0

The optimization process is divided into the following parts:

Project preparation and startup
Single site verification
RF optimization
Parameter Optimization
Customer acceptance
Optimization report output
For the live network, there are OMC statistic data that can be used to
reveal the network performance. On the other side, the influence to the
network should be taken into consideration for any adjustment. That is
the reason for adding of the simulated loading and why the changes of
the parameter must be done at night if necessary.

Before the network optimization, the RNO manager should take some
preparation ,The following work is required
Understanding of the Existing Network
Cluster Division and Optimization Team Establishment
Optimization Tools and Software

Before the network optimization, the RNO manager should be

acquainted with the existing network to make the working plan.
And the information of the existing network can be acquired from this
document.

The optimization manager needs to establish the optimization teams by estimating

the workload, deciding the human resource and tools requirements and making the
time schedule ,as shown in this diagram
If the NodeBs involved are more than 20 or the test time of the target area exceeds
3 hours, we should divide the target area into parts before the optimization. Cluster
refers to a set of NodeBs in one part. An area of a cluster should contain a complete
test route and the time for one test should be less than three hours. In addition, the
test time of each cluster should be similar.

Each team should be equipped with a set of drive test tools, including:
1. UMTS Scanner: Agilent E6474A with E6455C(version upper 6.0)
scanner
2.UMTS Test UE: Huawei U636 / UA6Qualcomm TM6200 (version
upper 5.0)/or Motorola A835
3.GPS and data line: the E6455C has built-in GPS
More than one set of equipments below are required and shared in a
large project team:
1.YBT250: For identifying the location of the interference
2.Digital camera: Used to record special propagation environment
The following software is required for each team:
1.Post processing tool: HUAWEI Assistant
2.MapInfo: For some self-definition analysis of drive test data

10

11

In WCDMA RNO, completing automatic check and test of functions of

equipment in each site is necessary and ensures that the basic
functions (such as access and call) of each cell and site in the area to
be optimized are normal. So after sites are constructed and tested, the
network optimization starts from the single site verification stage

12

By single site verification, you can achieve the following goals:

To distinguish the call drops and access problems due to poor
coverage from those due to equipment performance.
To familiarize the site location and configuration, the ambient radio
environment.

13

In the stage of preparations before test, you must input the Radio
Parameter Planning Data Table and check it which has been output in
radio network planning (RNP) stage. After check configured data,
output the Radio Parameter Configuration Data Table and select
proper test points and test route.
In the stage of single site test, output the Single Site Verification
Checklist according to the template.
In the stage of solving problems, on-site engineers and product
support engineers will solve the function problems.
Because the project dimensioning, staff, site distribution, and work
division vary, The single site verification is completed by both on-site
engineers and RNO engineers.

14

For each cell to be measured, check by LMT or M2000 the following

indexes:
Whether each cell has been set up.
Whether cell Data Validity Indicator is Valid.
Whether cell BAM Status is Unblocked
Whether HSDPA function is properly configured and activated for
HSDPA cells.
Query the following indexes by execute the related command:
Query cell status by executing DSP CELL MML of RNC LMT.
Query cell HSDPA configuration by executing LST CELLHSDPA.
Activate cell HSDPA function by executing ACT CELLHADPA.
The on-site engineers and product support engineers must check that
each network element (MSC, SGSN, GGSN, and so on) of core
network (CN) has no alarms.
Before site test, you must collect data for RNP configuration and other
data for RNC database, and check whether the data configured is
consistent with the planned data, include NODEBNAME,LOCELL ID,
MAXTXPOWER, LAC, RAC, Scrambling code PSCRAMBCODE,
Frequency UARFCNDOWNLINK, and Others
To ensure that the services to be tested are provided by the cell to be
measured, you must test cell equipment functions by selecting a test
point of target cell, the most ideal method is to disable power

15

Press the application key to start testing mode of the handset. Then
the handset displays testing mode. The handset will displays the basic
information of the serving network, including the uplink and downlink
frequency number . Check whether the ID of the serving cell is
consistent with the planned one in frequency check. If not, the UE
might receive signals from other cells .
In test mode, the handset will also displays the basic information
include the primary scramble (P-SC) information, LAC,RAC,
Check whether the CPICH RSCP and CPICH Ec/Io received by UE
are greater than the threshold. Check whether there are problems,
such as abnormal power amplifier, abnormal connection of antennafeeder, inconsistent of antenna tilt/azimuth from the planned one, and
blocking by buildings.

16

For Voice Service and VP Service test, Use two handsets to call each
other for five times. Record the originating and terminating connection
conditions
For PS Service test, Before test, check whether you can go online with
the test UE in normal cells. If the handset is available for online service,
type the website address in the browser. It is a symbol for connection
of PS services that the handset is available for online services and
browsing web pages.

17

Before checking site, you need to inquiry product support engineers

whether alarms exist, whether problems are solved, and whether the
cell is in normal status. You must pay attention to intermittent alarms
(such as, transmission alarms automatically reset, but this causes
network to become unstable and affects services)
The testing route needs to cover the coverage are of primary serving
cell to be measured as possible, as well as all major street around the
NodeB to be measured. The testing route involves consideration of
local driving habit and avoids waiting for traffic lights during testing.
Testing cell coverage and HSDPA access function in area verification
requires a quick schedule. If the method is improper, the test of an
index might terminate due to one or two abnormal cells. For a proper
schedule, you must read the details of test, know the content, and
avoid wasting time due to abnormalities.

18

To check coverage by DT, proceed as below:

Prepare the NodeB location map. Familiarize the points with poor
coverage.
Connect the scanner to the laptop computer and test the signals of the
target cell according to the selected testing route.You need to
cover all major streets around the NodeB as possible.
Output area coverage map based on the pilot signals received by
scanner. Compare the CPICH RSCP and Ec/Io distribution of each
cell.
You must pay special attention to the cells with weak RSCP and Ec/Io.

19

To test HSDPA functions, you must use the testing software supporting
HSDPA (such as Probe 1.3).
The HSDPA threshold of downlink BE service is defined as the rate
judgment threshold of background/interactive services loaded on
HS-DSCH in PS domain.
Fixed Maximum Transmit Power of UE, measure the RTWP of the
cells:
In the cell to be measured, make the UE transmit signals at the fixed
maximum power and the RTWP of the cell to be measured and the
neighbor cells increases, In this way, you can judge whether the
diversity of the receiver antenna is problematic.
Checking Antennas by Exchanging Feeders:
Connect the Tx/Rx feeder to the Rx ports and the Rx feeder to the
Tx/Rx port. Compare the CPICH RSCP before and after
exchanging feeders. If they are the same, the problem is not about
reverse connection of antenna feeders (normally after exchanging
feeders the difference of CPICH RSCP before and after
exchanging feeders is less than 2 dB).

20

The method for UE to transmit signals at the fixed maximum power is

a recommended method of test and operation, but it is restricted
from whether the UE supports related functions. To exchange
antenna feeders, you must repeatedly adjust the antenna-feeder
system. Adjustment requires abundant labor and is difficult to
implement, so engineers must cooperate well with each other in
test.
If RNO engineers find problems about product function, such as
originating or terminating failure, call drop, quality of talk, they must
retest to check whether the problem occurs again. In addition,
RNO engineers must ask product support engineers to solve
problems and tracing the solving of problems until problems are
solved and closed.
If the problems are about engineering installation, ask on-site
engineers to solve them. Meanwhile RNO engineers must trace
them until they are solved and closed.

21

On-site engineers must cooperate well with RNO engineers to ensure

quality of projects.
On-site engineers complete the verification by test UE in idle mode
and connected mode , RNO engineers complete the verification
based on distribution of new site.

22

23

After single site verification, optimization comes to RF optimization

24

Pilot signal coverage optimization includes the following two parts:

1.Weak coverage optimization for ensuring seamless coverage by pilot signals in
the network
2.Primary pilot cell optimization for ensuring proper coverage areas by each primary
pilot cell, clear edge of primary pilot cells, and that alternation of primary pilot cells is
reduced as possible.
Pilot pollution refers to those excessive pilots of approximately equivalent strength
cover an area without a primary pilot. Pilot pollution might cause increasing of
downlink interference, call drop due to frequent handover, low network capacity. The
problems must be solved by adjusting engineering parameters.
Handover optimization consists of two parts:
Checking missing neighbor cells, verifying and perfecting list of neighbor cells,
solving handover, call drop, and downlink interference problems.
Ensuring proper SHO Factor based on DT by adjusting engineering parameters
properly.

25

RF optimization includes the following four parts:

Test preparations, Data collection, Problem analysis, Parameter adjustment
the data collection, problem analysis, and parameter adjustment might be
repeatedly performed according to optimization goal and actual on-site situations
until RF indexes meet KPI requirements.

26

Different operators might have different standards on KPI requirements , Therefore

the RF optimization goal is to meet the coverage and handover KPI requirements in
the contract (commercial deployment offices) or planning report (trial offices).
RF optimization must be performed on a group of or a cluster of NodeBs at the
same time instead of performing RF optimization on single site one by one.
Confirm the KPI DT acceptance route with the operator before DT. If the operator
already has a decided DT acceptance route, you must consider this upon deciding
the KPI DT acceptance route.

27

RF optimization objectives in R99 networks are listed in the table

28

According to experiences ,1525 NodeBs in a cluster is recommended

One cluster must not cover areas with different full coverage services.
Refer to the divided clusters for network project maintenance of the operator.
Landforms affect signal propagation. Mountains block signal propagation, so they
are natural borders for dividing clusters.
A cell-like cluster is much usual than a strip-like cluster.
When the coverage area involves several administrative areas, divide clusters
according to administrative areas
The DT must be performed within a day for a cluster. A DT takes about four hours.
he KPI DT acceptance route is the core route of RF optimization test routes. Its
optimization is the core of RF optimization. The following tasks, such as parameter
optimization and acceptance, are based on KPI DT acceptance route. The KPI DT
acceptance route must cover major streets, important location, VIP, and VIC. The
DT route should cover all cells as possible. The initial test and final test must cover
all cells. If time is enough, cover all streets in the planned area. Use the same DT
route in every test to compare performances more accurately. Round-trip DT is
performed if possible.

29

Genex Probe: air interface DT software

Genex Assistant: Analyzing DT data and checking neighbor cells
Genex Nastar: Analyzing performance, checking health, and locating problems
Mapinfo: Displaying maps and generating route data
Scanner :DTI Scanner
Test terminal : U626, E620, Qualcomm, and so on

Laptop:PM1.3G/512M/20G/USB/COM/PRN
Map can be mapinfo map or paper map
Floor plan of the target buildings is necessary for indoor test

30

The DT and indoor test during RF optimization stage is based on VP service.

According to the contract (commercial deployment offices) and planning report (trial
offices), if seamless coverage by VP service is impossible in areas, such as,
suburban areas and rural areas, the test is based on voice services. For areas with
seamless coverage by PS384K service or HSDPA service required by the contract
(commercial deployment office) or planning report (trial office), such as office
buildings, press centers, and hot spot areas, the test is based on the above services.
According to different full coverage services in the planned areas, DT might be one
of the following:
3G ONLY continuous call test by using scanner + unloaded VP
According to simulation result and experiences, if the test result meets requirements
on VP service coverage, the test result will also meet identical coverage
requirements of PS144K, PS128K, and PS64K services.
3G ONLY continuous call test by using scanner + unloaded voice service
3G ONLY continuous call test by using scanner + unloaded PS384K
Indoor test consists of walking test and vertical test. Perform walking test to obtain
horizontal signals distribution inside buildings. Perform vertical test to obtain vertical
signals distribution.
During RF optimization stage, collect neighbor cell data of network optimization and
other data configured in RNC database. In addition, check whether the configured
data is consistent with the previously checked/planned data.
While checking configured data, feed back the improperly configured data (if found)

31

Most of the coverage and interference issues could be resolved through adjusting
sites parameters, such as (in order of priority):
Antenna tilt
Antenna azimuth
Antenna location
Split sector
Remove sector
Combine sector
Antenna height
Antenna type
TMA
RRU
Site location
New site

32

33

Slide 34
h1

hw, 12/2/2006

If possible, we should survey the relative sites, otherwise, we can check the former
site survey report or photos. It is very necessary to know the condition of the sites
and then probably we can give the applicable advice
If it is impossible to survey the site, we can take the former survey report for reference
do the RF adjusting and test the result at the same time, so as to avoid reworking the tasks.

34

Weak coverage refer to that the RSCP of pilot signals in a coverage area is less
than -95 dBm.
overshoot coverage refers to that the coverage range of some NodeBs is beyond
the planned range and discontinuous primary pilot coverage areas form in coverage
areas of other NodeBs.
Unbalanced between uplink and downlink refers to the following situations in uplink
and downlink symmetric services
No primary pilot areas refer to the areas with no primary pilot or the primary cell
changes frequently

35

Downlink coverage analysis involves analyzing CPICH RSCP and CPICH Ec/Io
obtained by drive test.
Uplink coverage analysis is analyzing UE transmit power obtained in DT.

36

Downlink coverage analysis involves analyzing CPICH RSCP obtained by drive test.
The quality standard of CPICH RSCP must be combined with the optimization
standard , Usually, the strongest RSCP received by each scanner in the coverage
area must be above -95 dBm.

37

Start Assistant. Analyze scanner-based RSCP for 1st Best Service Cell, and you
can obtain the distribution of weak coverage area
In this Figure, there was weak coverage areas with RSCP smaller than -95 dBm in
the DT route

38

In parallel with the analysis of RSCP coverage, the Ec/Io plot should also be
analysed
The -8 dB threshold takes into account the expected future interference increase as
a result of increased traffic.

39

Because the RSCP Level is poor, and the fundamental cause of low Ec/Io is poor
coverage

40

RSCP level is good, the poor Ec/Io will imply strong system interference

41

An example Ec/Io plot is shown in this Figure

Comparisons of the Ec/Io plots from the scanner and UE should be made. Areas
where UE Ec/Io is significantly lower than that of the scanner may imply a problem
of missing neighbour or delayed soft handoff which can be associated with call
drops.

42

Analyze scanner-based RSCP for SC, and you can obtain the signal distribution of
each cell (scramble). According to DT data, if the scramble signals of a cell are not
present, probably some sites cannot transmit signals during test. If a cell cannot
transmit signals during DT, the DT of relative areas must be re-performed.
Very weak coverage might be result of blocked antennas, so you must check the
survey report of the site and check installation of on-site antennas. No (poor)
coverage cell might be due to that the DT route does not cover the cell coverage
area. In this case, reevaluate the DT route for the rationality and perform DT again.
Analyze scanner-based RSCP for SC, and you can obtain the signal distribution of
each cell (scramble). If the signals of a cell are widely distributed, even in the
neighbor cells and the cells next to its neighbor cells, the signals of the cell is
present, the cell encounters a cross-cell coverage which might be due to over high
site or improper down tilt of antenna. The cross-cell coverage cells interferes
neighbor cells, so the capacity declines.
Analyze scanner-based SC for 1st Best ServiceCell, and you can obtain the
scramble distribution of the best cell. If multiple best cells changes frequently in an
cell, the cell is a no primary pilot cell,

43

as shown in the Figure, No primary pilot cell forms due to the following causes:
Cross-cell non-seamless coverage due to over high site
Pilot pollution in some areas
Coverage voids at edges of coverage areas
Therefore intra-frequency interferences forms which causes ping-pong handover
and affects performances of service coverage.

44

Missing neighbor cells, improper parameters of soft handover, cell selection and
reselection cause the inconsistent between scanner primary pilot cell and camped
cell in idle mode or Best Service Cell in the active set in connection mode of UE.
After optimization, the Ec/Io for 1st Best Service Cell of UE and scanner is
consistent. In addition, the coverage map of UE is marked by clear bordering lines
of Best Service Cell

45

For areas with poor index, judge whether the increasing of UE transmit power is due
to call drop or poor uplink coverage. Geographically displayed on the map, the
former is as a point of sudden increment with call drop while the latter is an area
with seamless coverage unnecessarily with call drop.
Mark the areas with weak coverage or large common seamless coverage for further
analysis. Check whether downlink CPICH RSCP coverage voids exist in the areas
with uplink coverage voids. Solve the problem with both uplink and downlink weak
coverage by analyzing downlink coverage analysis. If only the uplink coverage is
poor without uplink interference (see WCDMA Interference Solution Guide), solve
the problems by adjusting down tilt and azimuth of antenna, and adding TMAs.

46

In this Figure , UE transmit power is lower than 10 dBm normally. Only when uplink
interference and coverage area edge exist will the UE transmit power increase
sharply to 21 dBm (Some UEs that support HSDPA, such as E620, with a power
class of 3, the maximum transmit power is 24 dBm), and the uplink is restricted.
Comparatively restricted uplink coverage occurs much easily in macro cells than in
micro cells.

47

If some cells are frequently seen as polluters (e.g. >8% time) should be
marked and investigated.
Usually, the max number of active cell is 3, so if number of strong pilot is
more than 3,then it is a pilot pollution point.
If (CPICH_RSCP1st - CPICH_RSCP4th) < 5dB ,it means the best serve cell
is not dominant

48

According to the conditions of Pilot Pollution, the SC4,SC5,SC6 are Pilot Pollution,
the RSCP of SC6 is more then 5dB lower than the best serve cell, so it is not Pilot
Pollution
Margin is 5 dB

49

Looking at the estimated active set based on the scanner data is a useful
measurement of pilot pollution , In order to see areas of excessive SHO candidates,
the estimated active set size is allowed to exceed maximum of 3 .
Locations where there are more than 3 pilots in the active set should be marked and
sources of the interference should be identified. This can be done in conjunction
with the Pilot pollution analysis.

50

An example of pilot pollution results is provided in the Table. This shows the % of
time each cell was seen as a pilot polluter. Cells which are frequently seen as
polluters (e.g. >8) should be marked and investigated.

51

Due to restriction to site location and complex geographic environment, cell

distribution might be improper. Improper cell distribution causes weak
coverage of some areas and coverage by multiple strong pilots in same
areas.
If a NodeB is constructed in a position higher than around buildings, most
areas will be with in the line-of sight range. Therefore signals are widely
transmitted. Over high site cause difficult control of cross-cell coverage,
which causes pilot pollution.
The sector azimuth of each antenna is set to cooperate with each other. If
the azimuth is improperly set ,might lead to pilot pollution Therefore we must
adjust the antenna according to actual propagation.
If the antenna down tilt is improper, signals are received in the areas which
are covered by this site. Therefore interferences to other areas causes pilot
pollution. Even worse, interferences might cause call drop.
When the NodeBs are densely distributed with a small planned coverage
rang and the PICH power is over high, the pilot covers an area larger than
the planned area. This causes pilot pollution.

52

Multiple strong pilots interferes useful functional signals, so Io increases,

Ec/Io decreases, BLER increases, and network quality declines.
More than three strong pilots or no primary pilot exists in multiple pilots,
frequent handover occurs among these pilots. This might cause call drop.
The interference of the areas with pilot pollution increases, the system
capacity declines.

53

Start Assistant. Analyze scanner-based RSCP for 1st Best ServiceCell and
EcIo for 1st Best ServiceCell. Select the areas with high RSCP and poor
Ec/Io as candidate areas with pilot pollution.
Analyze scanner-based Whole PP. Select the areas corresponding to
candidate areas as the key areas with pilot pollution.
Locate the cells that cause pilot pollution of the key areas.
Based on RSCP for 1st Best ServiceCell, judge whether the pilot pollution is
caused by existence of multiple strong pilots or lack of a strong pilot. For the
former cause, you can solve the problem by weakening other strong pilots.
For the latter cause, you can solve the problem by strengthening some
strong pilot.
Based on the actual environment, analyze the specific causes to pilot
pollution. For specific causes, provide solutions to pilot pollution. While
eliminating pilot pollution in an area, consider the influence to other areas
and avoid causing pilot pollution or coverage voids to other areas.
After the adjustment, we should take retest and analyze RSCP, Ec/Io and
Whole PP. If they cannot meet KPI requirements, re-optimize the network by
selecting new key areas until KPI requirements are met.

54

According to the test, change pilot signal strength of an area with pilot
pollution by adjusting antenna down tilt and azimuth. This changes the
distribution of pilot signals in the area. The principle for adjustment is
enhancing primary pilot and weakening other pilots.
Pilot pollution is caused by the coverage by multiple pilots. A direct method to
solve the problem is to form a primary pilot by increasing the power of a cell
and decreasing the power of other cells.
If adjusting power and antenna is not effective to solving pilot pollution, use
RRU or micro cells.
Using RRU or micro cells aims to bring a strong-signal coverage in the area
with pilot pollution, so the relative strength of other signals decreases.

55

According to the test, change pilot signal strength of an area with pilot
pollution by adjusting antenna down tilt and azimuth. This changes the
distribution of pilot signals in the area. The principle for adjustment is
enhancing primary pilot and weakening other pilots.
Pilot pollution is caused by the coverage by multiple pilots. A direct method to
solve the problem is to form a primary pilot by increasing the power of a cell
and decreasing the power of other cells.
If adjusting power and antenna is not effective to solving pilot pollution, use
RRU or micro cells.
Using RRU or micro cells aims to bring a strong-signal coverage in the area
with pilot pollution, so the relative strength of other signals decreases.

56

Missing neighbor cells causes that a strong-pilot cell cannot be listed into the active
set so the interference increases as strong as call drop occurs. For missing
neighbor cell, you must add necessary neighbor cells.
Redundant neighbor cells causes that the neighbor cell information is excessive and
unnecessary signals cost occurs. When the neighbor cell list is fully configured, the
needed neighbor cell cannot be listed. For this problem, remove redundant neighbor
cells.

57

This Excel-formatted report contains four sheets: Scanner Statistic, Scanner Result,
Imported Config, and Scanner vs Config. Wherein, the Scanner vs Config sheet is
for comparing neighbor cells generated by scanner and the configured neighbor
cells.
The Figure shows the result of missing neighbor cells.
For the missing neighbor cells generated automatically by Assistant, you must
check according to the location information of the cell on the map whether to add
the missing neighbor cells to the neighbor cell list. For the missing neighbor cells
due to cross-cell coverage, the primary task is to solve coverage problem by
adjusting RF parameters. If this fails, you can temporarily solve the problem by
adding neighbor cells.

58

The spots with missing neighbor cells has a poor Ec/Io measured by UE and a
strong Ec/Io scanned by scanner. Locate the areas for further analysis.
Check the points with poor Ec/Io and check whether the strongest scramble by
scanner is neither in active set nor in monitoring set. If yes, move to the third step
for confirmation. If the scramble exists in the monitoring set, the problem is not
about missing neighbor cell but about Ec/Io deterioration due to handover
(reselection) delay and soft handover failure.
Check the latest intra-frequency measurement control whether the neighbor cell list
contains the strong scrambles by scanner
You can also directly check the neighbor cells continuation of the base cell under
the RNC for deciding missing neighbor cells.

59

No subscribers are using the network during RF optimization stage, so UE DT data

of entire network in a time is used and geographically averaged by 5 meters. You
can obtain the ratio of the points in soft handover state to all DT points. Set the
scanner consistent to the system parameters with default configuration, such as 1A
and 1B threshold.
The SHO Factor based on DT during RF optimization stage must be 5%10% lower
than the KPI target value, because the following optimizations cause SHO Factor
based on DT to increase and brings difficulties in ensuring traffic measurement SHO
Factor based on DT

60

The success rates for event 1a, 1b & 1c and can be obtained from software
(Assistant) as shown in the example below.

61

The precondition for adjustment is that the adjustment will not cause new coverage
voids, coverage blind zone, and more pilot pollution.

62

63

64

Parameter optimization includes field test and statistics analysis.

The field test can be divided into two parts: drive test on main road
and test for special areas. Test for special areas is like walk survey for
some indoor distributed cells.
We can use scanner + UE log, RNC log, statistics counters and KPI,
MSC & SGSN log to optimize the network

65

Drive test is to get information on the service coverage on the main

road and to optimize the problems as access failure, drop call, power
control, handover and service quality.
Unlike RF optimization drive test, for parameter optimization its not
needed to do the service test for all sites. So its not necessary to stick
to the idea of cluster.

66

Access failure :system bugs, power control parameter, cell selection

and reselection parameter etc.
Reason for drop calls :system bugs, power control parameter,
handover parameter etc.
Reason for Service quality :system bugs, power control parameter,
RLC parameter etc

67

The influence caused by the cell parameters adjustment should be

analyzed carefully by optimization engineer.
The parameters adjustment to a live network should be performed
when traffic is low (for example: at midnight). It is essential to do the
service functional test after adjustment
Sometimes its hard to predict accurately the impact of the parameter
changes. So its necessary to benchmark before and after parameter
changes. Its recommended to do the benchmark together with the
statistics analysis for live network.

68

69

70

71

The optimization report should be presented after the project passes the
customer acceptance
Besides the optimization report, the updated Site Configuration Parameter table
and Radio Part Parameters Table are required.

72

73