WAID0-

AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE MODELING

FOR REAL TIME CONTROL APPLICATION

11:00
*

John J. Moskwat and J. Karl Hedrick tt

Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(E.G.R.). The model should include all relevant delays and

lags that tend to limit the possible control of the engine.
This engine model can be used for algorithm evaluation
by simulation or, more importantly, can be incorporated
directly in the control algorithm. This would require the
model to run in real time, as opposed to a large off-line siulation model (2,3). A real time simulation model must be
able to integrate the states of the model and calculate the
modeled parameters on line. In a real time control model
the control algorithm may have embedded in it part or all
of the engine model to be used as an observer if the engine
states are not directly measureable. These reconstructed
states would then be used by the rest of the model to estimate parameters. A typical approach to engine control
using a real time embedded model would be to:
(i) define the engine model structure which in turn
would define the states of the nonlinear system,
(ii) develop a control algorithm, and
(iii) estimate the parameters in real time which are required by the control law.
(iv) If the engine states are not directly measureable
then the model can be used in a real time observer
for state estirnation (4).

Abstract
A nonlinear port fuel injected automotive engine model
is developed which can be used for the design of engine
control algorithms, or within an algorithm for real time
control. The model is being validated using a sequential
fuel injection V-6 engine, and includes:
. intake manifold dynamics,
* fuel dynamics, and
. process delays inherent in the four stroke engine
cycle.
The model is compact enough to run in real time and
can be used as an embedded model withim a control algorithm or an observer. Although developed for a specific
engine, the model can be adapted to represent various types
of automotive engines with a limited amount of engine data.
Preliminary validation results look very promising.

Introduction
Constant improvements in microprocessor technology
have led to their increased use in automotive control applications. Controlling the engine has been a major thrust in
this control effort. The main goals of engine control development to date has been to:
. control idle speed,
. constrain the range of air/fuel ratio,
* limit knock, and
* optimize spark advance.
An important area of research goimg on today is total powertrain control. Tsangarides et.al. (1) have simulated total powertrain response using a steady-state engine model
along with a transmission/driveline model. Another name
for this approach would be torque control since managing
torque production and delivery is at the heart of this approach. Some of the overall goals in this approach are to:
. improve shift quality by optimizing engine torque
production and shift timing, and
* improve the efficiency and driver control of the automobile by constraining wheel slip to some optimal
region (commonly known as traction control.
To design control algorithms to meet these goals requires
an automotive engine model that can prodict torque production as a function of throttle angle, fuel injector mass
flow rate, spark advance, and exhaust gas recirculation
* This research is
sponsored under a contract from
General Motors Research Laboratories, Power Systems
Research Department.
t Ph.D. candidate
tt Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Director of Vehicle
Dynamics Laboratory, M.I.T.

A real time control model will be the thrust of this

paper. To meet the requirements of the real time control
model, the engine operation is modeled as a continuous sequence of events much like a gas turbine. This type of
model is used because of its simplicity and speed, which
allows real time operation. A complete strobe model of the
engine requires sequencing of events to the crankshaft, and
modeling of each discrete sequence, which slows the model
considerably. Currently, more extensive simulation models
which try to estimate torque by modeling the combustion
event using a Wiebe burn profile are being developed by
D. Powell et. al. (5) of Stanford University. B. K. Powell
et. al. (6) have developed dynamic engine models which
run in real time, but require special high speed computers which are not currently- practical for production. The
authors have developed models which can run in real time
on hardware which is currently available as a production
item. This model also includes the effect of E.G.R. on intake manifold dynamics. Within the real time model are
continuous sub-models of the delays which are a result of
the discrete nature of the four cycle process. These delays reflect constraints on the controllability of the actual
engine torque by the engine inputs. They may be viewed
as nonminirmum phase zeros of the continuous system by
considering Pade approximations for these delays. The nature and modeling of each of the delays are discussed in the
following section on model structure. Bear in mind that
although some parameters in the model do not attempt to
match the engine parameters exactly, they should be functionally accurate. An example of this is the estimation

341

of the flow of air out of the intake manifold and into the
cylinder. The model does not attempt to predict an accurate instantaneous flow rate through the respective intake
valve. Instead, it predicts an averaged flow which is useful
for fueling calculations. This is sufficient since fuel control
is not instantaneous but rather a stepwise process. So, in
effect, the modeled air flow should be an approximation of
the integrated actual airflow over the period between fuel

rha = Cdl -At,

C

) ~{km1

({C)cs

}A}

Each of these two terms can be normalized to give the flow

equation:

injections.

To lend confidence to the engine model, a series of experiments are currently being conducted at the General
Motors Research Laboratories, Power Systems Research
Department. A V-S sequential fuel-injected engine was used
in these validation tests. The goals of these tests are to estimate model parameters and validate the overall structure
of the engine model. Tests include both quasi-static and
dynamic throttle, fuel, spark advance, and E.G.R. tests.

= MA

(6)

TC PRI

where MA is the maxmum mass air flow through the throttle body (i.e. maum area and choked flow) and TC is
the throttle characteristic:
Cgl(a) Ath(Ct)

TC =

Model Structures
The engine model can be divided into five sub-systems
which are the:
. throttle body,
* intake manifold,
* fuel injection,
* combustion and torque production, and
* rotational dynamics.
The throttle body is modeled as an instantaneous device
with respect to the throttle angle and the pressure ratio
across the device. The basis of the throttle body model is
the one-dimensional compressible flow equation across an

(7)

Ati.(a,,,,)'

For a round throttle bore with an elliptical throttle plate,

Ath is given as:
d 2DD
[ (d.o(ao)\ 21*

=iJ
+
-~2 D2[1eAt+a)
_ (Den

2 (co(a)

orifice.

\
I
dcos(a0)
n-1{l
d a1)

si(

]
D co(( +a))
a(

Harrington and Bolt (7) have shown that due to manufacturing tolerances, the term cos(ao) becomes cos(a:) where:

mhj= Cd All,){k1[(p)]

1k- i

cos(ac)

coa(O.91 * a0 -2.59)

(9)

for a. measured in degrees. PRI is given by:

For choked flow:

Pt

Pto

2 \I*

\k+1/

(2)

PRI=

the mas flow equation becomes:

mhaj Cd Ath
=

.ck2I [1-(p)
Ca (*.)

a0Io
I9

( '-2 ) #

P6+1
2

]}It
P

>( 2

P. c

)4r;(10

(^+1

The cross-coupling of cdl and C% and the validity of the no

coupling assumption can be evaluated by calculating the
discharge coefficient as a function of a, f-, and rhm, from
actual engine data. Preliminary validation results indicate
that there is very little cross-coupling of Cd] and Cd2 .

(3)

If it is assumed that there is negligible pressure recovery

downstream of the minium area (which is valid because
of the sharp edged throttle valve) then:

The intake manifold plays a very important role in the

dynamic response of engine torque to changes in throttle
angle. The purpose of the manifold is to provide throttled
air uniformly to all of the cylinders. A typical manifold

(4)
Pt so P,=if ad = P.
A further simplification can be made if it is assumed that
the discharge coefficient does not have any cross coupled
terms between throttle area and pressure ratio, If this is
the case, then the discharge coefficient can be split into
two uncoupled coefficients, and the mass flow relation can

contains a plenuim which acts as an accumulator to smooth

the pressure pulses caused by the unsteady flow of air into
each cylinder. There are runners which connect the plenum
with the cylinder head. These runners can be tuned (8,9),
using Helmholtz resonator theory, to increase the amount of
air going into the cylinder. The intake manifold is also used
to mix air with E.G.R. (exhaust gas recirculation). E.G.R.
is used at partial load to lower combustion temperatures
and thus to decrease NO emissions. The introduction of
E.G.R. into the manifold can alter the intake manifold output and affect engine torque production.

be written as:

342

To study the dynamics of the intake manifold, the following assumptions are made:
* contents of the manifold obey the Ideal Gas Law,
and Dalton's Law of Nonreacting Mixtures,
* homogeneity of temperature and pressure, and
* complete mixing of air and E.G.R.
Bear in mind that the purpose of the intake manifold model
is to estimate the mass air flow out of the intake manifold
and into the cylinder for fueling calculation. The conservation of mass equations for air and E.G.R. are given as:

ein. t

rt4,

V M T _ VM
__

(11)

dta=

Ttdp

TF(-a

Me)

Pa+ Mr

P]

d;P4

.d

Ml.)

Ma )

J7

M
l

MW)
+

A
Pi

M.

-P

(rhm + Thg")

(,a + regri) + KW

w1l steady-sate +

tll

P(21)

(22)

MV

This equation shows that ideally vr does not have to be

known to calculate w if the steady-state value of volumetric efficiency, defined by equation (21), is known along with
measurements of P, T, and Mrw.
The estimate of &,,m, is useful for fueling calculations. It
can be viewed as a sum of idealized flows through each of
the intake valves. To visualize what this flow represents,
consider the intake event for cylinder # 2.

(16)

28.838 g/mole

air

Mcr

= product.
o

ni Mi

IN

28.884g/nolc.

(17)

produJt

Because these molecular weights are essentially equal, equation (14) reduces to the volumetric efficiency relation of
equation (13) and is not useful in estimating P.. Consider
the consequence of the complete mixng assumption:
'ro

Mao0

male

(20)

(s

trcLneicnt

dtP

(15)

7C02+6.58H20 + 38.82N2.
Solving for the molecular weights yields:

=____

(19)

(14)

C7HI3.16+i0.29(02 + 3.773N2) =

Eni-M

V rni

The first term represents the steady-state volumetric efficiency typically calculated from steady-state test cell data
by measuring P, T,wc, and vJr+ Mih The second term is
the dynamic correction term for volumetric efficiency. The
steady-state volumetric efficiency relation can be inserted
into equation (19) to yield:

This equation depends upon the ratio of molecular weights

of air and E.G.R.. To estimate this ratio consider the stoichiometric combustion equation for indolene:

'm=

R-T
P+ m
v

T
T K-we-i7v

-W

R T

M; (T

MU
K=

(13)

results in a differential equation in the partial pressure of

air:
M

Pa+

Solving for the volumetric efficiency yields:

ciency relation:

0I
KV ,T ((Ma

+ irc)

Another very interesting result is obtained by adding

equations (11) and (12), and using equation (13) to derive
a differential equation in manifold pressure.

(12)
'RCombining these two equations with the volumetric effi-

(Th

[p P-V

which can be used in conjunction with equation (11) to

estimate the mass air flow out of the intake manifold, given
measurements of T, P, it., and M..

gro = egri + ( -)
R* 72TV

P.

Combining equations (11), (12), and (18) yields the differential equation in P.:

( P-P

)(

Mr

)\

mu1 PI )Ml'

IV02

(18)

IVCI

IVOS

Figure 1 Idealized Air Flows

343

IVC2

time

The intake flow starts when the intake valve opens (02)
and increases as a sinusoid until it reaches a magnitude of
rh., when the previous intake valve closes (IVC1). The flow
is equal to hi until the next intake valve opens (1Y03),
since the # 2 intake valv is the only valve which is open at
this time.The flow then decreases as a sinusoid to zero when
the intake valve closes (IVC2). The cosine function is used
so that the flow remains smooth. Other simpler functions,
such as a linear function, can be used but the first derivative
becomes discontinuous at the beginning and ending of valve
events. The expression for this flow is given as:
{I-coo[t

I1!

in.,=
2

o0,

f;_

1+ c[to's

Q,]},

[t$

'ff

Figure 2 Fuel Injection Model Without Liquid Fuel Lag

te [txvo3,trc2);

[trvcl, trvo3) ;(23)

[trv 03, trv 2);
otherwise.
te
tE

The remaining injected fuel wi be delayed by

time of

are

negligible during

an

an

additional

The actual fuel injection process is

further complicated by a liquid fuel film which can build up

on the inlet port walls and slow the fuel delivery response.
The gaseous or vaporized fuel continues on similar path
that detailed in Figure2, and the liquid fuel goes through
delays that are multiples of 4,,

Valve timing for each intake can be estimated a priori since

engine speed changes

seconds.

intake event.

The two nice properties of these flows are that each of the
individual flows are smooth with no abrupt changes, and:

as

(24)

E Ffnzok(t) =mh,

k=1

This analysis, while not an exact representation of the indiv'idual flows out of the intake manifold, gives meaning to
the quantity calculated in equation (11), and the control
engineer can visualize the intake process.

The relationship between fueling command and fuel

flow rate into the cylinder is a relationship characterized by
delays due to the discrete nature of the intake process. As
a complication, some of the injected fuel may form a liquid
film on the wall so that parts of the injected fuel may have
different delays. By first assuming that there is no liquid
film, the process delays can be easily analyzed. The first
delay, after the desired fueling has been calculated by the
computer, is from this output calculation to when the next
injector is activated. For the sequentially fired six cylinder
1200 of crankshaft rotation.
engine this can be from 0
In sequentially fired fuel systems, the start of injection for
each cylinder is timed with respect to top dead center of
that cylinder. The next delay is from the start of injection
to when the intake valve closes. If the injector pulse has
ended by the timne that the intake valve has closed, then
all of the injected fuel will be in the cylinder (assuming no
liquid film and negligible transport delay). If the injector
pulse is still occurring when the intake valve closes, then the
remaining fuel will be delayed by hwseconds. A simplified
model of this process is shown in Figure 2.
The parameter is given by:

Figure 3 Fuel Injection Model With Liquid Fuel Lag

Figure 3 shows a possible block diagram of this process

where is the fuel split parameter (fraction of fuel having
the transport properties of gaseous fuel), and:

'y

't

1,
*f

if LPW <Sini-.vc
if LPW > zinj-fVC

The parameter represents the time constant of the liquid

fuel film. The series of delays for the liquid fuel can be
truncated at i;# 5
but the model is still too complicated
for the real time control goals. If the fuel lag is insignificant
then the model of Figure 1 is sufficient. If a significant fuel
lag is apparent, then the model of Figure 3 can be simplified
r.

or:

r,

number of

cylinders. vhrj

*n4j-.i.v.c.-

(27)

(25)

where mn is the amount of fuel that can be injected from

the start of injection to the closing of the intake valve. This
is the injection rate multiplied by the angle from the start
of injection to I.V.C. multiplied by the number of cylinders
nf,,.

f1e-tdt

(26)

344

by modeling the series of delays as a simple lag filter.

Figure 4 Simplified Model of Fuel Lag

The process of validation is one of trying to characterize r.
and e since all of the other delays are functions of engine
timing. This work is not completed to date.

The combustion and torque production model is a vari-

ation on a structure by Dobner (2). It does not contain any

dynamic elements, but does contain the delays associated

with the four cycle combustion process. This approach is
consistent with the real time control goals and is justified
since the combustion dynamics are much faster than the air,
fuel, or E.G.R. transport dynamics. The maximum posible torque is assumed proportional to the mass of air (or
fuel) per cylinder. This maxium torque is decreased a
function of the air/fuel ratio and as a function of the angular difference between the spark advance and M.B.T. spark
advance (10). The first delay is from the moment when the
intake valve closes to the moment when spark occurs. This
reflects the fact that intake and spark are not coincident.
The second delay is from spark to when the torque pulse
occurs. The friction/pumping torque is a function of intake manifold pressure and engine speed. The map of friction/pumping torque is derived from steady-state motoring tests at various manifold pressures and engine speeds.

Figure 5 Combustion/Torque Model

RBOMS
Although the dynamic validation results are not complete, the preliminary engine model's predictive capabilities
appear to be quite good. The inclusion of the E.G.R. dynamics in the intake manifold allows the engine model to
predict the mass air flow out of the intake manifold with
various E.G.R. flows. It also shows the errors of calculating
fueling command using a simple speed density calculation.
Figure 6 shows simulation results for a 2% to 10% step in
E.G.R..

.. in.,

Friction torque is probably the most difficult parameter to

a friction torque must be assumed
in order to estimate the indicated torque production from
brake torque measurements. In this paper the motoring
torque is assumed valid during all engine operation. In actual engine operation friction torque can be much higher
due to the cylinder pressure forcing the rings against the
cylinder walls, heat and load effects, etc.. Therefore, the
calculated values of indicated torque from the test cell data
tend to be smaller than in reality, since the assumed friction torque is smaller. E.G.R. is treated a diluent (11)
and affects torque production in two ways:

characterize, however,

co/
m \

*l

/\

as

*,

by

decreasming

from the intake

by altering the M.B.T. point.

-II
I

ime

time

Figure 6 2% 10% Step in E.G.R.

Note that the E.G.R./air dynamics are much slower than
the overall pressure dynamics since the flow of E.G.R. out
of the intake manifold is governed by a mixing phenomenon.
A speed density calculation would yield an abrupt change
in air flow govemed by overall intake manifold density. The
actual flow is much slower and is governed by the mixing
of air and E.G.R..
Figure 7 illustrates the changes in flow out of the intake
manifold when there is a delay from the moment when the
throttle is closed to the moment when the E.G.R. valve
-

Rotational dynamics of the model are quite simple and

rigid crankshaft and constant average moment of
inertia. The brake, accessory, and pump torque (from the
torque converter) are integrated and divided by an average
moment of inertia to give engine speed or:
assume a

closes.

}.fTidt

- -

manifold,and

A pictorial representation of the combustion/torque model

is shown in Figure 5.

W=

~~~~~~~~~~~/

On the left are the controls, which are throttle angle and
E.G.R. flow rate. On the right are the predictions of percent
E.G.R. into and out of the intake manifolC. The percen,ctge
of E.G.R. can increase dramatically, and E.G.R. valve dyeffect
on
can
have
a
namics
significant
torque production. The effects of spark changes on torque
are modeled as being instantaneous. Peliminary validation
results show this to be essentially true, except that the in-

(28)

The moment of inertia typically includes engine, accessory,

and torque converter pump inertias. Known disturbance
torques can be added to the summation of torques in equation (28).
345

--

PRI pressure ratio influence

R gas constant for air
R universal gas constant
SA spark advance
SI spark influence on torque
t time
Tbr engine brake torque
Ti 04 torque
T temperature iMside intake manifold
T. pre-throttle body stagnation temperature
TC throttle characteristic
V intake manifold volume
a throttle angle from closed
ac angle between throttle plate and throttle throat
plane
4i fraction of lagged fuel intaked on jfk intake
y fraction of gaseous fuel intaked in is intake
At time delay
* fuel split parameter
', volumetric efficiency
w. engine speed
r. liquid fuel film time constant
/_j. crankshaft angle that injector is on

r -lI

~ri

'4

03U

0,

tim
throttle s
t ime.

time

Figure 7 E.G.R. Flow Dynamics

fluence can be delayed up to 2- because the engine is not
continuous. This delay has a negligible effect on torque.
Other simulation results are quite good and validation procedures are continuing.

Nomgnclature
A,,h cross-sectional flow area of throttle body
AFI air/fuel ratio influence on torque
C carbon
Cd throttle plate discharge coefficient
Cdl discharge coefficient (fiuction of throttle angle)
C,m discharge coefficient (function of pressure ratio)
CO carbon monoxide
C02 carbon dioxide
d diameter of throttle rod
D diameter of throttle bore
E.G.R. exhaust gas recirculation
H hydrogen
H20 water
MC hydrocarbons
I moment of inertia
rvCi intake valve closes on cylinder i
lVOi intake valve opens on cylinder i
k ratio of specific heats

Refemees
1. Tsangarides, M. C., W. E. Tobler, C. R. Heermann, "Interactive Computer Simulation of Drivetrain Dynamics",
Proceedings of Noise and Vibration Conference, Traverse
City, Mich., May 1985.
2. Dobner, D. J., "Dynamic Engine Models for Control
Development Part I: Nonlinear and Linear Model Formulation', International Journal of Vehicle Design,1982.

3. Yuen, W. W., H. Servati, "A Mathematical Engine

Model Including the Effect of Engine Emissionts", S.A.E.
paper 840136, 1984.
4. Kwakernak, H. and R. Sivan, "Linear Optimal Control
Systems", John Wiley, New York, 1972.

5. Personal correspondence with J. D. Powell, Stanford

University, 1986.

m%, mass airflow out of throttle body

nao mass air flow out of intake manifold
vw.,, mass flow rate of air into cylinder i

6. Powell, B. K., G. P. Lawson, G. Hogh, "Advanced

Real Time Powertrain Systems Analysis", A.S.M.E. Energy
Sources Technology Conference, Dallas, Texas, Feb. 1987.

in., mass flow of E.G.R into intake manifold

gro mass flow of E.G.R out of intake manifold
mnd delayed fuel flow
rh1i desired fuel command to injectors
vfh,,, fuel flow rate for injector on until intake valve closes
fuel flow to engine
ihf,,a net
M1f fuel flow rate to cylinder
rkj,,j fuel flow rate for an injector
Ml molecular weight of air (=M)
Mi molecular weight of species i
MA maximum flow through throttle body
MBT spark advance for best torque
nt number of moles of species i

7. Harrington, D. L. and J. A. Bolt,

"Analysis and Digital

Simulation of Carburetor Metering", S.A.E. paper 700082,

1970.
8. Tabaczynski, R. J., "Effects of Inlet and Exhaust System Design on Engine Performance", S.A.E. paper 821577,

1982.

9. Heywood, J. B., "Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals", draft of text, 1986.

N2 nitrogen

NO. oxides of nitrogen

O2P oxygen
intake manifold pressure
P. partial pressure of air in the intake manifold
P. pre-throttle body stagnation pressure
Pt minimum pressure in throttle body
PW injector pulse width

10. Taylor, C. F., "The Internal Combustion Engine in

Theory and Practice", M.I.T. Press, 1985.
11. Edson, M. H. and C. F. Taylor, "The Limits of Engine
Performance - Comparison of Actual and Theoretical Cycles", S.A.E. paper 633E, 1963.

346