s easy to imagine the

a c t i o n a s a mocking o n e , as the music i s parodying

front

such

"Gloria

J u s t b e f o r e m. 150, S a t a n r u n s to

the

k n e e l s , and h o l d s the pose during the

musical r e f e r e n c e t o the a n c i e n t sequence of Dies I r a e .

passage

of

eleven

counts

of

bourees

h e a v e n l y s t a i r s , w h i c h he b e g i n s

l e a d s him to

to ascend

i n m.

A
the

167.

A p p r o a c h i n g God's t h r o n e , he c u r l s h i s r i g h t leg under him,

and s i t s ,

as in t h e d r a w i n g .

At t h e

last

chord

in

the

m u s i c , S a t a n g r a s p s t h e arms of the t h r o n e , h i s u s u r p a t i o n
complete.

De V a l o i s ' concept of Satan blends s t r e n g t h and energy.

Part of her e f f e c t i v e n e s s
musical c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

i s due to her uncanny sense of the

all

t h e more r e m a r k a b l e when

one

c o n s i d e r s t h a t she raust have used the piano t r a n s c r i p t i o n as

her only source of c o n s u l t a t i o n .
of c o n v e n t i o n a l

gestures

Also convincing i s her use

to p o r t r a y t h e n e g a t i v e

values

200

a t t r i b u t e d to Satan; his moveraents are s t i f f ,

a n g u l a r , and

u n y i e l d i n g , and h i s g e s t u r e s are connotative of defiance,

scorn, and harra.

Unlike the dances d i s c u s s e d above,

there

are b r i e f moments of p i r o u e t t e s , boures, and arabesques,

and a male dancer a t t e m p t i n g S a t a n ' s r o l e must have the
t e c h n i q u e frora a c l a s s i c a l background.

The coraposer raust

have had some premonition about the d i f f i c u l t y of matching

h i s musical energy and the length of the dance for which he
included r e p e a t s , for he suggested, "If the dance i s too
long for one performer, other dancers raay be introduced; or,
a l l the repeats raay be omitted." 36 Some of them were.
In a d d i t i o n

t o Vaughan Williaras' music, de Valois

c a r e f u l l y noted B l a k e ' s Satan for her i n s p i r a t i o n .

An

example of her i n t e n t i o n to recreate plate 2 is c l e a r l y seen

in I l l u s . 56, a page from her choreographic notes.
s t y l i s t i c make-up and g r e e n s c a l y e f f e c t

are

Satan's
directly

derived from Satan in p l a t e 6, in which Satan i s pouring

boils upon the d e s p a i r i n g J o b .

S a t a n ' s f i n a l g e s t u r e of

defiance in Scene II (seen below on the right) is taken from

the p o s t u r e of Satan as he destroys Job's children in p l a t e
3.
^^-xl

201
It

is

resources

notable
for

that

and

Williams

h i s b a l l e t t h a t d i d not e x i s t

his stage d i r e c t i o n s
running,

Vaughan

kneel

indicate.
before

envisioned

in r e a l i t y ,

"The h o s t s of

Hell

for

enter

Satan,

who h a s r i s e n and s t a n d s
37
before God's throne facing the a u d i e n c e . "
At t h i s p o i n t
in t h e o r i g i n a l p r o d u c t i o n ,
across
available

the

stage,

for

Satan executed h i s boures

there

were

i n 1931 t o c a s t t h e h o s t s of

not

enough

hell;

alone

dancers

i n some

later

p r o d u c t i o n s , h o w e v e r , d a n c e r s costumed i n b l a c k wings a p p e a r
38
to take t h a t p a r t .
E l i h u ' s Dance of Youth and B e a u t y
In coraplete
of E l i h u .

contrast

to

t h e s o l o of S a t a n i s t h e

Keynes e x p l a i n s t h e young and p l e a s i n g Son of

Morning's p l a c e in B l a k e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

solo
the

as:

. . . i t is Elihu t h a t b r i n g s about the t u r n i n g p o i n t in J o b ' s s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r y .

Job has
d e s c e n d e d i n t o t h e p i t of s u f f e r i n g , d e l u d e d by
his
raaterialisra
and s e l f - r e g a r d i n t o b e l i e v i n g
h i r a s e l f an i l l - u s e d man.
E l i h u s h e w s him t h e
f a l s i t y of h i s i d e a l s and t h a t i n c r e d i t i n g
h i m s e l f w i t h l o v i n g o t h e r s he r e a l l y o n l y l o v e s
himself.
But he g i v e s J o b f r e s h hope even though
he be o l d , p o i n t i n g t o t h e s t a r s and p r o v i d i n g by
c o n t r a s t t h e s t i m u l u s of h i s own y o u t h and b e a u t y J o b i s t h u s b r o u g h t t o r e a l i z e h i s own p l a c e in
t h e l a c g e r scheme of t h i n g s and t h e t r u e n a t u r e of
love.
Vaughan W i l l i a m s '
rhapsodic,
matched
sketches
wife,

flowing

by d e V a l o i s '
indicate

score

phrases
solo

for

solo

h i n t i n g of
d a n c e of

much m o v i n g

in

violin

with

improvisation

elegiac

and o u t

grace.

is
Her

among J o b ,

and t h e C o r a f o r t e r s and t h e use of t h e c l a s s i c a l

its

his

steps.

202
a r a b e s q u e s and j e t s .

(See I l l u s . 6 2 - b . )

t h e Greek q u a l i t y

t h e movement as b e i n g t h e

feature.

of

The d a n c e , w a s , t h e r e f o r e ,

B e d e l l s reraembers
dominant

a m i x t u r e of

styles,

described

by B e d e l l s a s " . . . l y r i c a l and a e s t h e t i c a l l y
p l e a s i n g . " 40 The v i s i b l e i m p r e s s i o n of E l i h u as f a i r w i t h
long b l o n d h a i r

and d r e s s e d

in s k i n - c o l o r e d

c r e d i b i l i t y to h i s "goodness," a l s o .
on t h e s t y l e , b u t t h e g e n e r a l

tights

lends

Lawson did not comment

feeling:

The c a r e f u l t i m i n g of t h e p o s e s w i t h t h e
t u r n e d - o u t l e g and w e l l - p l a c e d body in E l i h u ' s
dance seem t o s t r e s s t h e honest message t h i s young
and b e a u t i f u l c h a r a c t e r has t o b r i n g .

The drawing a b o v e , o b v i o u s l y modeled on p l a t e 12 of

demonstrates

Elihu's

graceful

d e m o n s t r a t e s , by t h e manner

technique.

Blake,

Illus.

i n which i s E l i h u h o l d i n g

p o s i t i o n , t h e r e l i a n c e on c l a s s i c a l

58
his

training.

Character Dances
A third
several

c a t e g o r y of d a n c e s c r e a t e d

character

unfolding

of

dances;

the

communicate s p e c i f i c

in Job i s t h a t of

each dance c o n t r i b u t e s

narrative

and

each

dramatic q u a l i t i e s

is

to

designed

in an

the
to

effective.

203
efficient manner.
of dancers:

Each of these three dances involve trios

the Three Messengers, the Three Comforters, and

War, Pestilence, and Famine.

Most of the choreographic

information available on the dances exists in the form of

stick figure drawings in the collection of a former ballet
mistress, Joy Newton; she taught de Valois' concepts largely
from these figures, a number of which are included below.
Several photographs show the final results of the raovement
and mirae suggested by the figures; rauch of the meaning, of
course, has to be implied.
Dance of War, Pestilence, and Famine
The intimacy of a raan's drearas is depicted in Scene IV,
as peaceful sluraber turns into a nightraare.

Job is lying

asleep when Satan appears, standing over him in the same

position of Satan in plate 6; instead of inflicting boils on
his victim, Satan conjures up:
. . . t e r r i f y i n g Visions
Famine, B a t t l e , Murder,
p o s t u r e before Job. . . .
r e p r e s e n t e d by a g r o u p of
should be wild and f u l l . o f
should f i n a l l y be f u l l .
Again,

the

composer

of P l a g u e , P e s t i l e n c e ,
and S u d d e n D e a t h who
Each of t h e s e should be
dancers.
The d a n c e r s
moveraent, and the s t a g e

has e n v i s i o n e d an e f f e c t i v e

scene with

many d a n c e r s ; de V a l o i s a r r a n g e s her dance, however,

t h r e e masked c h a r a c t e r s ,

around

who a c t as S a t a n ' s minions and so

convey a s e n s e of S a t a n ' s power and c o n t r o l .

At m. 36 i n t h e m u s i c a l
visible

in t h e p o s i t i o n s

score,

Satan's

drawn in I l l u s .

forces

are

60, while Job and

204
his wife remain on stage left.
little g r o u p , with

The dancers make a tight

the three horrors

(so called

for

siraplicity's sake) each performing his separate feat.

One

bends up and down from the waist, one lies on his side in a
fetal position and alternately stretches and contracts his
body, the last twists into a cramped, awkward loop, drawing
his left arm under his left leg, then extending his left leg
forward and back.

Illus. 58 and 61 show this unusual group.

Satan's manipulation is emphasized as he grabs the foot

of one, places his hand on the back of another and begins a
pumping raotion, as the horrors continue to writhe and thrash
about (Illus. 59). Newton's notes indicate that Satan was
"always in control, making them work, tangling, circling." 43
Satan literally walks over the horrors as he dances in wide
44
strides, and half turns, leaping over the prone bodies.
Another gesture, "Down to hell and up to heaven," has
the dancers grasping

their right wrists with their left

hands and pointing their right index fingers up and down, up

and down.

A final move signifying Satan's control shows

Satan guiding the trio as he would a team of horses, first

one way, then another, across the stage.

Thus, Satan

emphasizes his power and Job's helplessness.

The entire

sequence projects a sense of unearthly energy with quick,

animated movements, closely aligned with Satan's Dance of
Triumph in Scene II.

The dancers caught in mid-raovement in

Illus. 62 demonstrate these qualities.

205
Dance of t h e Three Messengers
S. F o s t e r Damon i n t e r p r e t e d
margin of p l a t e
malefic

the t h u n d e r b o l t ^ ^ in the

4 as s y m b o l i c of J o b ' s

news of t h e t h r e e messengers.

t h e f i g u r e s of J o b and h i s wife
learn

the content

that

reaction

to

Certainly, i t is to
t h e eye t r a v e l s

of t h e m e s s a g e s , for

motions

d e s p a i r and g r i e f J o b ' s wife with u p - l i f t e d

and c l e n c h e d

fists,

and J o b h i m s e l f ,

to

t h e d r a w i n g s and

photographs t h a t p o r t r a y t h e s e two f i g u r e s d e p i c t
inferring

the

an e n e r v a t e d

arms
body,

drooping and heavy.

The

movement

and

mime

demonstrated in I l l u s . 63 and 64.

to

which

reacts

The f i r s t

messenger

t h e s t a g e b e f o r e he a p p r o a c h e s J o b ; h i s

e n t r a n c e f i t s t h e l e n g t h of h i s theme, d e f i n i t e l y
l e n g t h t h a n t h e o t h e r two.

is

Each messenger e n t e r s the

scene a t t h e s o u n d i n g of h i s t h e m e .
circles

Job

extended
longer

in

(See I l l u s . 63, upper p o r t i o n ) .

The second a p p e a r s t o e n t e r from t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e

(Illus.

6 3 , m i d d l e p o r t i o n ) , while the t h i r d j o i n s as the f i r s t two

look o n e w a y ,

then

the o t h e r ,

as in I l l u s .

63,

lower

portion.
Newton d e s c r i b e s t h e d a n c e r s ' motion as " s o f t ,
and drawn o u t , "
Job.

as t h e y s u r r o u n d t h e d e v a s t a t e d wife and

Certainly,

reserablance

flowing,

their

positjons

to B l a k e ' s p l a t e s .

as p h o t o g r a p h e d

The i m p o r t a n c e of

grave t i d i n g s i s emphasized, as the t r i o lunge on t h e i r

f e e t , p o i n t i n g t h e i r r i g h t arras toward the unseen.

bear
their
left

206
One r e c a l l s t h a t t h e rausic for t h i s scene i s a d i a l o g u e
of t h r e e s e p a r a t e themes which perhaps suggest the s t a t e s of
anticipation,
hears

the

anxiety,

steady

beat

and a g i t a t i o n .

In a d d i t i o n ,

of

c o r t g e of J o b ' s

the

funeral

one

c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h t h e p o l y p h o n y of t h e d i a l o g u e , so
while unseen,

the message i s not unheard.

that,

To d e p i c t

this

very moving musical p a s s a g e and d r a m a t i c p o i n t , de V a l o i s

has her d a n c e r s surround the g r i e v i n g f i g u r e s in a f l u r r y of
gentle

movement,

a g e s t u r e which s u g g e s t s

natural

compassion t h a t i s p e r s o n a l and t o u c h i n g .
Dance of J o b ' s

Coraforters

Iramediately following

the d i s a s t r o u s

t i d i n g s of

m e s s e n g e r s coraes the a r r i v a l of J o b ' s f r i e n d s .

from t h e poem t h a t t h e y s a t w i t h Job for

the

One r e c a l l s

"seven days of

silent

s u f f e r i n g and s i l e n t c o n d o l e n c e " before they began

t h e i r d i a l o g u e . 47 The a c t i o n s t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e i r long
d i s c o u r s e w i t h a l l of

its vascillations,

condemnations,

r e p r o a c h e s , a n x i e t i e s , and s u g g e s t i o n s a r e condensed
few meaningful

gestures.

According

to Newton's drawings

and comraents,

a c t i o n s of t h e Comforters emulate the Comforters

and p l a t e

into a

the

in p l a t e 7

10; t h e y appear to move as a group, e n t e r i n g with

bent k n e e s , holding t h e i r arras and hands in i m i t a t i o n of the

"See no e v i l ,
describes

h e a r no e v i l ,

say no e v i l " p o s i t i o n s .

She

thera as b e i n g " s l i r a y . . . Uriah Heap t y p e s of

characters."^^

To t h e

rausic

of t h e t h r e e s e p a r a t e

solos

207
t h a t Vaughan W i l l i a r a s '

s c o r e d e l i n e a t e s for them

Analysis,

t h e C o m f o r t e r s wring t h e i r h a n d s ,

Scene V I ) ,

forward and backward t o J o b a number of t i m e s ,

their

concern.

Illus.

running

in c i r c l e s

fists.

Finally,

(see

Music
run

gesticulating

6 5 , on t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e , shows thera

within

theraselves

and

shaking

their

a t t h a t c l i r a a c t i c p o i n t in t h e draraa where

Job can s t a n d no m o r e , t h e C o m f o r t e r s forra t h e p o s e of

plate

10; a t t h a t raoment t h e J o b theme of A4 b u r s t s f o r t h

frora

orchestra,

his
b o r n ' " 49

and

frustration,
(Illus.

the

standing

"'Let

figure

of

Bedells,

t h e day p e r i s h

wherein

point

an

effect

interesting

who was t h e

ballet

mistress

p r o d u c t i o n s and a l s o p e r f o r m e d

the

Section

recalls

B of

dramatically
and

Scene

VI,

one

and m u s i c a l l y
Satan's

I was

De V a l o i s d e p i c t e d

for

is described

that

the

composer

t h e moment of

He e n v i s i o n s

becoming v i s i b l e

In

Job's

a bevy

is

brought

t h e s e " h o s t s of h e l l " in a u n i q u e

up,

revealing

a r r a n g e m e n t of b l a c k - h o o d e d , w h i t e - f a c e d
gloved, outspread h a n d s ,
light.

From t h e m i d s t

of

on h e a v e n ' s

way; w i t h t h e C o m f o r t e r s and J o b and w i f e on s t a g e l e f t ,

backcloth

by

J o b i n t h e 1948

r o l e of J o b ' s w i f e .

sustains

victory.

mysterious figures g r a d u a l l y
steps.

Job g e s t u r e s

66).

At t h i s

curse

the

undulating
of

these

a pryamidal

the

shaped

figures with w h i t e -

softly

in t h e

black-clad

a p p e a r s S a t a n , who t u r n s t o f a c e t h e a u d i e n c e ,

"devil

growing
angels"

then

. . . c r e e p s o n t o t h e t h r o n e i n a s o r t of a n i m a l
position.
He s q u a t s w i t h h i s r i g h t f o o t b e h i n d

208

him, h i s l e f t foot
his right knee.
p o s i t i o n , o n e b e nHt i s h a n d s he h o l d s i n a c l a w
5<own, o n e b e n t u p ,
his
shoulders tense.

209

Notes
1

Walker,

112.

^lbid.
v e r y I r p r e V f i - s ^ Y n g o T n l l T . \ n \ \ t \ % ' ' ' ' \ '''
^^^^^'^
o p e n i n g of J o b on J u l y 5 , 1 9 3 1 \h.\l%
"^''^^'
" ^ ^ ^^^
i n v o l v i n g diH e .
' ^^^ ^^^ w r i t t e n 117 w o r k s
4
C l e m e n t C r i s p and Marv Cl?^r]ea M,I,
^ ,
don:
S t u d i o V i s t a , 1979)
26-27 f ' " ^ ^ ^ " ^ ^ ^^^^^^ (Lon"-d, y / y j , ^ 6 - 2 7 , c i t m g N m e t t e de V a l o i s .
Keynes a s q u o t e d i n R i e s , 2 3 .
g
IJni.erlllV/rl:Tl'96lt'sT.''""

"

Nove.beTf98*'4?loo'.'

^^''='

"^'""- ''"""=

- ' - " " "

>'f'=^<'

by a u t h o . ,

14

i n App n d f r B

^^%T

' ' ^ ' P ^ ' " ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^^^^*^ ^"^ i^

included

i n t a c t , t h e p h o t o g r a p h s t h a t r e m a i n a r e t h e hpc^t?:!'."!PAl^.f ^^^V^.^ V a l o i s ' s t a g e i n t e n t i o n s a r e , as l i t t l e

s

Walker, 114.
11
.
iQfifi ^^^^^^^
Grater, personal interview by author, 16 March
thr, ^, ^^! recordmg, London, author's collection. Grater,
who danced the unusual role of Job, described it as follows:
I think a lot happened in Job because of the music
'.It leads the way . . . the dance amplified
the music. it was very closely drawn with it. So
I dxdn't need to see it. . . . I was reacting not
to the dancers but to what they were representing,
and they were represented in the music, anyway.
12. ,
Richard Jennings as quoted in Walker, 115.

210
Keynes, Blake Studies. 191. The larger-than-lifesized mask, as seen in Illus. 47 and 48, was designed by
Hedley Briggs after a sketch of Job's head by Blake.
14. ^
Some i n t e r p r e t e r s r e a d B l a k e a s d e l i b e r a t e l y
d e p i c t i n g a s e n s e o f complacency of Job and h i s faraily, as
d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e l a c k o f s p o n t a n e i t y in J o b s f a m i l y
d e v o t i o n s and h i s s t r i c t , h a b i t u a l observance of law.
15
Lasker, Job, 2.
John Playford, The Enqlish Dancing Master (1651;
repr., 1933 by Hugh Mellors; repr . , New York:
Dance
Horizons, 1975), 95.
17
Cecil Sharp and George Butterworth, The Country Dance
Book, Part III (London: Novello and Company, Limited, 1912;
repr., 1927), 58-59.
^^Walker, 114.
'^lbid.

20
The numbers of personnel fluctuate, probably due to
personnel availability; in the latter productions the
numbers of both the Sons of the Morning and the Children of
God are increased.
21
Joan Lawson, "Ninette de Valois as Choreographer ,"
Job and The Rake's Progress, Sadler's Wells Ballet Books,
vol. 2, ed., Arnold Haskell (London: Bodley Head, 1949),
11.
^^Dancing Times, July, 1948, 523-24.
23
Lawson, 11.
24
Jean Bedells, telephone interview, London, March 14,
1988.
2S

'

Lawson, 10. Epaulement, literally, means "shouldering." in classical dance, ^paulement indicates the placement of the shoulders in relation to the body.
^^de Valois as quoted in Walker, 115.
27
Lawson, 10.
^^lbid., 11.
29
''^lbid., 10.

211
30
Anya Peterson Royce, Movement and Meaning: Creativity and Interpretation in Ballet and Mime (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1984), 5.
31
Lawson, 11-12.
^^"The Miltonic Music of Vaughan Williams," Catholic
Times, 10 September 1931.
^^Richard Capell, "Vaughan Williams' 'Job' Ballet,"
Daily Mail (London), 23 September 1932.
^'^"Ballet," Observer (London), 3 June 1932.
Jennings as quoted in Walker, 114.
Vaughan Williams, Job, 23.
^^lbid., 38.
^^The programs of 1948 available for perusal do not
credit the hosts of hell; evidence exists in two photographs, too dark for reproduction, but plainly shbwing the
presence of the figures.
^^Keynes, Blake's Studies, 188.
^^Bedells, telephone interview
Lawson, 10.
^^Vaughan Williams, Job, 50.
^^Joy Newton, interview by author, 28 November 1984,
Hawkhurst, Kent, England.
^^The reference reminds one of the marginal depicture
of Satan in plate 4 as Blake alludes to Job 1:7 with the
words, "'Going to and fro in the earth, and w a l k m g up and
down in it.'"

45
Damon, 18.
46
Newton, m t e r v i e w .
Janzen, 3.
^^Newton, i n t e r v i e w .
That Satan accompanies the
friends both in the s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s of the musical score
and in the d a n c e , but not in the Blake i l l u s t r a t i o n s , is
notable. Perhaps the composer and choreographer f e l t the

212
t e m p o r a l q u a l i t y of m u s i c and d a n c e demanded an o v e r t
a s s o c i a t i o n not needed with the p l a t e s .
49
Vaughan Williaras, 74. See Appendix D, Illus. 72, for
a full page of the score at this point.

50
Bedells interview.
The w h i t e - g l o v e d hands of t h e
d e v i l a n g e l s were not o r i g i n a l to the p r o d u c t i o n , according
to a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s , but were added l a t e r .
The
s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e a d d i t i o n i s not the d a t e , however, as
much as t h e f a c t t h a t de Valois once again d e m o n s t r a t e d her
a w a r e n e s s of t h e importance Blake placed on the g e s t u r e s of
the hands in h i s d e s i g n s .

213

ILLUS. 23. Blake's Comus, Plates 6 and 8: traced

by Ninette de Valois, Royal Ballet Archives.

214

ILLUS. 24. Four figures labeled Pavane 2: traced

by Ninette de Valois, Royal Ballet Archives.

216

ILLUS. 25. Ten female figures:

Valois, Royal Ballet Archives.

traced by Ninette de

218

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ILLUS. 28. F i g u r e w i t h h a n d s c l u t c h i n g head and

o t h e r s : t r a c e d by N i n e t t e de V a l o i s , Royal B a l l e t
Archives.

224

ILLUS. 29. Figures labeled Finale,'Altar:

Ninette de Valois, Royal Ballet Archives.

traced by

226

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ILLUS. 30. Eight groups of v a r i o u s f i g u r e s :

l a b e l e d and t r a c e d by N i n e t t e de V a l o i s ,
Royal B a l l e t Archives.

228

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ILLUS. 3 8 .
P a t t e r n s of J o b ' s C h i l d r e n , P a s t o r a l
Dance, Scene I :
de V a l o i s ' s k e t c h b o o k , 1931, Royal
Ballet Archives.

244

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ILLUS. 39. Sketches of Children of God for Saraband,

Pavane, and Galliard: labeled as parts C, E, and A'by
Ninette de Valois, sketchbook, 1931, Royal Ballet
Archives.

246

i(/ /

ILLUS. 40. Sketches of C h i l d r e n of God, u p l i f t e d

arms:
l a b e l e d p a r t s B, C e n t e r , R & L, and D by
N i n e t t e de V a l o i s , s k e t c h b o o k , 1931, Royal B a l l e t
Archives.

248

(^

SoA:c V
\'-'l

ILLUS. 4 1 . Sketches for Scene I , J o b ' s C h i l d r e n ,

small groups:
p a r t s a , b , and c , N i n e t t e de
V a l o i s ' sketchbook, Royal B a l l e t A r c h i v e s .

250

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0 q'O n
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I?,

ILLUS. 42. Sketches

groups of C h i l d r e n
lower l e f t , lower
Valois' sketchbook,
Archives.

for Pavane-Galliard,
of God: p a r t s t o p ,
r i g h t , N i n e t t e de
1931, Royal B a l l e t

252

ILLUS. 4 3 .
S c e n e I , God s e a t e d , S a t a n
kneeling,
C h i l d r e n of God, 1948 p r o d u c t i o n :
Royal Opera House.

254

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256

ILLUS. 4 5 . Scene I , C h i l d r e n of God on s t e p s , 1948

p r o d u c t i o n : Royal Opera House.

258

ILLUS. 46. Tableau of Scene VIII, four Sons of Morning, 1931 production; photograph by Debenham, Royal
Opera House.

260

ILLUS. 4 7 . C i r c l e s of C h i l d r e n of God
with Satan a p p e a l i n g t o God, 1932 p r o d u c t i o n : Royal B a l l e t A r c h i v e s .

262

ILLUS. 48. Satan appealing to God, six Sons of Morning: 1931 production, Royal Ballet Archives.

264

ILLUS. 49. Scene I, God and Satan standing, Children of

God kneeling: 1948 revival by Royal Ballet at Covent
Garden, Royal Opera House Archives.

266

*''k

^tA^

t.

* <

ILLUS
tion.

50.

Satan falling out of heaven:

1931 produc-

268

ILLUS. 51. Satan falling out of heaven, Camargo Society.

270

ILLUS. 52. Satan pointing to Job, 1948, revival by

Royal Ballet at Covent Garden: Royal Opera House
Archives.

272

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274

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ILLUS. 5 4 . T r a c i n g of S a t a n and d e a d C h i l d r e n
o f God t a k e n f r o m p h o t o :
Royal
Ballet
r e v i v a l , 1 9 4 8 , R o y a l Opera House A r c h i v e s .

276

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278

ILLUS. 56. Page from N i n e t t e de V a l o i s ' s k e t c h b o o k

s h o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p of S a t a n t o B l a k e ' s P l a t e 2:
Royal B a l l e t A r c h i v e s .

280
-'>

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ILLUS. 57. Scene VII, Elihu and Children of God:

production by Royal Ballet, Royal Ballet Archives.

1948

282

ILLUS. 58. F i g u r e s of Scene IV movement

a s d r a w n and l a b e l e d by J o y Newton:
Newton's c o l l e c t i o n .

284

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^

Soib^

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ILLUS. 59. Scene IV, Satan with War, P e s t i l e n c e , and

Famine in masks and d e m o n s t r a t i n g Newton's drawings:
1931 production, Royal B a l l e t Archives.

286

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288

ILLUS. 61. A t h i r d view of Scene IV, Satan with

War, P e s t i l e n c e , and Famine: 1931 p r o d u c t i o n ,
Royal Ballet Archives.

290

ILLUS. 62. Satan standing over Job and wife in Scene

IV as in Blake Plate 6: Royal Ballet Archives.

292

ILLUS. 6 3 . S t i c k f i g u r e d r a w i n g s of
e n t r a n c e of t h r e e m e s s e n g e r s , Scene V,
as drawn and l a b e l e d by J o y N e w t o n :
Newton's c o l l e c t i o n .

294

^o/l

ILLUS. 64.
sad news:
Archives.

Scene V, t h r e e messengers r e l a t i n g t h e i r
1948 p r o d u c t i o n , R o y a l O p e r a . H o u s e

296

ILLUS. 6 5 . The t h r e e C o m f o r t e r s ,
1948 p r o d u c t i o n .

Scene V I ,

298

ILLUS. 66. Scene VI, Job cursing the

day he was born: 1948 production.

300

CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
Job As a Masque

On the l i t e r a l , formal level the contemporary spectator

may see few s i m i l a r i t i e s of Job with the t r a d i t i o n a l English
masque.

Job c o n t a i n s no spoken d i a l o g u e , no p o e t r y , no

s o n g s ; i t does not involve the s p e c t a t o r in masqueing or

r e v e l s , nor is i t s purpose to deify a monarch.
differs,

Its

context

a l s o ; s i n c e i t was w r i t t e n to be performed in a

t h e a t r e , rather than in an elegant banqueting h a l l , i t plays

to a d i f f e r e n t audience.

Nor does an e l a b o r a t e

transfor-

mation through complex stage machinery take place.

Nevertheless, Job is a drama told through music, dance,
mime, and g e s t u r e .

The a n a l y s i s of form r e v e a l s a bare

s u i t e of dances from the seventeenth c e n t u r y , a Sarabande,

Minuet, Pavane and G a l l i a r d , u n r e l a t e d by key, as in the
case of the s t y l i z e d French or German s u i t e of the next
c e n t u r y , but r a t h e r by a c o n t r a s t of q u a l i t y and a vague
sense of t r a d i t i o n , as in the e a r l i e r s u i t e .

The l a t t e r two

dances occur in succession near the end of the work, similar

to the masque sequence.
S l i g h t l y less obvious are other s i m i l a r i t i e s to the old
masque in t h e s o l o d a n c e s of Scene I I and Scene V I I .
Satan's Dance of Triumph is placed in approximately the same
p l a c e s e q u e n t i a l l y as the antimasque or grotesque dances
t h a t Vaughan Williams includes in h i s e a r l i e r
301

masques,

302
mentioned in Chapter I I .
dissonant,

and d i s t u r b i n g

dramatically,
A further

regards

in i t s

contrast

vigorous,

to Scene

I;

i t s e r v e s the same p u r p o s e as an a n t i m a s q u e .

c o n s i d e r a t i o n d e a l s with Scene V I I , E l i h u ' s Dance

of Youth and B e a u t y .
regarded

The dance i s e x t r e m e l y

The E l i h u s p e e c h e s

as i n t e r p o l a t i o n s ,
t h e Book of

Job's

r e s e m b l i n g a Greek t r a g e d y .

it

are

is recalled.

generally
One t h e o r y

ambiguous l i t e r a r y

form

In t h i s view, E l i h u ' s sudden

appearance would serve much as a deus ex machina s e r v e d

spectacular predecessor.

as

its

J o b ' s e x c e l l e n c e and innovation in

i t s g e n r e s of music and choreography and scene design have

been demonstrated in the examination of i t s s e p a r a t e
(While R a v e r a t ' s s c e n e d e s i g n s d i d not i n c l u d e

arts.

elaborate

m a c h i n e r y , she d i d a c h i e v e a s p l e n d i d a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s
Blake
effort,

and

t h e p u r p o s e of t h e b a l l e t . )

to

As a c o l l e c t i v e

i t achieved the d i s t i n c t i o n of s e t t i n g new s t a n d a r d s

for n a t i v e dance p r o d u c t i o n s .

Keynes s t a t e s :

I think i t is fair to c a l l Job the f i r s t

E n g l i s h b a l l e t of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ; some
h i s t o r i e s of b a l l e t s t a t e t h a t J o b s a v e d t h e
English b a l l e t .
I t j u s t bridged the gap between
t h e d e a t h of D i a g h i l e v and t h e e m e r g e n c e of
N i n e t t e de V a l o i s . I think i t gave the people who
wanted B r i t i s h b a l l e t confidence, even if they did
n o t l i k e t h e p i e c e , b e c a u s e t h e r e was t h i s
s e a r c h i n g for some s t a b j l i t y a f t e r the B a l l e t s
Russes d i s a p p e a r e d . . . .
Richard Capell p r a i s e d the q u a l i t y of the concept:
This i s a m a s t e r p i e c e .
B a l l e t s c o n t a i n i n g even
one l i t t l e idea have been r a r e in the l a s t s i x t e e n
y e a r s . . . . The idea of Job i s g r a n d , and i t i s
c a r r i e d o u t w i t h d a r i n g and n o b i l i t y .
Indeed a

303

unique ^ o r k - - a
sublime!

ballet

that

attains

to

the

Ries a g r e e s with Keynes' judgment, ". . . i t [Job] showed

t h a t an English composer, d e s i g n e r ,

choreographer

and

l i b r e t t i s t could produce a dance that was as innovative and

i n t e r e s t i n g as some of D i a g h i l e v ' s f i n e s t works.""^

Other

b a l l e t s of high q u a l i t y followed, but i t was said by Edwin

Evans as quoted in C l a r k e , "With Job, Camargo

[Society]

stepped on the map of Europe."

Job As a Universal Theme
At the time of Job's creation, Vaughan Williaras was in
the midst of an energetic thrust to perpetuate n a t i o n a l i s t i c
q u a l i t i e s in music.
he c o n s i d e r e d

He was less i n c l i n e d to support

ideas

as f or e i g n - i n s p i r ed , e s p e c i a l l y if

appeared, in h i s view, e l i t i s t , overly s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,

weak.

they
or

His thematic p r e f e r e n c e s seemed to be a r e a c t i o n

against c e r t a i n aspects in l a t e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y music,

for he g e n e r a l l y shunned the romanticized s e l f - p i t y
despair of the Late Romantics.

and

Because he equated the more

down-to-earth q u a l i t i e s with the best in humankind, he often

chose themes d e p i c t i n g endurance, duty, i n d i v i d u a l i t y , as
well as grief and anger.

Yet Vaughan Williams is frequently

c r e d i t e d with p r o j e c t i n g a strong s e n s e of
mysticism, and the awe of the universal.

remoteness,

All of these ideas

he f e l t comfortable expressing with s t y l i s t i c devices and

forms inspired by indigenous sources.

304
Vaughan Williams was a contemplative man, well aware of
J o b ' s " e v e r y - m a n " q u a l i t y and J o b ' s s t o r y as a t r e a s u r e d
theme i n h u m a n k i n d ' s common e x p e r i e n c e .

In composing h i s

m u s i c a l m a s t e r p i e c e , he was p e r p e t u a t i n g a human

tradition

a s o l d a s man himself, t h a t of a c t i n g out a fundamental and

e s s e n t i a l i s s u e in what i t means t o be a human b e i n g .

The

c r e a t i o n of t h i s work, by Vaughan Williams, Keynes, R a v e r a t ,

de V a l o i s , B l a k e , and t h e unknown p o e t ( s )
Job,

i s one more s t a t e m e n t of

of t h e Book of

individuals

commenting

in

t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r way t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a u n i v e r s a l
experience.
living,

That each c r e a t e s with h i s e n t i r e p e r c e p t i o n of

t h e n combines h i s with o t h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s , adds t o

t h e w o r k ' s r i c h and complex n a t u r e .

Many p e r s o n s w i l l never see t h e dance drama of

Job.

But new l i s t e n e r s w i l l hear t h e m a g n i f i c e n t

music which

ranks

sources

as

a masterpiece

inspiration,

along

with

its

the Book of Job, and B l a k e ' s p l a t e s .

of

Each new

i n t e r p r e t e r w i l l bring to the old s t o r y h i s own r e a l i t y ,

his

own " f r e s h e y e s , " j u s t as Blake brought h i s p o e t i c soul i n t o

Job's

tale

and a s d i d Vaughan W i l l i a m s and t h e

collaborators.

other

In t h a t way, Job goes far beyond i t s English

b o u n d a r i e s t o s e r v e raan's s p i r i t u a l i t y and u n i v e r s a l i t y .

305

Notes
Keynes as quoted in R i e s , 29-30
2
Capell as quoted in Walker, 115.
R i e s , 19.
^Clarke, 7 1 .

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Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California
Press, 1973.
Sullivan, Mary. Court Masques of Jaraes I.
London: Knickerbocker Press, 1913.

New York and

Tovey, Donald Francis. Symphonies and Other Orchestral

Works . London:
Oxford University Press, 1935-9;
London; Oxford University Press, 1981, paperback ed.,
524-530.
Vaughan Williams, Ursula. R. V. W.: A Biography of Ralph
Vaughan Williaras. Oxford; Oxford University Press,
1964. Reprint, 1984.
Walker, Katherine Sorley. Ninette de Valois: Idealist Without Illusions. London: Haraish Hamilton, 1987.
Warner, Janet A. Blake and the Language of Art. Kingston
and Moptreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1984.
Welsford, Enid. The Court Masque: A Study in the Relationship Between Poetry & the Revels. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1927.
White, Eric Walter. A History of English Opera.
Faber and Faber, 1983.

London:

312
White, Joan, ed. 20th Century Dance in Britain.
Dance Books Ltd., 1985.

London:

Wicksteed, Joseph H. Blake's Vision of the Book of Job:

With Reproductions of the Illustrations. London; J.
M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1910.
Young, Percy M. A History of British Music
est Benn Ltd., 1967.

London:

Ern-

APPENDIX A
SCENARIOS

313

314
The Oriqinal Scenario by Geoffrey Keynes
as Dictated to Gwen Raverat
Characters; Job, his wife, three daughters, his sons, their
wives, three messengers, three friends, Elihu, Jehovah,
children of Jehovah, sons of Morning, Satan.
The stage is divided into two parts. The back half is
raised one or [two] steps above the part in front and
represents heaven. The scene shows a night sky with stars.
The drop scenes which represent Earth, Hell, [and half way
forward] can hide the raised part of the stage. In five
acts with one interval.
Act One; Earth, Sunset, pastoral scene.
Act Two: Heaven [Night sky], Curtain, Interval.
Act Three: Earth, Night before Job's house.
Act Four: Heaven [Night sky] .
Act Five: Earth, Sunrise, pastoral scene [with ripe corn].
Act I; Earth. The front part of the stage is only
seen. Sunset. The scene represents hilly country where
many flocks of sheep are feeding. Job and his whole family
are sitting under a tree in the middle of the stage. They
are rich and prosperous shepherdsa coraplaisant materialism
reigns all about them. Job's children perform a Pastoral
Dance. Satan comes in softly to spy and dances among them.
After the dance Job and his children sit down to feast in
two groups on each side of the front of the stage. Satan
leaps into the raiddle of the stage behind them and appeals
to Jehovah to show himself.
The drop scene rises to reveal Act II, Heaven. The
back part of the stage is raised two steps above the front
part. Night sky and stars. Jehovah is seated on his throne
and his children are dancing before himDance of Jehovah's
Children. Satan addresses Jehovah and accuses Job of the
sin of materialism, pointing to hira [as he sits] feasting in
voluptuous contentraent in the front part of the stage.
Jehovah authorises Satan to tempt Job. He descends frora his
throne [with a gesture which permits Satan to do what he can
and offers Satan his throne] and allows Satan to take his
place.
He goes out, followed by his children. Heaven
darkens. After a while Satan leaps on to the throneDance
of Triumphthunder and lightning.
[Drop scene returns] Job and his wife bid farewell to
his sons and daughters and his sons' wives. They leave [Job
and his wife] .
They go out and the feast of the shepherds grows more
riotous.
They begin a wild and drunken dance. After
gloating over them for a while with pleasure Satan springs

315
among thera and d e s t r o y s thera a l l . They f a l l dead in h e a p s .
Triumph of S a t a n . CURTAIN. INTERVAL.
Act I I I : E a r t h . Before J o b ' s House a t n i g h t . Job and
h i s w i f e a r e s i t t i n g [ b e f o r e h i s house] a t t h e i r door in
p e a c e f u l h a p p i n e s s . Three raessengers e n t e r [one a f t e r t h e
o t h e r b e a r i n g n e w s ] . They b r i n g t h e news of the death of
J o b ' s s o n s and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of a l l h i s w e a l t h .
Job
mourns and r e n d s h i s c l o t h e s and s i t s naked on a dung h i l l .
Satan e n t e r s and t o r m e n t s Job in many ways and s m i t e s hira
with b o i l s .
Job i s q u i t e overcome and becomes d e s p e r a t e ,
but he does not c u r s e J e h o v a h .
His t h r e e f r i e n d s e n t e r
t h e y p e r f o r m a Dance of Syrapathy which g r a d u a l l y becomes a
Dance of Pious Complaisancy and Self-Esteerathey accuse Job
of s i n . Job j u s t i f i e s hiraself and suraraons h i s v i s i o n of the
deity.
They a l l a s s u m e a t t i t u d e s of d e v o t i o n and
e x p e c t a n c y . The drop scene r i s e s to reveal Act IV: Heaven.
But Satan i s on J e h o v a h ' s throne i n s t e a d of Jehovahhorror,
t e r r o r , and d e s p a i r of a l l ; they cower and hide t h e i r f a c e s .
Elihu e n t e r s and rebukes Job for h i s m a t e r i a l i s m .
["You are
Old and I am Very Young" expressed in a dance of youth and
b e a u t y . Job understands how he has s i n n e d .
As t h e d a n c e r
e n t e r s Jehovah in majesty and d r i v e s Satan from h i s throne
f o l l o w e d by h i s c h i l d r e n and he mounts i t up in g l o r y . He
i s followed by the sons of]
A Dance of Youth and B e a u t y . Job u n d e r s t a n d s how he
h a s s i n n e d and has a t r u e v i s i o n of t h e d e i t y .
Jehovah
e n t e r s in Majesty followed by h i s c h i l d r e n . He d r i v e s Satan
from h i s t h r o n e and t a k e s h i s p l a c e upon i t in g l o r y .
Job
and t h e o t h e r m o r t a l s w o r s h i p . J o b ' s daughters r e t u r n , he
embraces them. Shepherds e n t e r t h e n , a l l t o g e t h e r , f e t c h
s t o n e s and b u i l d one a l t a r for J e h o v a h .
Altar Building
Dance. They s a c r i f i c e and dance and p l a y rausical i n s t r u m e n t s w h i l e t h e S o n s of Morning dance in Heaven.
(Two
dances of g l o r y : a heavenly and an e a r t h l y one.)
Act V. During t h i s l a s t dance the l a s t d r o p s c e n e
f a l l s [ h i d i n g heaven] b l o t t i n g out heaven and leaving [only]
the m o r t a l s .
The backcloth r e p r e s e n t s the same h i l l s as in
Scene one and now i t i s s u n r i s e and i n s t e a d of t h e s h e e p
t h e r e a r e f i e l d s of r i p e c o r n . The shepherds r e p e a t t h e i r
p a s t o r a l d a n c e w h i l e Job and h i s wife s i t under t h e t r e e
( e n t e r Satan to spy a g a i n ? ) . CURTAIN.
Source:
Frank W. D. R i e s , " S i r Geoffrey Keynes and t h e
B a l l e t J o b , " Dance Research, 2 (Spring 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 0 - 3 3 .
Ries
n o t e s , " ^ h i s o r i g i n a l d r a f t s c e n a r i o , which S i r Geoffrey
worked out with Gwendolen Raverat, was w r i t t e n out in Mrs.
R a v e r a t ' s own hand . . . "
30.

316
The Second S c e n a r i o ; The
F i n a l Synopsis for Job
Scene I .
J o b i s s i t t i n g in t h e s u n s e t of m a t e r i a l
p r o s p e r i t y , w i t h h i s wife surrounded by h i s seven sons and
t h r e e d a u g h t e r s . They a l l j o i n in a p a s t o r a l d a n c e . When
t h e y h a v e d i s p e r s e d , l e a v i n g Job and h i s wife a l o n e , Satan
enters unperceived.
He a p p e a l s to Heaven, which o p e n s ,
r e v e a l i n g t h e Godhead ( J o b ' s S p i r i t u a l S e l f ) e n t h r o n e d
within.
J o b ' s S p i r i t u a l Self c o n s e n t s t h a t h i s m o r t a l
n a t u r e be t r i e d in the furnace of t e r a p t a t i o n .
Scene I I .
throne.

Satan, after

a triuraphal dance, usurps the

Scene I I I . J o b ' s sons and d a u g h t e r s a r e f e a s t i n g

d a n c i n g , when Satan appears and d e s t r o y s them.

and

S c e n e IV.
J o b ' s s l e e p i s d i s t u r b e d by S a t a n
t e r r i f y i n g v i s i o n s of War, P e s t i l e n c e and Famine.

with

Scene V. Messengers come to Job with t i d i n g s of t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n of a l l -his p o s s e s s i o n s and the death of h i s sons
and d a u g h t e r s .
Scene V I . S a t a n i n t r o d u c e s J o b ' s c o m f o r t e r s , t h r e e
wily h y p o c r i t e s .
Their dance at f i r s t
stiraulates
c o m p a s s i o n , but t h i s g r a d u a l l y changes t o rebuke and a n g e r .
Job r e b e l s : "Let t h e day p e r i s h w h e r e i n I was b o r n . " He
i n v o k e s h i s v i s i o n of t h e Godhead, but the opening Heaven
r e v e a l s Satan upon the t h r o n e .
Scene V I I . The young and b e a u t i f u l E l i h u e n t e r s , and
by h i s d a n c e shows Job h i s t r u e r e l a t i o n to the U n i v e r s e .
Job r e a l i z e s h i s s i n of complacent m a t e r i a l i s r a . The Heavens
then open, r e v e a l i n g J o b ' s S p i r i t u a l Self again enthroned as
a g l o r i f i e d v i s i o n of the Godhead.
Scene V I I I .
S a t a n a g a i n a p p e a l s to J o b ' s G o d h e a d ,
c l a i m i n g the v i c t o r y , but i s r e p e l l e d and d r i v e n down by the
Sons of t h e Morning. Job and h i s household worship, while
t h e heavenly dance c o n t i n u e s .
Scene IX. Job s i t s , a humbled man, in t h e s u n s e t of
s p i r i t u a l p r o s p e r i t y , surrounded by h i s family, upon whom he
bestows h i s b l e s s i n g .

317
Vaughan Williams' Version of the
Scenario with His Staqe
Directions
Scene I
"Hast thou c o n s i d e r e d my s e r v a n t Job?" ( 1 : 8 ) .
Introduction,
P a s t o r a l Dance, S a t a n ' s Appeal t o God, Saraband of t h e sons
of God.
J o b and h i s f a m i l y s i t t i n g in q u i e t c o n t e n t r a e n t
s u r r o u n d e d by f l o c k s a n d h e r d s .
Scene as in Blake
Illustration I.
[Shepherds and husbandmen c r o s s t h e s t a g e ,
and s a l u t e him.]
Here t h e d i s t a n t landscape l i g h t s up s u g g e s t i n g the far off
sound of f l o c k s and h e r d s .
Here J o b ' s c h i l d r e n e n t e r and group themselves around him.
Dance of J o b ' s sons and d a u g h t e r s (6 sons and 3 d a u g h t e r s ) .
The f i g u r e s of t h i s dance should take s u g g e s t i o n s from t h e
d a n c e s " J e n n y P l u c k P e a r s " and "Hunsdon House" a l s o t h e
d a n c i n g g r o u p i n t h e "Munich g l y p o t h e k . "
F i r s t t h e women
dance a l o n e .
Here the men dance.
Here the women group themselves in the middle and the men
move slowly round them.
Then vice versa.
Here the dance becomes general.
Job stands up and blesses his children, saying "It raay be ray
children have sinned." The dance continues. Everyone
kneels. Tableau as in Blake I. Angels appear at the side
of the stage as in Blake II and V. Also see "Botticelli' s
Nativity" (National Gallery) and Blake's frontispiece.
The group breaks up into two on each side of the stage. All
go off except Job and his wife who are left in raeditation
down stage (the Angels, however, remain).
Enter Satan. Satan appeals to Heaven.
Heaven gradually opens and displays God sitting in Majesty,
surrounded by the sons of God (as in Blake II). The line of
Angels stretches from Earth to Heaven.
Saraband of the Sons of God.
All bow down in adoration.
God arises in his majesty and beckons to Satan.
Satan steps forward at God's command.
A light falls on Job. God regards him with affection and
says to Satan, "Hast thou considered my servant Job?"
Satan says "Put forth thy hands now and touch all that he
hath and he will curse thee to thy face" (1:11).

318
God says "All that he hath is in thy power."
(see Blake V ) .

Satan departs

The dance of homage begins again.

God leaves his throne.
The stage darkens.
Black-out.
Scene II
Satan's Dance of Triumph
Stage gradually lightens. Heaven is empty and God's throne
vacant. Satan alone on the stage.
A light falls on Satan, standing at the bottom of the steps
of Heaven (Tableau till letter P).
Here the dance begins.
Satan climbs up to God's throne.
Satan kneels in mock adoration before God's throne.
The hosts of Hell enter running, and kneel before Satan, who
has risen and stands before God's throne facing the
audience.

Satan with a big gesture s i t s in God's throne.

Black-out, a black curtain f a l l s leaving the front
of the stage v i s i b l e .

quarter

Scene III
Minuet of the Sons of Job
and Their Wives
Stage gradually lights up.
Enter Job's sons and their wives and dance in front of the
curtain. They hold golden wine cups in their left hands
which they clash at + (each tirae). The Dance should be
formal, statuesque and slightly voluptuous, it should not be
a minuet as far as choreography is concerned. For the
clashing of the wine cups suggestions should be taken frora
the Morris Dance "Winter Processional." See also Botticelli
"M^rriage Feast."
Here the black curtain draws back and shows an interiour as
in Blake III.
Enter Satan above. The dance stops suddenly. The dancers
fall dead. Tableau as in Blake III.
Coda.

Gradual black-out. The black curtain descends.

319
Scene IV
Job's Dreara
The black curtain rises. Stage gradually lights up. Job
discovered lying asleep as in Blake VI.
"In thoughts frora the visions of the night . . . fear came
upon me and trembling" [Job] (IV:13 . . . 14).
Job's Dream, Dnce of Plague, Pestilence, Famine and Battle.
Job is quietly sleeping, as in Blake VI. (A note on the
score after the 25th bar states that in the Blake
illustrations Scene V [Messengers] follows here. Producers
who wish to follow Blake's order exactly can make a pause at
the double bar and go straight on the Scene V. ) Job moves
uneasily in his sleep and Satan enters. Tableau as in Blake
VI.
Satan stands over Job and calls up terrifying Visions of
Plague, Pestilence, Famine, Battle, Murder and Sudden Death
who posture before Job (see Blake XI). Each of these should
be represented by a group of dancers. The dance should be
wild and full of movement, and the stage should finally be
full. (Suggestions may be taken from Ruben's "Horrors of
War" [National Gallery]).
Enter Plague and Pestilence.
Enter Famine, etc
Enter Battle, etc
The dancers headed by Satan make a ring round Job and raise
their hands three tiraes.
The Vision gradually disappears.
Scene V
"There came a messenger."
Dance of t h e Three Messengers
Job awakes from h i s s l e e p and p e r c e i v e s t h r e e m e s s e n g e r s ,
who a r r i v e one a f t e r t h e o t h e r , t e l l i n g him t h a t a l l h i s
wealth i s destroyed (see Blake IV).
A sad p r o c e s s i o n p a s s e s a c r o s s t h e b a c k of t h e f t a g e ,
c u l r a i n a t i n g in t h e f u n e r a l cortege of J o b ' s sons and t h e i r
J o r s t i l l b l e s s e s God. "The Lord gave an(3 t h e Lord
taken away, b l e s s e d be the name of the Lord.

hath

When Scene V i s t a k e n b e f o r e the Dance in Scene IV, t u r n

back h e r e t o A l l e g r o (10 bars before Cc) and p l a y on t o end
of the A l l e g r o .

320
Scene VI
"Behold, happy is the man whora God
correcteth."
Dance of Job's Coraforters. Job's Curse.
A Vision of Satan
'
""
"'
Satan introduces in turn, Job's three Comforters (three wily
hypocrites). Their dance is at first one of pretended
sympathy, but develops into anger and reproach (see Blake
VII and X ) .
Here the comforters return to their gestures of pretended
sympathy.
Job stands and curses God, "Let the day perish wherein I was
born" (see Blake VIII). Job invokes his vision of God.
Heayen gradually becomes visible, showing mysterious veiled
sinister figures, moving in a sort of parody of the Sons of
God in Scene I.
Heaven is now lit up. The figures throw off their veils and
display themselves as Satan enthroned, surrounded by the
hosts of Hell.
Satan stands. Job and his friends cower in terror.
The vision gradually disappears.
There is no break between this scene and the next.
Scene VII
Elihu's Dance of Youth and Beauty
"Ye are old and I am very young" (17:6).
Enter Elihu, a beautiful young man.
very old" (see Blake XII).

"I am young and ye are

Pavane of the Sons of the Morning.

Heaven gradually shines behind the stars. Dim figures are
seen dancing a solemn dance. As Heaven grows lighter, they
are seen to be the Sons of the Morning dancing before God's
Throne (see Blake XIV).
Scene VIII
"All the Sons rf God shouted for joy."
Galliard of the Sons of the Morning.
Enter Satan. He claims the victory over Job.
God
pronounces sentence of banishraent on Satan.
The Sons of the Morning gradually drive him down (see Blake
V and XVI).

321
S a t a n f a l l s o u t of Heaven (Blake XVI).
"My s e r v a n t
s h a l l pray for you" ( X L I I ; 8 ) . Black-out and C u r t a i n .

Job

A l t a r Dance and Heavenly Pavane.

C u r t a i n r i s e s . Enter (on e a r t h ) Young Men and Women p l a y i n g
on i n s t r u m e n t s ; o t h e r s b r i n g s t o n e s and b u i l d an a l t a r .
Others d e c o r a t e the a l t a r with flowers (see Blake XXI). But
Job must not p l a y on an instrument himself.
Job b l e s s e s the a l t a r (see Blake XVIII).
The Heavenly dance b e g i n s a g a i n , w h i l e t h e dance on e a r t h
continues.
Tableau (nine bars before the end of the scene).
black-out..
There is no break between Scenes VIII and IX.
Tableau (continues).

Gradual

Scene IX
"So the Lord blessed the latter end of
Job more than his beginning" (XLIII:12).
Epilogue
The same scene as the opening. Job, an old and humbled man,
sits with is wife. His friends come up one by one and give
him presents (see Blake XIX). Job stands and gazes on the
distant cornfields. Enter gradually Job's three daughters.
They sit at his feet. He stands and blesses them (see Blake
XX) .
Very slow curtain, and black-out.

APPENDIX B
ADDITIONAL SCENE DESIGNS

322

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324

APPENDIX C
PERFORMANCE HISTORY

325

326
Job Performances and C a s t s
F i r s t Performance:

Cambridge T h e a t r e

5 and 6 J u l y ,

1931

(Camargo S o c i e t y )
S a d l e r ' s W e l l s B a l l e t performances a f t e r f i r s t

performance

22 September, 1931 (Old Vic)

1931:3; 1932:11; 1933:5; 1934:5; 1935:13; 1936:8;

1937:4;

1 9 3 9 : 4 ; 1 9 4 0 : 3 ; 1941:4; 1943:3; 1944:21; 1945:4

Transferred to Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, with new
sets and costumes by John Piper.
1948:14; 1949:7; 1951:4; 1952:3; 1953:2; 1954:2; 1955:5;
1956:4; 1957:6; 1959:4; 1970:6 (the touring company was used
in the Covent Garden production); 1972:3. Tour performances
from 1931-1972:64.

There has been no revival of the ballet

since 1972.
Casts:

Satan:

Anton Dolin 1931-1955, 30 performances

Robert Helpmann 1933-1949, 77 performances
Harold Turner 1939-1948, 3 performances
John Hart 1949-1955, 15 performances
Alexander Grant 1956-1957, 10 performances
David Blair 1959, 3 performances
Gary Burne 1959, 1 performance
Kerrison Cooke 1970-1972, 4 performances
Hendrik Davel 1970, 1 performance
Stephen Jefferies 1970, 3 performances
David Drew 1972, 1 performance

Elihu;

Stanley Judson 1931-1934, 22 performances

WilJiam Chappell 1934-1941, 26 performances
John Byron, 1936, 2 performances
Richard Ellis 1937 (tour)-1948, 11 perfor^
mances
John Hart 1940-1941, 4 performances
David Paltenghi 1943-1945, 28 performances
Alexis Rassine 1948-1956, 32 performances
Pirmin Trecu 1955-1959, 11 performances
Richard Farley 1959, 3 performances

327
Nicholas Johnson 1970, 6 performances
Donald MacLeary 1972, 3 performances
The supporting cast has fluxuated in terms of nurabers; in
1935, 21 women; by 1948, 28 women; and for the revival in
1970, 16 women and 18 men.

The last revival used students

of the Royal Ballet Senior School for the Children of God,

the Sons of Morning, and the Devil Angels.
The author is grateful to the Royal Opera House Archives for
the above summary of performances and casts of Job.

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331

ILLUS. 70. Theatre program for Job, 1931-2

the Vic-Wells Ballet.

333

',1 I I I 1 I I I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 I 1 1 1 I I I I i . i I 1 1 1 1 I 1 I 1 I I I l I 1 I I I 1 M 1 1 1 1 r r - m

THE

OLD
VIC.
Founded by Emma Cons,
Dcc. 20Ui, 1860.

SADLERS WELLS
(Roopcnod January Clh, 1931.)
Losscc & ManaEcr ol both Thcatrcs: LIUAN BAYLIS,C.H.,M.A.Oxon.(Hon),

SEASON, 1931-2.

THE VIC=WELLS
BALLET
WITH

ANTON DOLIN
{By kitui pennisiion

of Jack Duchanan and R. H. OilUipie)

At the OLD VIC - Tuesday, Sept., 22nd at 8.

At SADLER'S WELLS,
Wednesday, October, 7th at 8.
Muslcal Dlroclor
Choroographisl

CONSTANT LAMBERT
NINETTE de VALOIS

I I I I I I I ' I ' I I I i'-

Procnnx'*^ Prico 3 .

i'..l.-J b, .MKK.-.1CR e, SONS. I.TD..

:U.27t. KcDninctoa R o . ^ S.X.U

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ILLUS. 71. Cast of Job for 1931-2 season.

the Vic-Wells Ballet.

335

JOB
(bclng Blakc's Vision ol Ihc Bool< of Job).
A Masquc for Dancing invcnted by Ocofircy Kcyncs.
Music by R. Vaughan Wllliams.
Chorcography and ProducUon by Nincttc dc Vaiols.
Sccnery and Costumcs deslgncd (aftcr Blakc's illustratlons to thc Book of Job)
by Owcndoiln Ravcrat.
Wlgs an Masks by Hcdicy Brlggs.
Thc muBc, orlglnaiiy wrltten for fuii symphony orchcstra, has, for thc purposc of
stagc prescntation, t>ccn rc-scorcd for Thcatrc Orchestra by Consfanl lmbcrt.
By arrangmcnt wlth thc Camargo Socicty.
Job
-Hi3 Wifc

JOHN

McNAIR

MARJORIE STEWART

His Thrcc D.iughtcr.s ... URSULA MORETON MARIE NEILSON.

DOREEN ADAMS
His Scvcn Sons ... STANLEY JUDSON, HEDLEY BRIG S, WALTER GORE,
WILLIAM CHAPPELL, CLAUDE NEWMAN, R013ERT STUART,
TRAVIS KEMP
Thc Thrce Mcsscngcrs ... ROBERT STUART, CLAUDE NEWMAN,
TRAVIS KEMP
Thc Thrcc Comfortcrs ... HEDLEY BRIGGS, WILLIAM CHAPPELL,
WALTER

OORE

W.nr, Pcslllcncc, F.iminc ... WILLIAM CHAPPELL, WALTER GORE,

HEDLEY BRIGGS
Elil,,,

STANLEY JUDSON

S;,,an

ANTON DOLIN

Thc Chlldrcn of Ood ... FREDA BAMFORD, BEATRICE APPl.EYARD, JOY

NEWTON, NADINA NEWHOUSE, WENDY TOYE, JOAN DAY,
PHYLUS WORTHINGTON, MARLEY BELL
Sons of Ihc Morning ... JOY ROBSON, MONICA RATCLIFFE, MOLLY UROWN,
ELIZABETH MILLER
Job's Spiritu.-.l Sclf

GILDING CLARKE

APPENDIX D
TWO PAGES FROM ORCHESTRAL SCORE

336

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340

Satan stands. 3ob and his /r/ends eovier in terror