Sag)Training For Professional Performance This manual is one of a series for your use in learning more about equipment that you work with in the oilfield. Its purpose is to assist in developing your knowledge end skills to the point that you ean perform your work in @ more professional manner. The manual was prepared so that you can learn its contents on your own time, without the assistance of an instructor or classroom discussion. Educators refer to learning by self-study es Programmed Learning. It is @ method widely used in all industries as @ means of training employees to do their job properly and teach them how to perform higher rated jobs. You cen demonstrate your desire to be @ professional by taking a positive attitude towerd learning the contents of this manual and others thet are apoliceble to your job. The author of this menue] has years of experience in operating petroleum equipment. He elso has the technical knowledge of how and why petroleum equipment functions. The text was written use by personne) with little or no previous experience with petroleum equip- ment. Consequently, some of the material mey be you if you have experience with o quipment. From such experience, you have observed the effect of making operating chenges. The manus] will help explain why the changes occurred thet you observed. It will also teech you how and why equipment funetions. In order for you to learn the contents of the manuel, you must dig out the perti- nent facts and relate them to the subject. Simply reading the meterial and answering the questions is not enough. The more effort you make to learn the material the more you will learn from the menual. Teaching yourself requires self- discipline and hard work. In order to pre~ pare yourself for the sacrifice you will have to make, you should set gogls for yourself. Your ultimate goal is to perform your work in @ more professional manner. Training is one step in reaching that goal. Application of what you learn is another. Seeking answers to questions is third. Onee you have established your final goal, you must determine the means for reaching that goal. You may decide, for exemple, thet you must complete ¢ series of 10 or 15 manuals to get the basic knowledge ang skills you need. After you decide whieh training material is required, you should set 2 time table for completing each section of the material. Achieving your final goal mey take more than & yeer, ané will require hours of hare work on your part. You will know you heve achieved vour goal when you under- stand how and why to operate oilfield equip~ ment in order to obtain the maximum pro- duet at the lowest cost. Your sacrifice will have been worth-while from the satisfaction of knowing thet you can perform your job in a methodical professional manner, instead of a trial-and-error-approach.Instructions For Using This Manual This is your manual. You should write your name on the cover. Upon completion you will find it helpful to keep it in an accessible place for future reference. Problems may be ineluded throughout the text. The solutions to the problems are given at the end of the book. ‘The manual is used in training programs all over the world. In some countries, English units of measurement such as feet, gallons, Reins, ete, are used. In other countries ystems Internationale (SI) or Metric units, such as meters, liters, kilograms, ete., are used. In order for the manual to be of maximum use, both SI and English units are shown. ‘The SI unit always appears first, and the English unit follows in brackets { ]. Example: the temperature is 25°C [77°F]. The English equivalent of the SI Unit will be rounded off to the nearest whole number to implify the text and examples. A distance of @ m may be shown as 33 ft when the exact quivalent is 32.81 ft. It you are working in English units, you may find it helpful to mark out the parts that are in SI units, and vice versa. Some of the Figures have units of easurement. In such cases, two Figures are ineluded. The first one has SI units, and the Figure number is followed by the letter A (Example: Figure 1A). The second Figure will be on the next page and will have English units. It will be the same number as the first one, but it will be followed by the letter B (Figure 1B). If you use SI units, be sure to refer to Figures followed by the letter A; if you use English units, refer to Figures followed by the letter B. ‘The following general procedure is ree- ommended for using this manual: 1, Turn to Page 1. Read the material until you come to the first problem or question. 2 Work the first problem or answer the question and enter the answer in the proper space in ink. If the problem or question is shown in both SI and English units of measurement, answer only the part in units of measurement that you use. 3. Compare your answer with that shown at the end of the book; be sure to use solutions to the problems in the units you are working in. If your answer is correct, continue reading until you come to the next problem and work it. If not, restudy the manual until you understand the reason for your error. Rework the problem if necessary. Leave your wrong answer and note the correct one. This will keep you from making the same mistake later on. 4. Proceed stepwise as shown above until you have completed the text. The above approach will require thought, making mistakes, and rethinking the situation. Concentrate on two things - the how and the why. Do not cheat yourself by taking short-cuts or looking up the answers in advance. It saves time and errors but pro- duces no real understanding. Your future depends on how efficiently you perform your job and not on how rapidly you proceed through this manual. Sinee this is your manual, any errors you make are private.Abbreviations Used : i t In This Manual Units Of Measuremen' SI UNIT ABBREVIATIONS SI UNITS OF MEASUREMENT s, min second, minute time Most of the SI units of measurement used in h,d hour, day time the oilfield are traditional metrie units. The mm millimeter length exceptions we are concerned with are pressure em centimeter length and heat units, which differ as follows: m meter length km kilometer length SL UNIT m? square meter area m3 cubic meter volume a m'/d cubic meters per day volume rate Pressure] bar Ikilopascal, kPa‘ T00 L liter volume a g gram weight Heat —|kilocal |kiiojoule, kJ | keal = 55 kg kilogram weight “ kPa kilopaseal pressure MPa —_-megapascal pressure kPa(a) kilopaseal absolute —_ pressure bar bar (1 bar = 100 kPa) pressure kJ kilojoule heat, work STANDARD CONDITIONS FOR GAS VOLUME MI megajoule heat, work WkW watt, kilowatt power Measurement units for gas volume are cubie M meta million meters (m*) or cubic feet (cf). The letters st or s are sometimes used with the units to designate volume at standard temperature and pressure: m/ (st) or sef. In this manual, stan~ dard volumes are corrected to a temperature ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATIONS of 15°C and a pressure of 101.325 kPala), of 60°F and 14.7 psia. s, min second, minute time hd hour, day time To simplify the text, the letters st_ and in, ft inch, foot length s are omitted. However, all gas volum sq in square inch area shown are at standard conditions sq ft square foot area specifically stated otherwise. cu ft cubie foot volume gal gallon volume bol barrel (42 US gal) volume BPD _ barrels per day volume rate Ib pound weight Sea psi tbs per square inch pressure HEAT CAPACITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY pee, Pepe) mecealats. preneure Specific heat and specifie gravity are tradi iw. thoudsciate ‘feck tional terms that have been used in both MME! ablcneotetl mat Metrie and English units for many years. Wa wale wilceett power These names are being replaced with the he tee pe words: heat capacity and relative density. ef/d cubie feet per day gas flow rate The new names are used in this manual. When Mef/d thousands of ef/4 gas flow rate you see the term heat capacity (Ht Cap), it MMef/d millions of eff Gisflow rate | Wil have the same meaning as specific M thousand heat; and relative density (Rel Dens ) MM faillion means specific gravity.SEPARATORS TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 0.00.00 c ccc ecc eee cece eee eee cnet eee ee tee eee en ee 1 1. DESCRIPTION OF SEPARATORS ....... ssanes is ieaaAEEURRAOERET an 2 Ac Glhesification, «cose rasess:¢a0 14092 sxnonummarmmmanmemsmnser 2 B. Flow Patterns 00... 00. ces eceeeeee ee eneee teens esses ee enene 8 C. Separator Internal Devices... ee cece eee cece cece eee teenies 10 Ds COMStUCEOH oe cose ai stan ninnstininetineitinninitenastinainlnta ainsi 12 I. DESIGN OF SEPARATORS. A. Principles of Separation B. Design of Separators . . 1. Vertioal Separator Dekigh oniennnnsamncmenaemnsneneane nmaeene 17 2, Horizontal Separator Design ........00.ceececeeeseeeeeeeees 24 C. Selection of Separator Internals ©... 22... 0 ce esses e eee eee eeeene 30 HW. APPLICATION ..+.. 5 32 IV. OPERATION 35 B. Shutdown . 36 C. Routine Operation . 37 D. Control 1, Pressure Control Feet eee eeeeee 38 2 Level\Conttol vsiccsccsescicccssess ReEbe Rts ep eee eee sews 39 V. TROUBLESHOOTING .....-- 00s eee eee ee eee feeb eee ee eee eee ee 47 A. Troubleshooting Procedure for Liquid Carryover in Outlet Gas Stream B. Troubleshooing Procedure for Inability to Hold Constant Liquid Level ........4 49 VALIDATION, SI UNITS » 53 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS - SI UNITS seeveees 54 VALIDATION, ENGLISH UNITS.LIST OF DRAWINGS, GRAPHS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND TABLES 2-Phase Horizontal Separators 6.2.0.6. .seeee cece eeee eee e test eee tenes 3 Horizontal’ Separators ......sscceeeeeeesseeectevees esauelamag ace iqe 4 2-Phase Vertical Separators 2c acesssecedesscesteeeeeseeeseeeseeeees 5 Oil-Water Separator ......4 whose cach Daisey salN ft 2 toeba lS aattfonertens ase» sevens 6 Centrifugal Separator... 2.0... ces ee cess ee ea ees semen deesesissaa Ti Flow in 3-Phase Separators .. Sand Removal Facilities Separation Process... Separator Sizing Procedure - Gas and-Liquid:-Plow ih Separators, ..::0ic bce sess see dvpeninielas densa evi Ww Vertical Separator Diameter - SI Units 2.0.2.2... 000.000 eee eee weed Sreven aD Vertical Separator Diameter - English Units .. 2.0.0... .0ceeeeeeeee eee eens 20 Table 1 - Volume of Liquid in Vertical Separators .........cceeeeeees ao ieldd Horizontal Separator Sizing ......... wll wr peel ae ee 24 Vapor Disengaging Area in Horizontal Separator, SI Units . 26 Vapor Disengaging Area in Horizontal Separator, English Units om Horizontal Separator Diameter, SI Units .............00 cc ceeeeeee eee e eee 28 Horizontal Separator Diameter, English Units ..........cseseeeeeeeeeenee 29 Biart-Up Precedee oases eeveseedy 1e bd yes easetewuErs Coe ees tow 35 Shutdown Procedure ......... 7 emt « vasrensae 36 Routine Operating Checks . 387 Separator Controls ........eeeeeees + 38 Level Control in 3-Phase Separator . oy res esenasviony 28 Table 2 - Change in Interface Level with Change in Water Level ..... a+ 3 gengze rasa BB Gauge Glass ........ Dene n eee nee eer eee e eee tne nesses eet ees senses AqSEPARATORS INTRODUCTION A separator is a vessel in which a mixture of fluids that are not soluble in each other are segregated from one another. In the oilfield, separators are used to segregate gas from liquid; or one liquid sueh as condensate from another liquid, such as water. ‘There are more separators in oil and gas process facilities than any other type of process equipment. Sometimes they are called serubbers, accumulators, flash tanks, or other names. Regardless of what the vessel is called its function is to segregate 2 or more fluids . . . usually gas and liquid; and the operating procedures are the same, NOTE: This manual includes both SI and English units of measurements. If you use English units, disregard the SI units, and vice versa. Refer to the instruction page at the front of the manual. PRODUCTION SEPARATORS ON OFFSHORE PLATFORM2 CLASSIFICATION OF SEPARATORS 1. DESCRIPTION OF SEPARATORS A. Classification Separators are classified in two ways: The position or shape of the vessel, and the number of fluids to be segregated. Two vessel shapes are commonly used: 1. Horizontal, shown on peges 1, 2, 3 and 4. 2. Vertical shown on pages 5 and 7. The number of fluids to be segregated is usually either two or three. If there are two fluids, such as gas and liquid, the separate is referred to as a 2-phase type; if three fluids are segregated, such as gas, oil and water, the vessel is a 3-phase type. The number of phases refers to the number of streams that leave the vessel, and not the number of phases that are in the inlet stream. For example, wellstream separators frequently have gas, oil, and water in the inlet stream, but only the gas and liquid are segregated in the vessel. ‘The liquid flows to another separator, where oil and water are segregated. Consequently, a 2-phase separator is one in which the inlet stream is divided into two fluids, and a 3-phase will have three products. Each of the vessel shapes can be either 2-phase or 3-phase. In other words, we can have a horizontal 2-phase, a horizontal 3-phase, a vertical 2-phase, and so on, Some wellstreams contain sand or other solid particles which are removed in a separator. Special internal devices are provided to collect and dispose of solid materials. They are not considered another fluid phase in the classification of the vessel. HORIZONTAL WELLHEAD SEPARATOR2-PHASE HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS Deflector Straighteni Gas Plate vans Outlet Coalesacing Mist ates Pad Gas Centrifugal Element Outlet Horizontal Liquid Baffle Outlet Figure 1 2-PHASE HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS4 HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS a Ges Outlet ~ Coalescing Plates Oil Outlet Outlet 3 - PHASE HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR Ps Inlet Gas Filter Elements = Outlet Cleans Gas Quick Opening Closure Liquid Outlet 2. = PHASE HORIZONTAL FILTER-SEPARATOR Figure 2 2 HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS2-PHASE VERTICAL SEPARATORS 5 Gas Outlet Gas Outlet Element Liquid Outlet Figure 3 2-PHASE VERTICAL SEPARATORSOLL-WATER SEPARATOR oil Oil-Water mixture os Section packed with hay or excelsior ARANAINA AAEAZN AINA EAE Level Controller Water Figure 4 Ol WATER SEPARATORCENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR Gas Outlet Inlet Chamber: Recycling Line Vortex Chamber Float Shield Liquid Chamber Figure 5 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR8 FLOW PATTERNS B. Flow Patterns The flow in horizontal or vertical separators is similiar for 2-phase separators: The mixture enters the side or end, the lighter fluid (usually gas) passes out the top, and the heavier fluid is withdrawn at the bottom. Flow in a centrifugal separator, such as that shown on Page 7 is somewhat different than that in conventional types. The vessels are usually vertical and depend on centrifugal action to segregate the fluids. The inlet stream is directed to flow around the wall of the vessel in a swirling motion. The heavier liquid moves to the outside, and drops collect on the wall and fall to the bottom. The lighter fluid collects in the middle of the vessel and flows up the outlet pipe. Flow in a 3-phase vessel can be in one of several manners as shown in Figure 6. The simplest method is shown in the upper left hand drawing. The 3-phase inlet stream enters the side; gas flows out the top and liquid settles to the bottom. Oil floats on the water, and is withdrawn out the side of the vessel. Water is withdrawn at the bottom. This type of liquid collection would be used with water and distillate, where a clean separation occurs. The disadvantage of the system is that the water level is controlled at the interface with oil, and if any foam or emulsion is present at that point, it will interfere with the action of the level control float. A preferable method of control in a 3-phase vertical separator is shown in the upper right hand drawing of Figure 6. In this vessel, the water falls to the bottom of the vessel on the left side, and flows into the water chamber of the right side, where it is withdrawn with 2 level controller. Oil is withdrawn on the left side of the vessel with a level controller. An emulsion at the oil-water interface will not interfere with the operation of the level controllers on the water or oil streams. Liquid flow in a horizontal separator is usually a variation of one of the two schemes shown in Figure 6. In the middle drawing, the oil and water settle to the bottom in the left hand portion of the vessel. The oil layer floats on the water and spills over the weir and is withdrawn with a level controller. The water remains on the left side of the weir and is withdrawn with @ level controller. The level control float is subject to problems with emulsion at the water-oil interface. ‘The lower drawing in Figure 6 indicates the flow pattern with no interface control. Oil spills into the bucket and is withdrawn with a level controller. The water flows along the bottom of the vessel into the chamber on the right, where it is withdrawn.FLOW IN 3-PHASE SEPARATORS 9 Gas Gas Inlet Inlet Oi = Oil Oil-Water Interface VERTICAL 3-PHASE SEPARATORS Water Water Gas Oil HORIZONTAL 3-PHASE SEPARATOR WITH OIL BUCKET a lo Gas Oil-Water Interface Water ’ Figure 6 3-PHASE SEPARATORS10 INTERNAL DEVICES Centrifugal separators are normally used for gas-liquid separation. They are smaller than conventional units. C. Separator Internal Devices A wide variety of mechanical devices are used inside a separator to improve its efficiency and simplify its operation. The most commonly used devices are: 1. Deflector plate (Figure 1). A deflector plate is used in gas-liquid separators in front of the inlet nozzle on the vessel. The plate cen be flat or dished. As the inlet stream strikes it, the liquid falls to the bottom and the gas flows around the plate. Ina vertical vessel, the deflector may divert the inlet stream around the wall of the vessel to create a centrifugal action. Mist pad (Figures 1 and 3). Mist pads are most frequently used in gas-liquid separators to remove the mist from gas. The pad is made of closely woven wire that is 10 to 20 em (4 to 8 in.) thick. It is held in place by a sturdy grid which prevents it from being swept out or torn by a sudden surge of gas. Mist pads are also used in oil-water separators to aid in segregating the two liquids. They are of particular value in MIST PAD breaking an emulsion of oil and water. 3. Coaleseing plates (Figures 1, 2, and 3), ‘Several configurations are available from different vendors. They are used in gas-liquid vessels to remove liquid from the gas. 4. Straightening vanes (Figure 1). These are also used in gas-liquid vessels. They are used when hydrate or paraffin prevents the use of mist pads. 5. Filter elements (Figures 2 and 4). Filters are used to remove solid particles and mist from gas and oil-water vessels. The separator usually contains a quick-opening closure for access to allow replacement of the elements. 6. Coaleseing material (Figure 4). Excelsior and hay are the most commonly used materials. In special applications, pellets coalescing properties are used. The material must be held in place with a grid or perforated plate. A manhole is usually ineluded on the vessel to allow replacement of the material. Coalescing material is used in oil-water separating vessels.INTERNAL DEVICES i 7. Weir (Figure 2). Its function has been described. 8. Centrifugal devices (Figures 1 and 3). These are used in gas-liquid separators. They impart a swirling action to the inlet stream that concentrates the liquid phase on the outer wall of the device. 9. Horizontal baffles (Figure 1). These are used in gas-liquid separators to prevent waves in the liquid phase. They are usually located near the liquid level in the vessel. 10. Vortex breakers (Figure 1). These are used on all separators on the liquid draw- off nozzles to prevent a vortex from forming, which would allow some gas to flow out the liquid line. 11. Float shield (Figure 3). This device is used when an internal float is used to control the liquid level. It prevents the float from flopping around from wave action in the liquid. 12. Water jets (Figure 7). Water jets are sometimes called sand jets. Their purpose is to spray the sides and bottom of the vessel with a high pressure stream of water or other liquid to fluidize sand or other solid particles so they can be drained from the bottom. 13. Sand cones (Figure 7). ‘These are used in vessels that have @ continual flow of sand or other solid particles. The solids collect in the cone, and are periodically flushed out. Water jets are usually included with the cones. Problem 1 Match each item in the column on the left with the item on the right that most closely describes it. 2-phase Weir 1 Prevent waves 2. 3. Mist pad 4 5. Remove liquid from gas Liquid outlet nozzle Horizontal baffle Gas-liquid geo Pe Vortex breaker Oil-water separator12 CONSTRUCTION D. Construction Most separators operate under pressure. They are usually constructed of steel and built in accordance with rigid pressure vessel specifications. The heads and shell are usually made of steel, and all seams are welded. If severe corrosion is anticipated, the separator may be lined with a corrosion resistant material such as monel or stainless steel. If salt water is the corrosive agent, pro- tection ean be provided with a coating or special paints or tar. Water Most internals are also made id gang of Steel and welded to the wall or heads of the vessel. If manways é Figure 7 VERTICAL SEPARATOR are provided, the internals may be WITH SAND REMOVAL FACILITIES bolted in a place so that they can be removed for cleaning or repair. I. DESIGN OF SEPARATORS A. Principles of Separation Two faetors are necessary for separators to function: 1. The fluids be be segregated must be insoluble to each other. 2. One fluid must be lighter than the other. Separators depend upon the effect of gravity to segregate the fluids. If the fluids are soluble in each other, no separation is possible by gravity alone. For example, a mixuture of distillate and crude oil will not separate in a vessel because they dissolve in each other. They must be segregated in a distillation process. Since a separator depends upon gravity to segregate the fluids, the ease with whichPRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION 13 two fluids can be segregated depends upon the’ difference in the weight of the fluids. Gas usually weighs about 5% as much as oil, and the two will separate in a few seconds. On the other hand, oil may weigh only three-fourths as much as water, and separation may take several minutes. The primary factor that effects separation is that of the difference in the weights of the fluids. You recall the density of a fluid is the weight of 1 cubic meter [1 cubic foot] of the material. Water has a density of 1000 kg/m? [62.4 Ib/ef ]. Crude oil density is about 800 kg/m? [50 Ib/ef]. The density of gas will depend primarily upon its pressure. ‘The density of 1 m* of natural gas as 5200 kPa pressure is about 36 kg/m? [density of 1 ef of gas at 750 psi is about 2.25 Ib/ef }; but at 102 kPa[15 psi], density of gas is only 1.6 kg/m? [0.1 lb/ef]. It would appear that gas having a density of 36 kg/m? [2.25 Ib/ef ] would instantly separate from erude oil which weighs 800 kg/m? [50 Ib/ef ]. About 95% separation will occur almost instantly. However some liguid will remain in the gas in a fine mist, and it must settle out for separation to be complete. If mist is not removed from the gas in the separator, it will eventually settle out in the gas flow line - possibly in a burner - and could cause serious problems. The most difficult funetion of a gas-liquid separator is that of removing mist from the gas. Mist consists of tiny drops of liquid that are suspended in gas just as water droplets oceur in air as fog. It will usually not fall out unless the small drops ean be lorced together so that a large drop will form that will fall out. Coalescing devices are used to combine small drops into larger ones. A common example of coalescing-oceurs when water drops form on the windshield of @ car as it is driven in a fog. As the tiny water drops, which make up the fog, strike the windshield, they combine with other drops and eventually form a drop large enough to run down the glass. The first 6 internal devices listed on pages 10 afd 11 are all forms of coalescers. In each device, liquid drops adhere to the surface of the device and combine with other drops until a large drop forms which will fell out. The effectiveness of separation will depend upon the amount of coaleseing surface area that is present. In order to understand the way separation takes place, we will concern ourselves with segregating @ mixture of gas and oil into its components. As we mentioned, the ease with which the two fluids will separate depends upon the difference in weight of the two fluids. The greater the difference in weight, the easier the separation.14 PRINCIPLES-OF SEPARATION Droplets of liquid in gas must settle out before gas leaves the vessel. Bubbles of gas in liquid must break out before liquid leaves the vessel. Liquid SEPARATION PROCESS In the process of segregating gas from liquid, we actually have two separation stages: 1. Separate liquid mist from the gas phase. 2. Separate gas in the form of foam from the liquid phase. Droplets of liquid mist will settle out from the gas, provided: 1. The gas remains in the separator long enough for the mist to drop out. 2, The flow of the gas through the separator is slow enough so that no turbulence oceurs which will keep the gas stream stirred up and prevent liquid from settling out. ‘The difference in weight of the gas and liquid will determine the maximum flow rate of gas that will allow the liquid to settle out. For example, mist will drop out of gas at 5200 kPa [750 psi] pressure as long as the gas is moving in the separator less than 30 em/s [1 ft/sec]. In other words, we make the separator large enough so that the gas travels from the inlet nozzle to the outlet nozzle at a rate of 30 em/s [1 ft/see], or less. We said that gas at 5200 kPa [750 psi] weighed about 36 kg/m? (2.25. lb/ef ], whereas it weighed only 1.6 kg/m? [0.1-lb/ef ] at 102 kPa [15 psi]. Since its density is lower at 102 kPa [15 psi], the oil droplets will settle out faster because there is a