Mechanics of Materials 6 (1987) 53-69

North-Holland

53

D U C T I L E S H E A R FRACTURE AT THE S U R F A C E OF A B E N T S P E C I M E N

Viggo T V E R G A A R D
Department of Solid Mechanics, The Technical Universi(v of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Received 20 October 1986

The development of shear bands at the stretched surface of a bent plate is analysed numerically, based on an approximate
continuum model of a ductile porous material. This material model accounts for the nucleation and growth of voids as well as
the effect of the yield surface curvature, which is represented by a combination of kinematic hardening and isotropic
hardening. An imperfection in the form of an initial surface waviness is assumed, which triggers shear bands at the wave
bottoms. The corresponding periodic pattern of shear bands is considered, and the growth of the bands is followed, until shear
cracks develop from the void-sheets inside the bands. The delay of localization due to the nonuniform strain field is studied
for different versions of the material model. Furthermore, the stability of the uniform growth of several adjacent shear bands
is investigated.

1. Introduction

Several analyses have shown that microscopic

voids in a ductile metal have a significant effect
on the localization of plastic flow in narrow shear
bands. Most of these investigations have been
based on approximate constitutive relations for
porous materials (see Needleman and Rice, 1978;
Yamamoto, 1978; Saje, Pan and Needleman,
1982), but the same effect of porosity has also
been found in a study that accounts for a discrete
void distribution (Tvergaard, 1981).
In structural alloys voids nucleate mainly at
second phase particles, by particle fracture or by
decohesion of the particle-matrix interface (see
Puttick, 1959; Goods and Brown, 1979), and subsequently the voids grow due to plastic straining
of the surrounding material. Ductile fracture by
coalescence occurs when the ligaments between
adjacent voids have thinned down sufficiently. A
material model that incorporates these features of
a progressively cavitating solid has been suggested
by Gurson (1977a, b), in which the voids are represented in terms of one scalar damage parameter,
the void volume fraction. In this model the growth
of the voids gives rise to an apparent dilatancy
and pressure sensitivity of the macroscopic plastic

deformations, and nucleation can give rise to a

significant non-normality of the plastic flow rule.
Other sets of constitutive relations for ductile
porous materials have been developed to describe
the deformations of powder metallurgy materials
(e.g. Shima and Oyane, 1976). These models do
not account for nucleation, but it is found that the
yield surfaces used to represent experimental results for powder compacted metals are in reasonable agreement with the modified version of Gurson's yield surface that has been the basis of a
number of ductile fracture studies (see discussion
by Tvergaard, 1987).
Recently, Mear and Hutchinson (1985) have
extended Gurson's material model by introducing
a family of dilatant plasticity theories, in which
the yield surfaces change by a combination of
isotropic expansion and kinematic translation.
Tvergaard (1987) has further extended this kinematic hardening model to incorporate the effect of
void nucleation. These constitutive relations make
it possible to study the combined effect of porosity and an increased yield surface curvature at the
point of loading, and it has been found that
localization occurs earlier in the kinematic hardening solid (Mear and Hutchinson, 1985; Becker and
Needleman, 1985; Tvergaard, 1987). Previous lo-

0167-6636/87/$3.50 ~ 1987, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland)

54

V. Tver~;aard / Ductile shear/racturc

calization studies based on the classical kinematic

hardening solid have shown a similar behaviour,
indicating that kinematic hardening may be used
to approximately model a material that develops a
rounded vertex on the yield surface (Tvergaard,
1978; Hutchinson and Tvergaard, 1981).
The analysis of shear localization in a homogeneously stressed solid is straightforward, whereas
a complex numerical analysis is required to study
the development of localization in a solid subject
to a non-uniform state of deformation. The first
numerical study of this kind focussed on localization in the neck of a plane strain tensile specimen
(Tvergaard et al., 1981) based on ./2 corner theory,
and other similar analyses have considered a plate
subject to pure bending (Triantafyllidis et al.,
1982), a thick-walled tube under internal pressure
(Larsson et al., 1982), and the deformation fields
near a blunting crack tip (Needleman et al., 1983).
In analyses based on the Gurson model, localization has been predicted in the matrix material
between two larger voids (Tvergaard, 1982b), in a
notched tensile specimen (Needleman et al.,
1984a), and at the tip of a growing crack (Needleman et al., 1987).
In the present paper the combined k i n e m a t i c /
isotropic hardening model of a progressively cavirating material is used to analyse localization and
shear fracture at the surface of a bent specimen.
Here, the inhomogeneity of the fundamental deformation is clearly less extreme than that at a
crack tip; but on the other hand bending is a
rather clean problem, suitable to study the basic
influence of the nonhomogeneous deformation on
the development of localized shearing. Predictions
for kinematic hardening are related to those for
isotropic hardening, and the results are related to
a previous investigation of ductile shear fracture
at the free surface of a plane strain tensile specimen.

2. K i n e m a t i c hardening porous material

The material model to be used here is a kinematic hardening version of the constitutive relations suggested by Gurson (1977a, b). This model
was first suggested by Mear and Hutchinson (1985)

for a porous ductile material, and Tvergaard ( 1987 )

extended the model to account for the nucleation
oI' voids.
The model makes use of a family of isotropicj
kinematic hardening yield surfaces of the form
q)(o':, c(:, % , f ) = 0, where f is the current void
volume fraction, o ~: is the average macroscopic
Cauchy stress tensor and o~" denotes the center of
the yield surface. The radius % of the yield surface
for the matrix material is taken to be given by

o r = (1 -- b ) O y -~ b o M

{2.1)

where o v and o M are the initial yield stress and

the matrix flow stress, respectively, and the
parameter b is a constant in the range [0, t]. The
expressions are chosen such that for b = 1 they
reduce to Gurson's (1977a, b) isotropic hardening
model, whereas a pure kinematic hardening model
appears for b = 0.
The approximate yield condition is here taken
to be of the form

a)

q~ = - 7 + 2 q l f * cosh,[
o~
2or

)"

(1 + ( q , f * ) 2 ) = 0

(2.2)

where 6 '~ = o 'J - a 'J, ff~ (3.~USil)I/2 and 'J = ff'/

- ~,.,
o k . For f * = f and q~ = 1 the expression
l~ij~k
(2.2) is that proposed by Meat and Hutchinson
(1985), which coincides with that of Gurson
(1977a, b) if b = 1. The additional parameter q,
was introduced by Tvergaard (1981, 1982a), who
found that the agreement with numerical studies
of materials containing periodically distributed
circular cylindrical or spherical voids is considerably improved by using ql = 1.5.
While the value q~ = 1.5 is applied to improve
the predictions at small void volume fractions, the
function f * ( f )
in (2.2) has been introduced by
Tvergaard and Needleman (1984) to model the
complete loss of material stress carrying capacity
due to void coalescence that occurs at somewhat
higher void volume fractions. The function was
chosen as
for f~<j i ,
=

,i/,

f*(f)=if

fu -

f,

c ( f - - f,, ),

for f >

(2,3)

I/i T v e r g a a r d / D u c t i l e s h e a r f r a c t u r e

where the void volume fraction at final fracture is

denoted by fv, so that f * ( f F ) = f ~
= 1 / q l (see
Fig. 1). According to (2.3) the modification of the
yield condition due to the effect of coalescence
starts when the void volume fraction reaches a
certain critical value fc. Based on experimental
results and numerical model analyses the values
fc = 0.15 and fv = 0.25 were chosen by Tvergaard
and Needleman (1984).
All equations are given in the context of a
Lagrangian formulation of the field equations in
which a material point is identified by the coordinates x i in the reference configuration. The metric
tensors in the current configuration and the reference configuration are denoted Ggj and gij, respectively, with determinants G and g, and ~ j
denotes the Lagrangian strain tensor. The contravariant components of the Cauchy stress tensor
rr~s and the Kirchhoff stress tensor ~? on the
embedded deformed coordinates are related by
the expression T'j = G ~ o ij. Indices range from
1 to 3, and the summation convention is adopted
for repeated indices.
The plastic part of the macroscopic strain increment ~/P and the effective plastic strain increment ~P for the matrix material are taken to be
related by (see Tvergaard, 1987)
8iJ~Ptd = (1 - f ) OFf ~ .

(2.4)

For f = 0 (2.4) is an exact relationship for the

classical kinematic hardening solid, and for b = 1

the expression reduces to the equivalent plastic

work expression applied by Gurson (1977a). Substituting the uniaxial true stress natural strain
curve for the matrix material, feM = ( 1 / E t 1 / E ) 6 M , into (2.4) gives

EE t
OM = E - E

0.5

Fig. 1. Yield surface dependence on the function f * in (2.3),

the stress components f l u = o,s _ a u , and the parameter o F.

/---- (/)growth q- (/)nucleation"

(2.5)

(2.6)

Since the matrix material is plastically incompressible the increment due to growth is given by
(/)growth = (1 -- f ) GiJiJ~j.

(2.7)

Nucleation of new voids occurs mainly at second

phase particles, by decohesion of the particle-matrix interface or by particle fracture. As suggested
by Needleman and Rice (1978) the increment due
to nucleation is taken to be given by
1
k "
(/)nucleation = d~OM q- 3 ~ ( O k ) "

(2.8)

A fictitious Gurson yield surface q)o =

c/ic(o~, o M, f ) was used by Tvergaard (1987) to
formulate the constitutive relations, where o M and
f are the current values, and o~J are a set of
fictitious stress components chosen such that

OM

1.0

6i;ilP;
t (1-f)o

where E and E t a r e Young's modulus and the

tangent modulus, respectively.
As in the Gurson model the change of the void
volume fraction during an increment of deformation is taken to be given by

oLJ

'6eI d F

33

~'J
-

OF

(2.9)

With this assumption, ~ o - 0 is a direct consequence of = 0. In general, the fictitious stresses

o~j differ from the actual stresses o 'J at every
point of the current yield surface.
The expressions for ~/ij
e in a point of the yield
surface ~---0 is chosen identical to that given by
the Gurson model in the corresponding point of
the fictitious surface ~ c = 0. Thus, the plastic part
of the macroscopic strain increment is taken to be

-~mi/mkto

(2.10)

56

U. Tt,ergaard /" Ductile ~'hear /)'u~ttm

where
m

l/G -- 3 Si]
-

+ o~Gij ,

oF

OF

(2.ll)
/ -k

~,

sinhl ka = ~f*ql
/2v'

Orb

/~ = OL q- 60,~O"M Of "

(2.12)

Orb

H = OM[--3a(1 - f

of
o v Orb ~ EE t
o"M O(I F f E -

+ a k

E~
.

OF ]

(2.13)

In cases where large rotations of the principal

stress axes occur relative to the material, the formulation of (2.14) in terms of the Jaumann rate
may give a poor representation of material b e
haviour. Then. other corotational rates may be
preferable, as has been discussed by Dafaiias
(1983) and Lee et al. (1983): but this is no problem in shear localization studies, where the rotations of the principal stress axe~ prior to [ocahzation are quite small.
Nucleation controlled by the plastic strain J:~
modelled by taking , ~ > 0 and ~d= 0 in (2,8k
assuming that nucleation follows a normal distribution as suggested by Chu and Needleman (1980)..
Thus, with the mean strain for nucleation <:,. the
corresponding standard deviation ~, and the
volume fraction /:< of void nucleating particles. : /
and ~ are given by
1

Plastic yielding initiates when rb = 0 and 4)> 0

during elastic deformation, and continued plastic
loading requires

1 i JN

,IG

i~:

P
foruM
= ( Mif )P ..... and ~" PM > 0 .

(2.16)

and

rb=0

1
F Vkl
~mk:o
.>t0.

The evolution equation for the yield surface

centre during a plastic increment is taken to be
,~" = ~6's,

~>.>0

(2.14)

which is a finite strain generalization of Ziegler's

(1959) hardening rule (see Tvergaard, 1978). The
value of the p a r a m e t e r / i is determined so that the
consistency condition, q) = 0, is satisfied

If nucleation is controlled by the maximum normal stress on the particle-matrix interface, the sum
1
k
OM + 3OX
is used as an approximate measure of
this maximum stress, thus taking ~ / = ~ . Then. by
analogy with (2.16), ~ ' and ~ are given by

a ......
f o r o M + ? ~o kk = (OM+~
.
Xo~)

(2.17)

l
a n d ( o M+ ~o
kk ) ' > 0

~=(1-b

+~--

OF

Oy O~ ~

The total strain rate is assumed to be the sum

of the elastic and plastic parts, 4/i: = ~,:
i~ + EIP.This
leads to expressions for the instantaneous moduli,
which are identical to those for the isotropic
hardening Gurson model, apart from the difference contained in (2.10)-(2.13).

Vkl

rn~Ssk/+ Ov Of 3Gk:
Oy 1 Orb{
Ov H 3f

3,~(1 - f )

3. Problem formulation and numerical method

1_:1

m:
(2.15)

The plate to be analysed is initially plane and is

subjected to uniform bending. Only a surface re-

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

gion is considered here, since the focus is on the

development of localization and shear fracture.
For a plate subject to pure bending Triantafyllidis
et al. (1982) have found that J2 corner theory
predicts shear band formation on the compressive
side of the plate prior to the tensile side. However,
in the case to be studied here, where micro-voids
rather than yield surface vertex effects are the
dominant mechanism in the plate material, localization occurs late on the compressive side, due to
little void nucleation and complete lack of void
growth, so that shear bands are first expected on
the tensile side. Therefore, the surface region to be
considered here is on the tensile side of the bent
plate.
The plate surface is taken to have an initial
waviness given by

l 0. This type of solutions will be studied here by

numerical analyses for the region shown in Fig.
2(a). At the bottom of this region, x 2 = - h 0,
there is no exact symmetry condition, but here the
material is assumed to slide freely on a cylindrical
surface, which remains normal to the two sides of
the region, at x 1 = 0 and x I = l 0. The radius of the
cylindrical surface is denoted R = R(O), and the
point (x l, x 2 ) = ( 0 , - h o )
remains fixed. Then,
after bending to an angle 0 the deformed region
has a shape as that shown in Fig. 2(b). Expressed
in terms of the Cartesian reference coordinates x i,
the displacement components u i and the nominal
traction components T ~ the boundary conditions
are

forx2=w(xl),

T'=0

u1 = 0 a n d

y x l

w = - ~80 cos 10

(3.1)

For such a uniformly bent plate, there are solutions symmetric about the planes xl = 0 and x 1 =

57

T 2=0

(3.2)

forx 1=0,

( u I + x 1) cos 0

(3.3)
]

- ( u2 + x2 + R + ho )sin S = O, )

frxl=/0,

T 1 sin0+T2cos0--0,
(3.4)
( X 1 q- b/l) 2 q- ( l l 2 q- R ) 2 -

x2~
x1

free surfuce

2xl + Ul

U2

7"

I
L

t for x 2 = - h 0.

=0,
(3.S)

The present analysis is analogous to that carried out by Tvergaard (1982c) for a surface region
in a solid subject to uniaxial plane strain tension.
However, in the present analysis the surface region is subjected to a strain gradient, so that the
highest strains occur near the surface. This means
that the condition for the onset of shear bands is
first met in the material near the surface, at a
stage where the material remote from the surface
is still far from loss of ellipticity.
The angle 0 is taken to be the prescribed
quantity, and the variation of the radius R = R(O)
of the cylindrical surface at x 2 = - h 0 is specified
as a function of 0, which is here taken to be

to

{Q)

Tt R +

R 2 = 0,]

{bl

Fig. 2. Surface region analysed numerically. (a) Initial geometry. (b) D e f o r m e d state.

R = R o + lo/0.

(3.6)

As a consequence of (3.6) the average linear strain

in the fibre along x 2 = - h 0 grows proportionally

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fi'aclure

58

with 0, while the average logarithmic strain in this

fibre is ~ = ln(1 + ORo/lo). With the relationship
(3.6) the case of a uniformly strained surface
region corresponds to the limit of choosing the
constant R 0 very large relative to h 0.
For comparison it is noted that Triantafyllidis
et al. (1982) analysed pure bending by considering
a full surface-to-surface region of the plate. In the
present procedure this would correspond to choosing h 0 as the initial plate thickness and replacing
the boundary conditions (3.5) by traction free
boundary conditions analogous to (3.2).
The numerical analysis is based on a Lagrangian
convected coordinate formulation of the governing equations, as mentioned in Section 2. The
Lagrangian strain tensor is given by
~,=

~(u,,, + u,,, + u ~ u , , , )

(3.7)

where u s are the displacement components on the

Cartesian reference base vectors, and ( ),~ denotes
covariant differentiation in the reference frame.
All cases considered are subject to plane strain
conditions, so that u 3 = 0.
The equations of equilibrium are specified m
terms of the principle of virtual work, and a linear
incremental solution procedure is employed. The
equations governing the stress increments +", the
strain increments "h~j, etc., are obtained by expanding the principle of virtual work about the current state, using (3.7). The incremental equation is
to lowest order

~,{ 4ijS~qi;+ riJh~Su,,/ dV

(3.8)
where V and S are the volume and surface, respectively, of the region analysed in the reference
configuration. The terms bracketed in (3.8) give a
small correction if equilibrium is not exactly
satisfied in the current state. The boundary condi,
tions corresponding to the incremental equation
(3.8) are obtained by a similar expansion of (3.2)
to (3.5) about the current state. Also here the
correction terms analogous to that in (3.8) are

retained to prevent drifting ol the soluuon away

from the true conditions on equilibrium and
geometry at the boundaries.
The mesh used for the finite element analyses
consists of quadrilaterals, each built up of tkmr
linear displacement triangular elements. A uniform mesh is used, and most of the computations
to be discussed have 8 quadrilaterals in the .v'~-direction and 48 in tile x~'-direction. Previous
numerical investigations of shear band localization
have shown that a careful mesh design is needed
in order to get accurate predictions (Tvergaard,
Needleman and Lo, 1981: Tvergaard, 1982b).
Therefore, the initial aspect ratio of the quadrilaterals to be used here is chosen such that bands
forming along the diagonals at the appropriate
critical strain will have the critical angle of inclination.
The details of the numerical method have been
described elsewhere (Tvergaard, 1982c: Needleman and Tvergaard, 1984b) and shall not be repeated here. Final fracture is represented by the
element vanish technique introduced by Tvergaard
(1982c). According to (2.2) and (2.3) the material
has lost all stress carrying capacity when the void
volume fraction reaches the value fr- In the present computations an element is taken to vanish
(the element stiffnesses are neglected) when .f reaches the value 0.9fv and the node forces corresponding to the remaining stresses in this element
are stepped down to zero during a number of
subsequent increments.
If the material were incompressible, and if 3~, =
0 in (3.1), the logarithmic strain % on the surface,
as a function of 0, could be derived directly from
incompressibility
% = ~ln - ~

+20

(3.9)

(J

This expression is not valid for the material considered here, which shows plastic dilatancy (due to
void growth) in addition to elastic dilatancy. However, the strain (3.9) remains a reasonable approximation in most of the range of interest, and
it is preferred in the following to plot the development of localized strains as a function of ~0 rather
than 0.

I/. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

The incremental solutions are obtained for prescribed increments of the angle 0 in (3.4) and
(3.6). However, in one case (Fig. 12) it turns out
that there is no static equifibrium solution for
which the angle 0 increases monotonically. In this
case a special finite element Rayleigh-Ritz method
is used to follow the non-stable equilibrium solution during the relatively short intervals, in which
is negative while the shear band keeps growing
(see also Tvergaard, Needleman and Lo, 1981;
Tvergaard and Needleman, 1984). The actual behavior in such intervals would be a dynamic
snap-through, but here only quasi-static solutions
are considered.

4. Results

In the first case to be analysed the material is

taken to have plastic strain controlled nucleation,
characterized by the parameters fN = 0.04, c N =
0.3 and s = 0 . 1 in (2.16), and the initial void
volume fraction is fl = 0. The uniaxial true stresslogarithmic strain curve for the matrix material is
represented by the piecewise power law

~ o/E,
oy(

for o ~< Ov,

o 1

t~-[~vv ] ,

foro>ov

(4.1)

59

directly comparable with those found previously.

Bifurcation into diffuse modes as well as loss of
ellipticity was also investigated for this material
(Tvergaard, 1982c), and it was found that loss of
ellipticity and bifurcation into a surface wave mode
occur nearly simultaneously, at c I = 0.229 and Et
= 0.228, respectively. Thus, in contrast to the
analysis based on J2 corner theory (Triantafyllidis
et al., 1982), the initial surface waviness (3.1)
assumed here can hardly trigger the surface wave
instability prior to the onset of shear bands. However, the highest surface strains develop at the
wave bottoms, and therefore the shear bands start
to grow from these points.
Figure 3 shows the development of the maxim u m principal logarithmic strain in two material
points vs. the parameter % defined by (3.9). Both
material points are in the middle of the region
analysed, at x 1= l0, with (A representing the
elements just below the surface and EB representing elements at some distance below the
surface, through which a shear band grows at a
later stage of the process. The strain development

1.0

O.B

where E, o v and n are Young's modulus, the

initial field stress and the strain hardening exponent, respectively. These values are taken to be
given by o v / E = 0.0033 and n = 10, Poisson's
ratio is v = 0.3, and the additional parameters in
(2.2) and (2.3) are ql = 1.5, fc = 0.15 and f v =
0.25.
The amplitude of the initial surface waviness of
the form (3.1) is 30 = 0.005/0, and the initial aspect
ratio of the region considered is h o / l o = 10.2.
Furthermore, the constant in (3.6) is chosen as
R 0 = 0, so that the average strain in the bottom
fibre remains equal to zero.
For uniaxial plane strain tension the same
material has been analysed previously (Tvergaard,
1982c). Since the same initial aspect ratio of the
quadrilaterals is used, the localization predictions
in a nonuniform strain field to be found here are

\ ~\"~kx,"

/~B
j,

0.6

/
0.t,

0.2

,," ....

:;';- "~o: s2o

'~ju:l.(.o

~ b : O
------b=O.S

........ b=1
i

02

03*

0.6

0.8

g0

1.0

Fig. 3. M a x i m u m p r i n c i p a l l o g a r i t h m i c s t r a i n s at t w o m a t e r i a l
p o i n t s vs. t o , w h e n the initial a s p e c t r a t i o is h o / l o = 10.2. T h e
m a t e r i a l has s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n f N = 0.04, ~N = 0.3,
S = 0.1, a n d n o initial voids, f l = 0.

60

L 77wrgaard

is shown for three different computations corresponding to b = 1, b = 0.5 and b = 0, respectively

In the initial stage, for c 0 < 0.25, the deformation
pattern remains close to uniform bending, and
here it is seen that the surface strain Ea is well
approximated by the value %, which was obtained
by assuming incompressible material behaviour
In this initial stage e R is smaller than CA, as would
be expected in uniform bending; but subsequently
~u grows larger than EA, while localization starts
to occur, and ~A becomes significantly smaller
than e oDuring the initial uniform bending stage plastic
yielding takes place in the whole region analysed
apart from a thin layer near the bottom (x z
- h 0 ) . In Fig. 3 an arrow indicates the point at
which the first elastic unloading takes place anywhere in the top half of the region analysed.
Subsequently, the unloading region spreads, and
e~, remains essentially constant after that unloading has reached the middle surface point. Localization occurs along a mesh diagonal, and Fig. 3
shows the angle of inclination ~,~ of this diagonal
corresponding to first elastic unloading. The critical angle of inclination corresponding to bifurcation into a shear band is 44.5 for the material
considered here subject to uniaxial plane strain
tension (Tvergaard, 1982c). It is noted that the
value ~ = 44" found for b = 0 is just below the
critical value corresponding to bifurcation, whereas
the inclinations ~b, found for b = 0.5 and h = 1
are higher.
The earliest localization in Fig. 3 is predicted
by the material model with full kinematic hardening (b = 0), and the localization predicted for h 0.5 is not much later. In both cases shear localization initiates at a surface strain significantly larger
than the critical value 0.229 corresponding to uniform plane strain tension, so clearly localization is
delayed by the nonuniform deformation field. This
delay is particularly strong for b = 1, where ~t,, =
52 is well above the critical angle for shear
bands, resulting in a much delayed final fracture,
which occurs along the line x ~= 0 rather than
inside the shear band.
Figure 4 shows the mesh in the initial state and
at three of the subsequent deformed stages for the
computation with b = 0.5 in Fig. 3. In Fig. 4(b), at

Duc tdc ~hetxr era+l~r:'

~,~ IL306, localization has not yet started, whereas

the deformed meshes in Figs. 4(c) and ~d) clearly
show the development of a shear band near tile
free surface. Figure 5 shows curves of constant
maximum principal logarithmic strata ~: and void
volume fraction f, respectively, at three stages of
the deformation. The peak strains shown here
inside the band are not quite as high as those
indicated m Fig. 3 for the same value of {,. The
values of ~u in Fig. 3 are the actual peak strains
found in the computations, whereas the contour
plots are based on average strains within each
quadrilateral.
l'he distribution in Fig. 51a) correspond to the
deformed mesh in Fig. 4(b), and here the devialions from uniform bending are still rather ~,mait.
even though ~0 =-0.306 is well above the critical
strain for shear bands under uniform tensile dr:formations. In Fig. 5(b), at ~ = 0.357. a shear band
is well developed, and at % : 0.437, i'ailure by
coalescence in a void-sheet has started to occur. It
is noted that the deformed meshes and the distributions of e and f found for h ..... 0 are very similar
to those for h = 0 . 5 shown Jri Figs. 4 and >.
whereas the results corresponding to l, = 1 m Fig.
3 are rather different, as discussed above
The computations illustrated in Figs. 3~ 4, and
5 have been repeated with a differeni initial aspect
ratio ]G/I~, = 11.5 of the region analysed, but with
all other parameters unchanged, Thus, the initial
angle of inclination of the diagonals is smaller for
this mesh than for the mesh considered in the
previous figures, and therefore the diagonals reach
the critical angle for shear bands at a larger strain.
All three values of ~ found in Fig. 6 are smaller
than those found in Fig. 3. For b - 1 this resuh:s
in much earlier localization, leading to shear iracture inside the shear band (in contrast to the
fracture mode found in Fig. 3 for b = 1). For b = ,,!
the predicted shear localization is not much affected by the different inclination of the diagonals, but is slightly delayed. Simple model analyses
have shown that the localization strains predicted
by the Gurson model with isotropic hardening are
much more sensitive to the inclination of the shear
band than predictions based on the material model
with kinematic hardening (Mear and Hutchinson.
1985; Fvergaard, 1987). The same trend is seen by

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

61

illllilli
llIililii

Hlllllll
i]llillil
IlilJtlll
IIIIlilll

IIIIlllll

iilill~

111111111
i]llitl]i
Ililifl]l

llllll
~ lIll[liB

IIIII1111

~11t111
I[[]liili
Illl[[ll
lllll

iilll
HlllltH
Illi[l][i
[liill[ll

Htlil[li
[lilli[U
Illillil/

fHtttH
Illllllli

Co)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 4. Ca) Initial 8 48 mesh with aspect ratio h o / l o = 10.2 and imperfection ~o/Io = 0.005. (b) Deformed mesh at c o = 0.306, (c)
c o = 0.404, (d) c o = 0.437. The material has b = 0.5, strain controlled nucleation fN = 0.04, c N = 0.3, s = 0.1, and no initial voids,

f[ = 0.
0.5

\0.05
0.~

0.6

=0.05~

0.05)
-0.1

0.3~f
! /
J/

.0.5

/ /-

0.3

)f=O.O!

/c=o.3
~,0.01

\0,2

, ~ 4

j/~.01
0.1

--4!__

J
(Q)
Fig. 5. C u r v e s of c o n s t a n t m a x i m u m

(b)

(c)

p r i n c i p a l l o g a r i t h m i c strain E a n d void v o l u m e f r a c t i o n f . T h e initial a s p e c t r a t i o is

h o / l o = 10.2. (a) % = 0.306. (b) c o = 0.357. (c) c o = 0.437. T h e m a t e r i a l h a s b = 0.5, strain c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n f N = 0.04, CN = 0.3,
s = 0.1, a n d n o initial voids, f l = 0.

Pt 7~,ergaard / Ductile vhear lraclurc

62

1.o U-

compartson of Figs. 3 and 6, with the significant

consequence that predictions of localization m a
nonuniformly deformed solid are much less sensitive to the mesh design in the case of kinematic
hardening.
The development of the void volume fraction is
illustrated in Fig. 7, corresponding to the case
b = 0 in Fig. 6. The first two stages shown are
prior to localization, while the subsequent three
stages illustrate the localized growth of voids inside the growing shear band. The triangular ele~
ments, in which failure has occured, are painted
black in the figures, thus illustrating the development of a void-sheet fracture by coalescence of the
voids inside the shear band. It is noted that the
void volume fraction remains very low ( / < f).!)01)
at the bottom of the region analysed, where the
strains are relatively small.
Results for a material with a smaller (maybe
more realistic) volume fraction of void nucleating

/
i

0.6

!,

i
i

OJ,

eA

&7
0.2

/ - - ' ~ "xX"-----Wu = 43~

0
0

0,2

Fig. 6. M a x i m u m

0.4

--b=O
______

b,=O, 5

........

b=l

0,6

0.0

~0

1.0

p r i n c i p a l l o g a r i t h m i c s t r a i n s at t w o m a t e r i a l

p o i n t s vs. % , w h e n t h e initial a s p e c t r a t i o is b o l l o = 11.5. T h e

m a t e r i a l h a s s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n ]'N = 0.04, e N = 0.3,
s = 0.1, a n d n o initial voids, f [ = O.

o11

'!N

! 0.05.,'" ~
/ (//'

0.01

L)O'OS

o.fo01
I",

f=

o.oo__~

,"1
/

}0.01

//0

O1

f=/
I

_ J

Figi

(bl

()

f:

0.0Ol

(G)

/o.oll

(d)

o.oo1, i
i

(e)

7. C u r v e s o f c o n s t a n t v o i d v o l u m e f r a c t i o n f . T h e initial a s p e c t r a t i o is h o / l o = 1 1 . 5 . (a) % = ( I . 1 5 9 . (b) % = 0 .2851 ( C )

% = 0.361. (d) ~0 = 0.381. (e) % = 0.408. T h e m a t e r i a l h a s b = 0, s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n f N = 0.04. ~N = 0.3, s = 0.1, a n d n o
initial voids, f j = 0.

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

particles, fN = 0.01, but with all other material

parameters unchanged, are shown in Fig. 8. The
initial aspect ratio of the region analysed is h o/l o
-- 19.5. Here, more void growth is required prior
to localization, and for b = 0 the first elastic unloading occurs at a relatively large strain E0 = 0.59,
with ~bu = 42 . For b = 0.5 localization occurs significantly later, with ~bu = 47 o, and for b = 1 the
computation is stopped at a so large angle of
inclination of the diagonals, + - - 5 4 o, that localization will hardly be predicted based on the present mesh. These results are somewhat analogous
to those shown in Fig. 3, but clearly in Fig. 8 the
localization strain is much more sensitive to the
yield surface curvature at the point of loading.
Based on the comparison of Figs. 3 and 6 it is
expected that localization would be predicted for
b = 1 if the initial aspect ratio of the quadrilaterals
were chosen so that the initial angle of inclination
of the diagonals is smaller.

1.2

1,o

o.,

/ /
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

~0

1.0

Fig. 8. Maximum principal logarithmic strains at two material

points vs. %, when the initial aspect ratio is b o l l o = 19.5. The
material has strain controlled nucleation fN = 0.01, c N = 0.3,
s = 0.1, and no initial voids, fl ~ 0.

63

Figure 9 shows the development of the void

volume fraction corresponding to the case b = 0 in
Fig. 8, starting at an early stage where very few
voids have nucleated and ending at a stage where
shear fracture has developed from the free surface.
In Fig. 9(e) the continuation of the shear band is
not visible, as it is in Fig. 7(e) in terms of the
f = 0.05 contour. Due to the smaller initial inclusion concentration the localized strain inside the
shear band has to grow relatively larger before
f = 0.05 is reached.
A material with stress controlled nucleation
according to (2.17) has also been investigated. The
volume fraction of void nucleating particles, the
mean stress for nucleation, and the corresponding
standard deviation are taken to be f y = 0.04, a N
= 2.1o v, and s = 0.40 v, respectively, so that the
material is identical to one analysed previously for
conditions of uniform plane strain tension
(Tvergaard, 1982c). For this material subject to
uniaxial plane strain tension it was found that the
critical strain for localization is 0.237 with the
corresponding angle of inclination ~bc = 42.8 of
the shear band. However, the strong non-normality of the plastic flow law in the presence of stress
controlled nucleation results in a complex post-bifurcation behaviour. Thus, shear failure does not
occur in the shear band first critical, but at a
somewhat larger strain around 0.28 (see Tvergaard,
1982c, Appendix).
Numerical results are shown in Fig. 10 for a
region with the initial aspect ratio ho/lo = 12.0.
For b = 0 and b = 0 . 5 localization leading to
void-sheet fracture inside the shear band is predicted, whereas for b = 1 elastic unloading occurs at
a too large angle of inclination q~u = 45 o, so that
here failure grows along the xZ-axis, as was also
found in Fig. 3. The previous numerical analysis
for a surface region under uniaxial plane strain
tension gave initial unloading at the average strain
0.266. Thus, the initial unloading predicted in Fig.
10, ranging from ~0 = 0.32 for b = 0 to % = 0.42
for b = 1, shows a significant delay in localization
due to the nonuniform deformations.
Figure 11 shows void volume fraction distributions corresponding to the case b = 0 in Fig. 10.
The much earlier and more widespread nucleation
of voids resulting from the stress controlled

k Tuer~aard / Ductile shear/kac~urc

64

/
!

0.05 L_..~ /

i'

i
/

0.01

!
f

0.01_/

.i

o.oi !

i---J/
ir
i

f=
0.00_I
i

(b)

F i g . 9. C u r v e s

o.oo__!

(a)

of constant

__J

(c)

(d)

void volume

fraction

I
I

(e)

f. The initial aspect

r a t i o is h o / l o = 1 9 . 5 .

(a) t 0 = 0.201.

% = 0.692. ( d ) q~ = 0.720. (e) ~0 = 0.790. T h e m a t e r i a l h a s h = 0, s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n f y = 0.01, ~

i n i t i a l v o i d s , f l = 0.

1.0

0.8

cB

0.6

0.4

\~

0.2

-_ - _b = O

_41o

b=0.5
.

b=l

0.2

F i g . 10. M a x i m u m

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

principal logarithmic strains at two material

p o i n t s vs. Co, w h e n t h e i n i t i a l a s p e c t r a t i o is h o / l o = 12.0. T h e

material

has

stress

q , = 0.565.

(c)

i --

//'

(b)

= 0.3..'; = 0.], and not

controlled

nucleation

f N = 0.04,

2 . 1 o v , s = 0 . 4 O r , a n d n o i n i t i a l v o i d s , f I = 0.

ON =

nucleation criterion is illustrated by Fig. l l(a),

where the strain level E0 = 0.154 is close to that in
Fig. 7(a). Even Fig. 5(a), corresponding to a much
larger strain level than Fig. ll(a), shows much less
porosity. Also in the two subsequent stages, Figs.
l l ( b ) and (c), the width of the band enclosed by
the f = 0.05 contour tends to be larger than found
in the previous figures.
All the analyses so far have presumed a periodic pattern of shear bands, as implied by the
periodicity conditions (3.3) and (3.4). The same
assumption was used in the earlier analyses for a
surface region of a solid subject to uniaxial plane
strain tension (Tvergaard, 1982c). However, if
there is a periodic pattern of shear bands across
an otherwise uniformly strained specimen, bifurcation will clearly occur into just one shear band
(or two crossing shear bands), since a small increment of this alternative mode of deformation requires less external work than that corresponding

ld Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

iI

0.05

f=

0,01

To investigate the stability of the growth of a

periodic pattern of shear bands from the free
surface, two additional analyses are carried out
here. In both cases the length of the region
analysed is taken to be 2/0, twice that considered
previously, so that now two shear bands grow in
the region analysed. This will not give a complete
picture of the growth of a periodic pattern of
shear bands, but it will allow for the possibilities
that either both bands grow simultaneously, or
one band stops and the other grows alone. For the
surface region with length 21o and height h 0 the
boundary conditions (3.4) are now applied at x 1 =
2l o, and the initial surface waviness (3.1) is replaced by
,I'rX 1

w = - 8o cos~-,o

qTX 1

8, cos 2l--~"

(4.2)

0 .00 "~

(o

65

(bl

(c)

Fig. 11. C u r v e s o f c o n s t a n t v o i d v o l u m e f r a c t i o n f . T h e initial

a s p e c t r a t i o is h o / l o = 1 2 . 0 . (a) % = 0.154. (b) % = 0.361. (c)
o = 0.433. T h e m a t e r i a l h a s b = 0, stress c o n t r o l l e d n u c l e a t i o n
f N = 0.04, a N = 2 . 1 o r , s = 0 . 4 o v , a n d n o initial v o i d s , f l = 0.

to the same increment of elongation in the periodic mode.

For a periodic pattern of shear bands starting
from the surface of a bent specimen the question
of stability is less clear; but it is expected that
bifurcation into a smaller number of active shear
bands will occur at some stage of the deformation.
In fact this problem is somewhat analogous to the
instabilities in the growth pattern of a system of
straight edge cracks in a brittle solid, studied by
Nemat-Nasser, Sumi and Keer (1980). As long as
the spacing of such cracks is large compared with
the common crack length, there is very weak interaction between adjacent cracks, and the uniform
growth of all cracks is stable. However, the interaction between adjacent cracks becomes more important as the common crack length increases, and
at some critical length to spacing ratio some cracks
stop growing, while the others grow at a faster
rate.

If 81 = 0, this surface waviness is identical to (3.1).

The additional waviness with amplitude 81 is only
introduced to give a small imperfection, which will
slightly favour growth in one of the shear bands.
In the first computation the initial geometry is
identical to that used in Fig. 3 (except for the
double length 2/0), and the material is that corresponding to b = 0 in Fig. 3. Thus, the initial aspect
ratio is defined by h o / l o = 10.2, and due to the
double length a 16 48 mesh is now used, so that
the initial aspect ratio of the quadrilaterals is
identical to that used previously. The amplitudes
defining the surface waviness are chosen as 60 =
0.005/0 and 81 = 0.0005/0. Thus, there are two
wave bottoms, at x ~ = 0 and x 1 = 210, from which
shear bands will tend to emanate. Figure 12 illustrates the results of this computation at two
stages corresponding to % = 0.313 and % = 0.332,
respectively.
The stage in Fig. 12(a) is slightly after the
initial elastic unloading, where localization starts
according to Fig. 3. Here, localized plastic flow
takes place inside both of the crossing shear bands,
as is most clearly illustrated by the curves of
constant maximum principal logarithmic strain.
However, already in Fig. 12(a) one band has grown
significantly more than the other, indicating a
rather strong sensitivity to the initial imperfection
represented by the non-zero value of 81. The

I/. Tvergaard / Ductile shear jracture

66

I - \~:2

---

) "<<', ,:J

"--~o.os

~ f....~.O01

/
E

(Q)

(b)

Fig. 12. Curves of constant m a x i m u m principal logarithmic strain ~, void v o l u m e fraction f , and a d e f o r m e d 16 48 mesh. R e g i o n
with double length 20, imperfections 8o/10 = 0.005 and ~1/lo = 0.0005, and initial aspect ratio specified by h o / t o = 1 0 . 2 . (a)
% = 0.313. (b) 0 = 0.332. The material has b = 0, strain controlled nucleation f N = 0.04, EN = 0.3, s = 0.1, and no initial voids,
f~ = O .

Ok",

----

f ?k /
( (l
?/

]</1 c'
!

I
i

f=0.001

i
(a)

(b)

/
(c)

Fig. 13. Curves of constant void v o l u m e fraction f. R e g i o n with d o u b l e length 2 l 0, imperfections 6 o / I o = - 0 . 0 0 5 and ~ 1 / l o ~ 0.0005,
and initial aspect ratio specified by h o / l o = l O . 2 . (a) C o = 0.323. (b) c 0 = 0 . 3 4 0 . (c) c 0 = 0 . 3 5 4 . T h e material has b = 0, strain
controlled n u c l e a t i o n f N = 0 . 0 4 , ~ N ~ 0.3, s = 0 . 1 , and no initial voids, fv = 0.

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear fracture

weakest shear band stops growing (by elastic unloading) at c o = 0.316, and subsequently the other
band grows into a surface shear crack, as illustrated by the deformed mesh and the contours
of constant void volume fraction in Fig. 12(b).
As mentioned in Section 3 the static equilibrium solutions are unstable in small intervals of
the incremental solution between the stages shown
in Figs. 12(a) and (b). In reality, dynamic snap
through would happen in such short intervals, if a
monotonically increasing 0 were prescribed. The
solutions here are obtained by using a special
finite element Rayleigh-Ritz method to prescribe
selected node displacements rather than 0, so that
the shear band keeps growing, while t~ may be
negative in short intervals.
Another computation has been carried out with
the surface waviness given by the amplitudes 60 =
- 0.005/0 and 8~ = 0.0005/0. Here two shear bands
emanate from one central wave bottom at x 1 = l 0.
Figure 13 shows the resulting contours of constant
void volume fraction at three different stages of
the deformation, corresponding to % = 0.323, c o
= 0.340 and c o = 0.354, respectively. At the first
stage the void distribution appears to be nearly
exactly symmetric about the mid plane x ~= l 0.
Unloading in one of the two shear bands happens
relatively late, at c0=0.337, and subsequently
shear fracture develops in the other band, as shown
in Figs. 13(b) and (c).
It is clear from the solutions illustrated in Figs.
12 and 13 that the uniform growth of a periodic
pattern of shear bands from the free surface of a
bent specimen will not remain stable. It is noted
that the growth of one of the bands stops at a
smaller value of c o in Fig. 12, where the two
bands cross one another, than in Fig. 13, where
the bands point in two different directions, starting from the same surface point.

5. Discussion

The present numerical studies of shear localization in a nonuniformly strained specimen show a
significant delay of localization. The analyses represent the deformation of a surface region in a
bent plate, such that the peak strains occur at the

67

free surface, and below the surface the strain level

decays smoothly towards zero. In a uniformly
strained solid, localization is predicted as soon as
the strain reaches the critical value for loss of
ellipticity, but in the present analyses the average
strain on the free surface reaches the critical value
long before there is any sign of localization. In
fact, the critical strain is reached below the surface
at a depth well above ten times the shear band
width before a localized shear band starts to develop.
All the analyses show significantly less delay
for kinematic hardening than for isotropic hardening. Under uniformly strained conditions these
two models of a cavitating solid give the same
critical strain for localization, but the previous
simple model analyses by Mear and Hutchinson
(1985) and Tvergaard (1987) have shown that the
kinematic hardening solid is much more imperfection sensitive. The present numerical predictions
agree with this observation. Also, both the simple
model predictions and the present numerical results show that the solid with kinematic hardening
is less sensitive to the angle of inclination of the
band.
Numerical localization analyses based on J2
corner theory have shown that localization starts
soon after the first loss of ellipticity, even in a
nonuniform strain field (Tvergaard et al., 1981;
Larsson et al., 1981; Triantafyllidis et al., 1982).
The porous material model with kinematic
hardening can be considered as an approximate
model of a material that develops a rounded vertex
on the yield surface, with a local curvature equal
to that of the initial yield surface (Mear and
Hutchinson, 1985; Tvergaard, 1987). Therefore,
the result that kinematic hardening gives a smaller
delay than isotropic hardening, but still a larger
delay than that predicted for a material that develops a sharp vertex on the yield surface, is as
expected.
The nonuniformity of the strain fields in the
present analyses is not nearly as drastic as that at
the tip of a crack (Needleman et al., 1987). During
crack tip blunting, localization of plastic flow is
part of the failure mechanism in the near tip field,
and therefore it must be expected that using the
kinematic hardening material model would result

68

V. Tvergaard / Ductile shear/ra~ turc

in the prediction of more rapid crack growth than

that found based on the Gurson model with isotropic hardening.
The length-scales in the problem have an important influence on the results obtained. The
bands will choose the smallest possible width,
which is equal to the element width (see also
Tvergaard, 1982c), and therefore the predictions
are clearly mesh dependent. Using twice as many
quadrilaterals both in the xLdirection and the
x2-direction would give half the band width and
approximately the same band inclination. Then,
reaching the critical strain for localization along a
length of the band corresponding to say 10 times
the band width would occur earlier, and therefore
earlier localization would be expected.
This type of band width dependence of the
solutions is illustrated by a computation that has
been carried out for ho/l o = 5.1 and R 0 = h 0 .
using a 16 48 mesh and the material parameters
corresponding to b = 0 in Fig. 3. This computation gives a reasonably good representation of
the behavior in the top half of the region analysed
in Fig. 3, but now with half the minimum band
width. The first elastic unloading, leading to localization, occurs at c 0 = 0.262, much earlier than
the value c 0 = 0.296 found for b = 0 in Fig. 3, but
still significantly after that the critical strain 0.229
has been reached at the surface. Clearly the
minimum possible band width, relative to the degree of nonuniformity of the strain field, has a
strong influence on the localization delay.
The mesh dependence of the localization predictions reflects the fact that the continuum formulation does not provide a natural length-scale
to set a minimum band width. For real materials
there are such natural length-scales, e.g. the
grain-size or the size of small scale voids of inclusions, which will enforce a finite band width.
Thus, the most realistic delay of localization due
to nonuniform deformations is that obtained by
an element size, which represents the actual
material length scale.
The wavelength of the surface waviness, relative to the plate thickness, gives a measure of the
degree of nonuniformity of the fundamental strain
field. The computations illustrated in Figs. 3 to 13
are based on choosing R 0 = 0; but if a positive

value of R 0 were used instead, without changing

the aspect ratio ho/lo, this would represent an
increased plate thickness for fixed surface wavelength and thus a relatively less nonuniforln strain
field. It is expected that this would reduce the
delay of localization, and in fact for R c, , :c the
surface region would be subjected to uniform
straining where there is no delay at all (see
Tvergaard, 1982c).
The last tow analyses. Figs. 12 and i3, taking
into account the simultaneous growth of two adjacent shear bands, have made it possible to study
the stability of a periodic pattern of shear bands
growing from the free surface. Both computations
show that simultaneous growth of the two bands
is stable initially. However, at a later stage, when
the bands are so long relative to their spacing that
they interact strongly, one of the bands stops
growing, while the other band grows faster. In the
present computations the bands are not completely identical initially, due to an assumed im-.
perfection; but if they were identical, the change
of growth pattern would represent a bifurcation
from the periodic pattern. This behaviour is analogous to that found for a system of straight edge
cracks in a brittle solid (Nemat-Nasser et aJ~,
1980).
Although the studies illustrated in Figs. 12 and
13 give some understanding of the interaction
between adjacent growing shear bands, this is not
the full picture, Figure 12 shows that the growth
of two bands crossing one another gets unstable at
a rather early stage, whereas two bands growing in
different directions from the same surface point
(Fig. 13) can extend further before one of them
stops growing. This does indicate a sequence of
different instabilities in the growth pattern of a
full periodic array of bands. However, a complete
understanding of the behaviour would require a
much larger computation than that in Figs. 12 and
13. This larger computation would have to account
for the full nonlinear interaction of several adjacent shear bands which start off growing at identical rates. One result of the larger computation
could be a prediction of the characteristic spacing
between the shear cracks that finally develop on
the surface of a bent plate when coalescence leads
to void-sheet fracture inside the bands that are

V. Tvergaard/Ducti~shearfracture

still a c t i v e (e.g. see Fig. 10 i n H u t c h i n s o n

and

T v e r g a a r d , 1980).

Acknowledgement
The support of the Danish Technical Research
C o u n c i l t h r o u g h g r a n t 1 6 - 4 0 0 6 . M is g r a t e f u l l y
acknowledged.

References
Becker, R. and A. Needleman (1985), "Effect of yield surface
curvature on necking and failure in porous plastic solids",
Division of Engineering, Brown University.
Chu, C.C. and A. Needleman (1980), "Void nucleation effects
in biaxially stretched sheets", J. Eng. Mater. Techn. 102,
249.
Dafalias, Y.F. (1983), "Corotational rates for kinematic
hardening at large plastic deformations", J. Appl. Mech.
50, 561.
Goods, S.H. and L.M. Brown (1979), "The nucleation of
cavities by plastic deformation", Acta Metallurgica 27, 1.
Gurson, A.L. (1977a), "Continuum theory of ductile rupture
by void nucleation and growth--Part I. Yield criteria and
flow rules for porous ductile media", J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 99, 2.
Gurson, A.L. (1977b), 'Porous rigid-plastic materials containing rigid inclusions--yield function, plastic potential, and
void nucleation", in: D.M.R. Taplin, ed., Proc. lnternat.
Confer. Fracture, 2A, Pergamon Press, Oxford/New York,
p. 357.
Hutchinson, J.W. and V. Tvergaard (1980), "Surface instabilities on statically strained plastic solids", Int. J. Mech. Sci.
22, 339.
Hutchinson, J.W. and V. Tvergaard (1981), "Shear band formation in plane strain", Int. J. Solids Structures 17, 451.
Larsson, M., A. Needleman, V. Tvergaard and B. Stor&kers
(1982), "Instability and failure of internally pressurized
ductile metal cylinders", J. Mech. Phys. Solids 30, 121.
Lee, E.H., R.U Mallett and T.B. Wertheimer (1983), "Stress
analysis for kinematic hardening in finite-deformation plasticity", J. Appl. Mech. 50, 554.
Mear, M.E. and J.W. Hutchinson (1985), "Influence of yield
surface curvature on flow localization in dilatant plasticity",
Mechanics of Materials 4, 395.
Needleman, A. and J.R. Rice (1978), "Limits to ductility set by
plastic flow localization", in: D.P. Koistinen et al., eds.,
Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, Plenum Publishing,
New York, p. 237.
Needleman, A. and V. Tvergaard (1983), "Crack-tip stress and
deformation fields in a solid with a vertex on its yield

69

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